PSYC 322 Midterm 1

Seattle Longitudinal Study

"The most efficient design" Sequential design Could look at cross-section (ex. just 1991 time point, all groups) Cognitive ability declined with age in 1 cohort Can look at different cohorts at the same ages but different years

Indirect Effects of Stress

1. Higher stress, increase in high fat diet 2. Higher stress, less likely you'll exercise 3. For men who avoid problems, increase stress means increased drinking - feel uncomfortable talking about feelings

Life Course Perspective

Emphasizes the importance of age-based norms, roles, and attitudes as influences that shape events throughout development Sociologists and social gerontologists attempt to form links between these broad social factors and individual adjustment

Major Life Events

Events that cause noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment - cause stress - positive or negative Ex. death of a loved one, birth of a child, marriage, graduation - doesn't fit just one criteria of stressor

Insulin Insensitivity

Pancreas tries to produce more insulin and over time cells get tired and produce less insulin

Laboratory Studies

Participants are tested in a systematic fashion using standardized procedures Considered the most objective way of collecting data because each participant is exposed to the same treatment, using the same equipment and the same data recording procedures Advantage: = The objective and systematic way in which data are recorded provides the researcher assurance that the results are due to the variables being studied rather than to extraneous factors Disadvantage: = Inability to apply the stimuli presented to real-life experiences of most adults - adult may feel uncomfortable when tested in an impersonal manner

Selective Attrition

Participants in a longitudinal study are likely to be lost over time Poor health or death, lack of motivation, or an inability to continue the study because they moved Typically conduct analyses to determine whether the pattern of participant dropout was random or whether it reflected a systematic bias that kept the more motivated and healthier in the sample

Longitudinal Designs

People are followed repeatedly over time Measures age changes and therefore "development" Researchers aim to determine whether participants have changed over time as the result of the aging process Should generally span at least a decade or more

Influences on Longevity: Ethnicity

People who immigrate here tend to live longer than people who are born here - people who leave might look different than those who stay Richmond has highest life expectancy

Body Image

Person's perceptions, thoughts and feelings about his or her body (appearance and function)

Psychopathy in Older Adults

Two factors in Psychopathy: 1. A cluster of traits that represent disturbances in the capacity to experience emotions such as empathy, guilt, and remorse - stays stable across time 2. The unstable and impulsive behaviours that contribute to the socially deviant lifestyle of the individual with this disorder - decreases with age - might be because the extreme ones died before old age

Osteoporosis in Women

- 1/2 of all women will develop osteoporosis - 1/3 women will break a bone from osteoporosis Causes: 1. Less bone mass (compared to men) 2. Greater rate of bone density decreases 3. Insufficient dietary calcium during developmental years 4. Less weight bearing activities in developmental years 5. Low levels of estrogen, especially following menopause Women who enter menopause earlier are more at risk because estrogen is lower for longer

Criticisms of Continuity Theory

1. "Normal" aging ignores impact of chronic illness - doesn't account for atypical aging (you don't choose disease) 2. Theory ignores the impact of social structures on aging - ignores aspects of things we don't have a choice for

Stroke: General Recovery Guidelines Show

1. 10% of stroke survivors recover almost completely 2. 25% recover with minor impairments 3. 40% experience moderate to severe impairments requiring special care 4. 10% require care in a nursing home or other long-term care facility 5. 15% die shortly after the stroke

Behavioural Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Diseases

1. A sedentary lifestyle 2. Smoking - damages the arteries, making them more vulnerable to plaque formation 3. Alcohol Intake - moderate alcohol consumption appears to have a protective effect at least for women - heavy alcohol intake is associated with increase stroke risk 4. Body Weight - causal relationship between high BMI and mortality due to vascular disease - high levels of good cholesterol are related to lower risk of cardiovascular disease 5. Race, lower levels of education, access to health care

Pros of Experimental Designs

1. Ability to make causal claims - IV caused changes in DV

Common Causes of Falls

1. Accident - ex. tripped over a cord 2. Gait/Balance disorders or weakness 3. Dizziness/vertigo 4. Drop Attack - nothing happened, muscles just gave out 5. Confusion 6. Postural Hypotension - get up quickly, get dizzy 7. Visual Disorder 8. Syncope - loss of consciousness

Barriers to Self-Care for Diabetes

1. Adherence: frequency of dose, type of therapy - if you take a pill multiple times. people are less likely to do it - people might be scared of injections 2. Attitudes and Beliefs - if you think that the med/insulin will harm you more, the less likely they'll use it - cultural beliefs: different cultures have different beliefs about diabetes - ex. chinese translation: sugar in urine, so people just cut out sugar - when you sweat you get rid of toxins, so you don't need to work out just need to sweat 3. Comorbidities - the more other chronic conditions someone has, the less likely they'll attend to diabetes 4. Poor-patient practitioner communication and fit - language barriers, don't understand what they have to do - want to make sure doctor is working with patient, not just telling patient what to do 5. (Lack of) social support - better if families are educated - if family members are willing to change their diet too - social support delivery: if people are critical, made them feel less likely to do self care 6. Finances: can't afford meds, healthy food

Disengagement Theory - Key Assertions

1. Adjustment to old age is accomplished through voluntary withdrawing from social roles and activities - as you age, the individual voluntarily withdraws from things - retire then end up alone 2. Mutual and beneficial withdrawal of individuals and society - beneficial for society to withdraw from elderly (young people take place, when they die they already removed themselves) - beneficial for individual because they don't have expectations, roles change 3. Disengagement is universal and inevitable - everyone disengages, just a part of society

Three Effects of Descriptive Research Designs

1. Age Effects 2. Cohort Effects 3. Time of Measurement Effects When we're investigating differences in age groups, need to think about these effects Effects are often confounded

Depression in Older Adults

1. Age differences in the symptoms of depression 2. Older people are more likely to seek treatment for physical symptoms such as pain and abdominal disturbances 3. Health care professionals are not well trained in recognizing their older clients - in part because older adults do not necessarily report their symptoms in a manner that allows for accurate diagnosis 4. Physicians spend less time per visit with an older patient than they do a younger patient

Activity Theory - Key Assertions

1. Aging brings decreases in life satisfaction 2. Despite health declines in some, social and psychological needs still need to be met 3. New roles, friends, activities lead to greater life satisfaction Older adults should be active, take on new roles - ex. grandparent, volunteering, don't retire - participating in activities such as church and light housework can lead to less mortality

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

1. Alarm Phase - fight or flight response - ex. Polar bear swim 2. Resistance Phase - ex. body will start to warm up 3. Exhaustion Phase - ex. body can't give that much energy to warm you

Pros of Longitudinal Designs

1. Allows assessment of actual changes as individuals age 2. Prospective longitudinal designs: watches for outcomes during the study to examine suspected risk/protective factors - ex. prospective with cancer: start with healthy people and wait to see who gets it

Prevalence of Falling

1. Approximately 1/4 North American residents report falling at least once each year 2. Rates of falling increase with age and poor health - increase in hip fractures with age 3. Rates increase for those living in nursing homes 4. Approximately 5% require hospitalization 5. Approximately 50% of hospitalized live beyond a year

Disorders of the Musculoskeletal System

1. Arthritis - a general term for conditions that affect the joints and surrounding tissues 2. Osteoarthritis - most common form of arthritis - a painful, degenerative joint disease that often involves the hips, knees, neck, lower back or the small joints of the hands - typically occurs in joints injured by repeated overuse in the performance of a particular job or a favourite sport - risk factors: overuse, obsesity, injury - treatment: pain management, flexibility, replacement 3. Osteoporosis - abnormal loss of bone mineral content - risk factors: race (white and asian women have the highest risk), ethnicity, hormonal changes, lack of vitamin D, alcohol and cigarette smoking - treatment: exercise (resistance), nutritional supplements, medications

Vision: Common Conditions (doesn't always happen)

1. Cataracts (abnormal structural change) - opaque spots covering the lens - leading cause of blindness worldwide - can have surgery (removing opaque part of lens and replacing with lens) 2. Macular Degeneration (abnormal structural change) - lose center of vision - macula: responsible for what you're looking at - 15% of those 80+ - leading cause of blindness 50+ in the US - exposure to sunlight and smoking - no known treatment 3. Glaucoma - fluid builds up in eyeball, damages nerves - high pressure in eyes - no early symptoms or pain - loss of peripheral vision - can lead to blindness - can be treated with eye drops to slow it down - can have surgery to decrease pressure, but can't bring back lost vision

Gender/Body Image and Aging

1. As men age, they get more attractive 2. For women, it's more of a decline with age - aging well for women means no wrinkles 3. Men are allowed to age, women have to hide it - double standard 4. Women place more value on appearance and weight control than men always - men don't want to diet 5. Men tend to have higher self-esteem across the age categories - higher levels of self-esteem regarding appearance 6. Men in Korea are more concerned with appearance - in Korea overall they care more about appearance (even when you age) 7. Men focus more on body function than women or appearance - how I look and feel matter for feelings and quality of life 8. Body appearance matters more when younger 9. Women are more dissatisfied with body image and function

Continuity Theory - Key Assertions

1. As people normally age, they make adaptive choices to preserve internal and external ties to the past - as we age, we try to remain connected 2. Too little continuity: life is unpredictable - if the world changes too dramatically, we can't use same coping mechanisms 3. Too much continuity: life becomes stagnant - lack of growth, boring 4. Optimal: new experiences in a familiar environment - choose things at a rate you want, can use same resources to cope with new challenges

Prevention for Osteoporosis

1. Assessment 65+ (bone density tests, x-rays) 2. Assessment 50+ if you have broken a bone 3. Calcium and Vitamin D intake (especially young folks) 4. Weight bearing and muscle strengthening exercises 5. Avoid smoking and alcohol

Cardiac and Cerebrovascular Conditions

1. Atherosclerosis - fatty deposits collect at an abnormally high rate and they substantially reduce the width of the arteries and limit the circulation of blood 2. Arteriosclerosis - general term for the thickening and hardening of arteries - occurs to some degree in normal aging - the progressive buildup of plaque may eventually lead to partial or total blockage of blood flow through arteries - the organs or tissues that are fed by that artery will then suffer serious damage due to the lack of blood supply 3. Coronary Heart Disease - when arteriosclerosis occurs in arteries leading to the heart muscle 4. Myocardial Infarction - the acute condition in which the blood supply to part of the heart muscle (the myocardium) is severely reduced or blocked 5. Hypertension - the disease in which an individual chronically suffers from blood pressure that is greater than or equal to 140 mm Hg systolic pressure and 90mm Hg diastolic pressure 6. Congestive Heart Failure/Heart Failure - a condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the needs of the body's other organs - blood flows out of the heart at an increasingly slower rate, causing the blood returning to the heart through the veins to back up 7. Cerebrovascular Accident/"Stroke"/"Brain Attack" - an acute condition in which an artery leading to the brain bursts or is clogged by a blood clot or other particle 8. Transient Ischemic Attack/Ministroke - the blockage of the artery is temporary - the tissues that were deprived of blood soon recover, but chances are that another TIA will follow

APA Geropsychology Guidelines

1. Attitudes: be aware of attitudes and beliefs about aging 2. General knowledge: gain expertise in aging 3. Clinical issues: understand psychopathology in older adults 4. Assessment: learn to use and interpret appropriate tools 5. Service provision: know about efficacy of interventions 6. Education: gain continuing education in geropsychology

Cons of Sequential Designs

1. Attrition (selective?) 2. Time consuming and expensive 3. Possible practice effects 4. Measures/technology changes 5. Researchers change 6. Progression of knowledge

Aside from natural biological factors that cause changes in body shape, what other factors might be associated with such changes as we "age"?

1. Biological: genetics, health challenges, hormonal imbalances, lower metabolisms, meds may cause weight gain, health challenges make it hard to exercise 2. Psychological: self-efficacy, ageism (I'm not supposed to be at gym, we're supposed to decline), stress, increased responsibilities (time pressure, role strain), identity, social network norms, lack of motivation, depression, confidence, eat junk when stressed, increased responsibilities, identity (athletes), social network norms (do the people around you eat healthy/exercise) 3. Sociocultural: cultural ideals, government programs, infrastructure (bike lanes), technological change, portion size norms, increase in high calorie foods, we gather around food 4. Other: finances (cheaper to buy junk food), physical location (rural - less access)

Biopsychosocial Approach

1. Biological: genetics, physiological factors 2. Psychological: cognition, emotions, personality 3. Sociocultural: social context, history, culture Also depends on stage of life - ex. when did a sociocultural event happen in your life span (when 20 matters more than 80)

Sociocultural Models of Development

1. Brofenbrenner's Ecological Perspective 2. The Life Course Perspective 3. Disengagement Theory 4. Activity Theory 5. Continuity Theory

Pros of Sequential Designs

1. Can examine possible cohort effects 2. Permit different types of comparisons to be made - examine possible confounding of effects

Cons of Experimental Designs

1. Cannot examine whether aging causes changes - can't examine process of aging - can't randomly assign people to age groups

Physical Changes: Vital Body Functions

1. Cardiovascular System - decrease in aerobic capacity of 1% per year (amount of oxygen that can be delivered through the blood) - left ventricle contributes the most to the deleterious changes (wall becomes thicker and less able to contract, causing a reduction of diastolic functioning - ejects less blood into aorta 2. Respiratory System - decrease in expiratory volume - respiratory muscles lose the ability to expand and contract the chest wall - losses start around 40 - more severe losses in women 3. Urinary System - slower excretion rates - urge incontinence: sudden need to urinate, often results in leakage - stress incontinence: loss of urine experienced during excretion 4. Digestive System - decreases in saliva production - fewer gastric juices secreted - stomach empties more slowly - decrease in liver volume and blood flow through the liver

General Risk Factors for Osteoporosis

1. Genetics 2. Previous falls and broken bones 3. Smoking 4. Drinking (over 3 drinks per day) 5. Certain medications 6. Where you live - Norwegians are more likely to have it

Cons of Cross-Sectional Designs

1. Groups aren't always representative - the way you ask things to different groups may result in different outcomes - ex. happiness in 5 year olds vs. 90 year olds

Four Principles of Adult Development and Aging

1. Changes are continuous over the life span - individuals remain the "same" even though they change 2. Only the survivors grow old - aging individuals are increasingly self-selected - these people managed to avoid death suggests that they may have inherited good genes (biological factors), are emotionally healthy, or have surrounded themselves with a good support system 3. Individuality Matters - people vary within and between age groups 4. "Normal" aging is different from disease - intrinsic aging processes are different from those associated with illness - as people age they become more different from each other rather than more alike

Caregivers are often challenged by:

1. Changes to assumptive world - your dream life includes your healthy selves - am i giving up or losing the way i thought my life would be - will I have children - dual income? - how much time do i have for my social life - dreams and aspirations change - can be very stressful 2. Unprepared for caregiving role 3. Burden of daily demands 4. Shifts in relationship

Respiratory Diseases

1. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - a group of diseases that involve obstruction of the airflow into the respiratory system - chronic bronchitis and chronic emphysema often occur together in this disease - coughing, excess sputum, and difficulty breathing even when performing relatively easy tasks 2. Chronic Bronchitis - a long-standing inflammation of the bronchi, the airways that lead into the lungs - inflammation leads to increased production of mucus which leads to more coughing and expectoration of sputum 3. Chronic Emphysema - lung disease that causes permanent destruction of the alveoli - elastin within the terminal bronchioles is destroyed, leading to collapse of the airway walls and an inability to exhale - shortness of breath

Key Principles of Adult Development

1. Continuity 2. Individuality 3. Survivors 4. Aging does not equal illness

Corrective Steps for Cross-Sectional Designs

1. Control for cohort differences by careful attention to selection of samples 2. Validate test procedures on different age groups before comparing them 3. Regard results as tentative rather than conclusive 4. Replicate studies, preferably with more sophisticated materials

Advantages of Multivariate Correlational Design

1. Control for confounds related to age - can add in other variables 2. Allow investigations of "causality" - significance of paths can be tested 3. Provide ways to examine change over time - can model individual variations in growth

Having high blood sugar can cause diabetes related complications including:

1. Damage to and narrowing of arteries 2. Nerve damage - lose sensation in feet/hands/periphery 3. Chronic kidney disease - need dialysis - kidney filters out waster - 1/3 end up with this 4. Lower limb amputation (leg, foot, toes) - because nerve damage, don't feel cuts, blisters, sores - less blood to areas - develop infections, muscle tissue dies, if gets to bones need amputation 5. Diabetic Retinopathy -> blindness - blood vessels in retina can start bleeding out - start seeing dark spots, can lead to complete blindness 6. Heart attack - double risk rate 7. Stroke - double risk rate 8. Erectile dysfunction - 50% of men 9. Death - way too much blood glucose or way too low 10. Increased chances of infection, decreased wound healing

Declines in Balance Can Be Due To:

1. Declines in vestibular function - participants do balance test, eyes open and with eyes closed - look at how much change people notice - then they put them on a platform that can move (in darkness), tell when you feel the change - shows sometime around 40-50, you need a larger change before you notice you're off balance - with age, it takes more change to notice we're off 2. Declines in proprioception - the perception of joint and body movement as well as position of the body, or body segments, in space - influences balance 3. Vertigo - associated with inner ear, not everyone gets this - see the world spinning as you stand there 4. Dizziness - increases with age

Vision: Common Changes

1. Decrease in the amount of light passing through - ex. don't like going out at night 2. Sensitivity to glare - want high contrast, not a lot of light 3. Light/dark adaptation declines - when you go into a dark room, takes longer for older adults to adjust and when going into bright room 4. Presbyopia (normal structural change) - lens' shape changes because of tensions in muscles - lens's ability to adjust and focus declines - time to change focus is increased - light is focused past the retina, so you have to hold things further away - get bifocals/reading glasses - affects driving, hard to look at dashboard, back up (takes longer and might miss information)

Spousal Caregivers are at a greater risk for

1. Depression and Anxiety - 25-35% 2. Morbidity and Mortality - impact on immune system - impact on telomeres - get sicker or die Depends on the degree to which they are supporting

Common side effects of radiation therapy

1. Destruction of nearby healthy cells 2. Fatigue, hair loss, skin changes (common) 3. Nausea and vomiting, sexual dysfunction 4. Diarrhea, urinary changes 5. Trouble swallowing

Life Course Perspective - Key Assertions

1. Development occurs along pathways of age-differentiated, socially marked sequence of transitions between life events and social roles - we progress through markers (going to school, marrying, getting a job) 2. Three measures of time are key: 1. Life time (age) 2. Historical Time 3. Social time - ordering of life events/social roles 3. Interactions between these are critical to the life course - 3 interact to determine how your life will turn out

Corrective Steps for Longitudinal Designs

1. Devote administrative resources to maintaining the respondents in the study 2. Use alternative forms of the test to avoid practice effects 3. Rescore outdated measures using newer theoretical frameworks 4. Examine data from multiple studies conducted at different time periods

Physical Changes: Body Build

1. Height - people get shorter (more pronounced in women) - loss of bone material in the vertebrae 2. Shape - the lean tissue/fat-free mass decreases - increase in Body Mass Index (BMI) - older adults lose weight because they suffer a reduction of FFM due to loss of muscle mass

Prevention of Heart Disease and Stroke

1. The lowering of cholesterol through preventive medication 2. Control of diet - high in fruits and vegetables 3. Participation in exercise 4. Relaxation Training

Challenges for Caregivers

1. Disconnection - given inconsistent information - no information given - ignored by providers - lack of time to prepare 2. Collaboration: - active involvement in decisions and patient care - regularly informed about patient treatment, care, and prognosis Different people end up on different sides of continuum Some depends on caregiver's personality: 1. Passive - doing nothing, waiting - wait for health professionals to tell me what to do 2. Less Passive - planning, questioning, watching - start watching nurses 3. More active - providing explanations, assisting (my dad already tried that) 4. Active - seeking info, directing care - when i get home, how will I prepare - tailor care to patient The more proactive the better - caregivers often leave the hospital without being prepared if not proactive

Criticisms of Disengagement Theory

1. Disengagement is not necessarily voluntary, inevitable or universal - often retirement isn't voluntary - ex. if spouse dies, didn't choose that 2. Research focused on the individual, not on society 3. Theory is difficult to disconfirm (unfalsifiable) - can't disconfirm; expectation of "late disengagers" - make extra groups for exceptions 4. Concept of disengagement is very broad 5. Ignores thoughts and feelings of individual 6. Justification for ageism - devalues old people

2 Forms of Macular Degeneration

1. Dry: formation of lipids behind retinal layer 2. Wet: quicker advancing, new blood vessels growing behind retina and they leak to cause degeneration - can't operate - should wear sunglasses to prevent risks

History of Cancer

1. Early 20th century, detection of cancer typically depended on gross signs and symptoms - usually got the diagnosis quite late in cancer progression so too late to save, lead to death 2. Many of the detected cancers today would not have been detected in the 1980-1990s 1982: 3 million cancer survivors living 2016: 15.5 million cancer survivors in the USA 3. The social context of cancer has also changed considerably - dread, fatalism, shame, silence, and stigma - lack of control over treatment - lack of support and acceptance - much changed in the 1970s 4. Used to be such a strong link to death, so patients wouldn't tell their family - shame associated with it - lack of control over treatment - back in the day, if a women had breast cancer, they would take a biopsy, if they had breast cancer they would just remove her breasts while under anesthesia (didn't ask her) 5. Late 1970s, celebrities started talking about their breast cancer

Disadvantages to Longitudinal Designs

1. Effects of aging cannot be separated from historical change 2. Takes many years to complete 3. Expensive 4. Researcher will not have publishable results 5. Selective attrition of respondents 6. Practice effects on tests may lead to improved performance 7. original test may become outdated

Layers of Skin

1. Epidermis - top layer 2. Dermis 3. Hypodermis - fat, pushes up (prevents wrinkles) - less fat, more transparent

Psychological Theories

1. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory 2. Identity Process Theory 3. Selective Compensation with Optimization Model

Psychological Models of Development

1. Erikson's Psychosocial Theory 2. Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory 3. Identity Process Theory 4. The Multiple Threshold Model

Pros of Cross-Sectional Designs

1. Examine age differences 2. Fast and usually cheap 3. Addresses time of measurement effects - because they all would experience it

Osteoarthritis Treatments

1. Exercise and Weight Control 2. Medications 3. Injections 4. Physical/Occupational Therapy - help to teach ways to do normal things like open jars 5. Surgery - take out bone to balance/realign bones

Caregivers are responsible for:

1. Extensive needs for information and education 2. Administering meds 3. Physical care 4. Proper nutrition 5. Safety with transfers (fall prevention) 6. Rehab 7. Diagnosis and prognosis Caregivers often feel a lack of knowledge/unprepared for all these tasks

Symptoms of Stroke

1. Face - drooping 2. Arms - can't raise both 3. Speech - slurred or jumbled 4. Call 911 (better safe than sorry)

Fight or Flight - 2 pathways

1. Fast Pathway (Immediate) - nerve signals from the brain signal the release of adrenaline - increased heart rate - increased lung volume - increased blood to the muscles - decrease digestion 2. Slower Pathway (Delayed) - hormones released from the brain trigger the release of cortisol - cortisol prevents inflammation - liver releases glucose for energy - if stressor persists - gives extra energy to persist Chronic stress makes our fight or flight response persist

Signs and Symptoms of Cancer

1. Fatigue 2. Unexplained Weight Loss 3. Fever 4. Pain 5. Skin changes 6. Unusual lump Depend on: 1. Where the cancer is 2. It's size 3. How much it affects the (nearby) organs or tissues - often tumours can press on organs/nerves 4. If it's spread (metastasized)

Height Changes

1. Females lose approximately 2 inches 2. Males lose approximately 1 inch Due to: - postural changes - Posture: becomes more hunched over - spinal compression (bone strength and discs changes) - Discs get thinner

Biological and Genetic Risk Factors for Late-Life Depression

1. Frequently occurs in the context of Medical Illness: 1. Stroke 2. Cardiac Disease 3. Vision Impairment 4. Hearing Impairments 5. Dementias - Parkinson's, Alzheimer's Maybe: - diabetes and arthritis Cancers are not a risk for depression - doesn't tend to lead to depression in later life 2. Frequently occurs in the context of Anxiety - often precedes depression - about 50% have anxiety with depression 3. Changes in physiology - neurotransmitter imbalances, chronic immune system activation (inflammation) 4. Medications - blood pressure, Parkinson's, cancer, Hormone Replacement Therapy 5. Sleep Disturbance Not much of a genetic component to late onset - if 1 twin develops depression it seems to impact other twin only if it early-onset

Biological Approaches to Aging in Adulthood

1. Genes and DNA 2. Programmed Aging Theories 3. Random Error Theories - Cross-linking - Free Radical - Error Catastrophe

Risks of Age-Related Skin Changes

1. Genetic Background - fair-skinned people tend to display more rapid effects of aging than those with darker skin 2. Lifestyle Habits - exposure to sun (causes photoaging - age changes caused by radiation) - cigarette smoke

Falling Prevention

1. Identify and eliminate environmental risks in residence - secure steps, motion detector lights, bar by door, grab bars for bath tub, anti slip mats in tub, 2 rails for stairs, lighting on stairs, no clutter, strips on edge to increase contrast - store least used items on top 2. Screening and treatment of gait and balance function problems - assistive devices 3. Strategies for dealing with orthostatic hypotension - ex. pressure socks, sit on bed and wait for joints to warm up) 4. Exercise program focused on strength and balance - non-impact balance exercises (Tai-Chi promotes balance, control, flexibility, reduces falls) 5. Review and modify medication - certain meds cause dizziness, want to alter these

Adulthood Stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

1. Identity Achievement vs. Identity Confusion - who am I and where am I going? - first emerges in adolescence yet continues to hold importance throughout adulthood - an individual who achieves a clear identity has a coherent sense of purpose regarding the future and a sense of continuity with the past - identity diffusion involves a lack of direction, vagueness about life's purposes, and an unclear sense of self 2. Intimacy vs Isolation - shall I share my life with another or live alone? - early adulthood - the attainment of intimacy involves establishing a mutually satisfying close relationship with another person to whom a lifelong commitment is made - isolation: more likely to develop in individuals who lack a strong identity because establishing close relationships with others depends on how securely formed the individual's sense of self is 3. Generativity vs. Stagnation - will I produce something of real value? - focuses on the psychosocial issues of procreation, productivity, and creativity - the most common pathway to generativity is through parenthood (direct care of the next generation) - can develop through teaching, mentoring, or supervising younger people, producing something of value that future generations can enjoy - stagnation: when the individual turns concern and energy inward or solely to others of one's own age group rather than to the next generation 4. Ego Integrity vs. Despair - have I lived a good life? - older individuals who establish a strong sense of ego integrity can look back at their experiences with acceptance - ego integrity also involves an ability to look at an accept the positive and negative attributes of one's life and self, even if it may be painful to acknowledge past mistakes or personal flaws - acceptance of the past and present helps people attain acceptance of the end of life - despair: outcome of the individual's realization that death is unavoidable and that it will come too soon to make possible a righting of previous wrongs

Identity Process Theory - Key Assertions

1. Identity continues to change in adulthood in a dynamic manner 2. We like to see a positive view of ourselves - attractive, intelligent, favourable - threshold experience: ex. crash of car, no longer able to drive - from threshold experience: 1. Identity Accommodation: change schema of self - could be good/bad 2. Identity Balance: slow shifting of identity - accepting changes in a positive way - allow identity to change a little bit, not too much 3. Identity Assimilation: deny - ex. "I'm still in control, the crash was a one off" - Miss Daisy 3. Some thresholds matter more than others - multiple threshold model 4. Identity balance leads to self-efficacy

Excess Body Weight is Associated with

1. Increased number of fatal and non-fatal diseases - diabetes, heart disease, osteoarthritis, greater risk the heavier you are 2. Negative effects on longevity, disability-free life-years, quality-of-life, and productivity - impacts your productivity (your ability to make money) 3. Impact on close others Overall burden on economy and health care systems

Late-Life Depression is Associated With:

1. Increased risk of morbidity - diabetes, heart disease 2. Increased risk of suicide - more than any other age is depression linked to suicide in old age) - usually more successful, don't tell people 3. Decreased physical, cognitive, and social functioning - might not take meds 4. Greater self-neglect All of which are in turn associated with increased mortality Less likely to reach out for social support because of depression

Ethical Guidelines

1. Informed consent - awareness of study procedures, risks, and benefits 2. Debriefing - information at study's completion about its true purpose 3. Suggest resources - provide information relevant to participant's experiences 4. Right to withdraw - participant can withdraw without penalty 5. Confidentiality of data - participant will not be identifiable in published reports and data will be securely stored

Top 10 Global Causes of Death

1. Ischaemic Heart Disease 2. Stroke - number one cause of disability 3. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 4. Lower Respiratory Infections 5. Alzheimer DIsease and other Dementias 6. Trachea, bronchus, lung cancers 7. Diabetes 8. Road injury 9. Diarrhoeal disease 10. Tuberculosis

Common side effects of chemotherapy

1. Kills healthy cells that divide and grow quickly - target fast growing cells, but some good cells grow quickly (ex. hair) 2. Fatigue (most common) 3. Nausea and vomiting 4. Hair loss

How do i avoid developing Diabetes?

1. Maintain healthy weight - physical activity - healthy diet - whole grains, lean meat, fruit and veggies, cut sugar 2. Screening over 40 years of age - prediabetes: higher than normal blood sugar 3. Be aware - relatives with Type 2 - Gestational Diabetes when pregnant

Living with Cancer: Distress

1. Majority of patients in treatment are not in great distress compared to others with medical conditions 2. Women report higher levels of distress than healthy controls, regardless of patient/"caregiver" role - women's socialized role to be nurturers mean more than men 3. Male patients, but not "caregivers", report higher levels of distress than healthy controls - men might feel less distressed because they're taking on a role that's different 4. Women report higher levels of distress than their husband with cancer - women may just care more

Disadvantages to Cross-Sectional Designs

1. Measures differences between age groups and not changes over time 2. Results may reflect cohort differences and not differences due to aging 3. Tasks may not be equivalent for different cohorts 4. Survivor problems exist because the older adults are a select group 5. Appropriate age ranges are difficult to determine

Challenges of Psychotherapy with Older Adults

1. Older adults have a greater probability of physical health impairments that can compromise the effectiveness of therapy because these conditions represent a significant threat to quality of life 2. Psychosocial issues involving relationships with family may also confront an older adult and should be taken into account by clinicians providing psychotherapy

Smell and Taste Changes

1. The area of olfactory epithelium shrinks with age and ultimately the total number of receptors becomes reduced 2. Approx. 1/3 of older adults suffer from some form of olfactory impairment 3. Dentures are a cause of loss of taste sensitivity because these may block the receptor cells of the taste buds 4. Cognitive changes are also believed to be associated with loss of smell sensitivity

Mitosis

A process where a single cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells (cell division)

Major Axis I Disorders in Adulthood

1. Mood Disorders: abnormalities in the individual's experience of emotion - depressive disorders and bipolar disorder - depression may appear as cognitive impairment or physical symptoms in older adults 2. Anxiety Disorders: intense anxiety, worry, or apprehension - generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, specific phobia, social phobia, ocd, ptsd - symptoms of anxiety disorders may present or coexist with medical symptoms in older adults 3. Schizophrenia: psychotic symptoms such as distortion of reality and serious impairment in thinking, behaviour, affect, and motivation - schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder - likelihood of complete remission is 20-25%; the 10% who continue to experience symptoms have higher suicide rates than other older adults 4. Delirium, dementia, and amnestic disorders: significant loss of cognitive functioning as result of neurological dysfunction or medical illness - delirium, Alzheimer's disease, amnesia - delirium may be misdiagnosed as dementia in older adults 5. Substance related disorder: use or abuse of psychoactive substances - substance dependence, substance abuse, substance intoxication - older adults are more at risk than is often thought

As a result of immune system changes, older adults are/have:

1. More susceptible to certain infections 2. Much higher risk of cancer 3. Benefit less from immunizations 4. Immune systems take longer to build up immune defenses - when immunized 5. More prone to serious consequences from illnesses - older individuals are much more likely to die from pneumonia and flu 6. Immune system can being attacking the body itself (Autoimmunity) - autoimmune, increases in RA, lupus

Treatment Issues in Mental Health Care

1. More training is needed 2. Clinicians who work with adult populations recognize the need to differentiate the approaches they take to young and middle-aged adults from the approaches they take to older adults 3. Clinicians must take into account the potential effects of chronic medical conditions as well as normal age-related changes in physical, cognitive and social functioning

Vision Changes

1. Most people require some form of corrective lenses by the time they reach their 50s or 60s - presbyopia: loss of the ability to focus vision on near objects is the primary culprit for the need for reading glasses - caused by thickening and hardening of the lens - lens cannot adapt its shape when needed to see objects up close to the face 2. Loss of visual acuity (ability to see details at a distance) - more sensitive to glare 3. Cataract - clouding that develops in the lens - results in blurred or distorted vision 4. Age-related Macular Degeneration - destruction of the photoreceptors located in the central region of the retina (macula) - normally used in reading, driving, and other visually demanding activities - quite incapacitating 5. Glaucoma - group of conditions causing blindness related to changes in pressure within the eyeball - causes a loss of peripheral vision and may cause the remaining vision to diminish altogether

Life Span Perspective Features

1. Multidirectionality - aging includes growth and declines - as we age, we get better at some things (e.g., regulating emotions, taking perspective, vocab) and worse at others (e.g., strength, reaction time) - as you age, not everything is downhill 2. Plasticity - capacity is not predetermined or set - can still continue to learn things - limits, but not set 3. Historical and Cultural Context - continuity will be influenced by this - ex. global warming - will see differences between generations because of what happened in the world 4. Multiple Causation - development is impacted by many factors - so many factors that influence how you age and different for everyone - ex. health, money

Causes of Ageism

1. Negative attitudes toward aging represent fear of death and dying - by their very presence, older adults remind younger people of the inevitability of their own mortality 2. The status of older adults is negatively related to the degree of industrial development in a given society

Psychological Risk Factors for Late-Life Depression

1. Neuroticism: a personality trait characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and proneness to psychological distress - predictive of depression in stroke survivors and macular degeneration - people who are neurotic ruminate and worry more which increases risk of depression 2. Rumination: an ineffective coping style that involves repeatedly but passively thinking about one's distress 3. Avoidant Coping Style: an unwillingness to maintain contact with painful and disturbing thoughts, emotions or bodily sensations - might be beneficial in short-term but not long-term - for people who use avoidant coping style but have good health, not much difference in anxiety and depression compared to people who use different coping style - for people with poor health, an avoidant coping style has much higher depression and anxiety

Incidence and Risk Factors of Diabetes

1. Obesity 2. Sedentary Lifestyle

Fear of Falling

1. Of women surveyed, 80% would rather be dead than experience the loss of independence and quality of life that results from a bad hip fracture and subsequent admission to a nursing home - Hip fracture would change their lives forever - many would rather be dead 2. Increases with age 3. More fear in women 4. Most aren't scared - despite having impairments, people aren't always scared 5. People who are moderately fearful, report depressed mood 2x as much as not fearful - 3x for very fearful - very fearful are less satisfied with life (don't leave house as often) 6. Strong relationship with frailty 7. Some people with no impairments are fearful 8. The more fear of falling, the less likely you will exercise which leads to greater mobility issues - fear of falling leads to people not exercising which is what decreases the chance of falling

The Influence of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

1. Offers a general theory of reactions to a wide variety of stressors over time 2. Suggests a physiological mechanism for stress-illness relationship - cardiovascular diseases - arthritis - hypertension

Anxiety in Older Adults

1. Older adults are less likely than young adults and middle-aged adults to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder - possibly due to greater resilience - also possible that health care professionals are not well-trained in recognizing and diagnosing anxiety disorder symptoms in older adults 2. Symptoms of anxiety disorders may coexist with medical symptoms

4 Key Principles of Life Course Perspective

1. One's life course is embedded and shaped by historical and geographical placement - like cohort effect; what country you're born in, what's going on 2. The impact of a transition or event depends on when it occurs in a person's life - ex. if you have a baby at 16 will be very different than having a baby at 30 3. Linked lives - lives are lived interdependently - ex. having a baby at 16, parents will be impacted (will have to work more for kids and grandchild now) 4. Individuals control their life course within the constraints and opportunities provided by history and social circumstance - despite what's happening historically, we are still humans that have choice, we will take different paths - ex. baby at 16, she can have an abortion, will her parents support her? - some things have choice, others don't

Models of Individual-Environment Interactions

1. Organismic Model 2. Mechanistic Model 3. Interactionist Model

Common Symptoms of Osteoarthritis

1. Pain 2. Tenderness: just touching the joint 3. Stiffness: in morning (takes around 30 mins to warm up joints) 4. Swelling 5. Loss of Flexibility 6. Grating Sensations: feel or hear 7. Bone Spurs: develop extra bone around joints Most people have more than one joint impaired Huge impact on quality of life (most have pain) Impacts daily life and work (65% occupational limitation) Most people have to pay out-of-pocket because of OA

Common problems following cancer surgery

1. Pain 2. Infection

Hearing Changes

1. Presbycusis - degenerative changes occur in the cochlea or auditory nerve leading from the cochlea to the brain - loss of high-pitched sounds - more likely to avoid noisy situations 2. Tinnitus - the individual perceives sounds in the head or ear (such as a ringing noise) when there is no external source Using a low clear voice helps more than shouting

Biological Theories

1. Programmed Aging Theories 2. Metabolic Theories 3. Random Error Theories

Depression in Late Life: Risk Factors

1. Psychological Factors - long standing vulnerabilities (e.g., cognitive style) 2. Social Factors - stressful life events and loss of social roles 3. Biological and Genetic Factors - changes in health, physical ability or cognitive ability - these 3 lead to limitation of activities - which leads to low rate of positive outcomes - which leads to depression - which leads to self-critical cognitions - which feedsback into limitation of activities How the person responds can increase limitation of activities

Measurement Issues in Adult Development and Aging

1. Reliability: a measure is reliable if it yields consistent results every time it is used - test-retest reliability 2. Validity: the test measures what it is supposed to measure - content validity: provides an indication of whether a test designed to assess factual material accurately measures that material - criterion validity: whether a test score accurately predicts performance on an indicator measure - construct validity: used to assess the extent to which a measure intended to assess a psychological construct is able to do so (requires convergent and divergent validity) - convergent validity: needed to determine that the measure relates to other measures that are of theoretical similarity - divergent validity: demonstrates that the measure does not relate to other measures that do not have theoretical relationship to it

Criticisms of Activity Theory

1. Roles/activities carry different meanings - ex. volunteering for 1 person could be rewarding but not for another 2. Assumptions that psychological and social needs remain constant throughout adulthood - some people might not need as many friends in old age 3. Presumes that individuals have high degree of control over their social situation - ex. if you have poor health/no money, not as easy to take up new activities 4. How to conceptualize and measure "activity"?

Psychological Appraisals of Stress Model

1. Situation or Event 2. Primary Appraisal - if neutral/positive = no stress - if negative, secondary appraisal 3. Secondary Appraisal - perceived inability to cope with harm/threat = negative stress (distress) - perceived ability to cope with harm/threat = positive stress (eustress) As the event unfolds, primary and secondary appraisal can influence each other

Factors influencing body image as individuals age

1. Sociocultural norms - we value young, wrinkle-free, slim - focus on young adult females - ignore men and older individuals - places value on youth and slimness - feminine ideal - masculine ideal = muscles (back in the day, that wasn't ideal, it was an indicator you were lower class; now men with muscles, have time and money to go to the gym) 2. Gender identity 3. Social Class 4. Ethnicity 5. Sexual orientation

PTSD in Older Adults

1. Some clinicians expect that the incidence of PTSD among the older adult population will grow in future years due to the aging veterans 2. Severe health problems such as heart disease can also increase the individual's risk of developing PTSD after exposure to combat 3. PTSD can increase the individual's risk of developing heart disease 3. Late-onset Stress Symptomatology (LOSS): a phenomenon observed in aging veterans who were exposed to stressful combat situations in young adulthood - symptoms related to the events begin to emerge in later life, perhaps as a function of exposure to stresses associated with aging, such as retirement and increased health problems

How is a Quasi-Experiment Different From an Experiment?

1. Subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions - subjects are selected based on the pre-existing values of the independent variable, rather than having the experimenter assign values of the independent variable to subjects - ex. chosen because they are male 2. Quasi-experiments have less internal validity than experiments 3. Allow interactions between age and another variable to be examined

Survival Rates for Cancer

1. The 5-year net survival rate for lung cancer is low (17%) 2. The 5-year net survival rate for colorectal cancer is about average (64%) 3. The 5-year net survival rate is high for prostate cancer (95%) and breast cancer (87%)

Schizophrenia in Older Adults

1. The apparent decrease in older age groups reflects the fact that people with this disorder don't survive until old age 2. Older adults who have suffered from schizophrenia for many years develop a wide range of coping skills 3. Late-onset Schizophrenia: a form of the disorder that was thought to originate in adults over the age of 45 years - condition is now thought to be another phenotype of psychotic disorder

Wrinkles are the result of a complex, four-step process

1. The outer layer (epidermis) of skin becomes thinner and more fragile - becomes dry 2. Collagen fibers lose their flexibility, making the skin less able to regain its shape after being stretched or pinched 3. Elastin fibers lose their ability to keep the skin stretched out - skin starts to collapse, wrinkle more 4. The underlying layer of fat that makes the skin look smooth diminishes Primary aging - happens to all of us

Substance-Related Disorders in Older Adults

1. The overall number of older adults are on the rise with the aging of the Baby Boom generation 2. Older adults are particularly at risk for abuse of prescription drugs, as 36% of the medications used in the US are taken by adults over the age of 65

Cons of Longitudinal Designs

1. Time of Measurement and age confounded 2. Generalizable to other cohorts? 3. Attrition (selective?) - lose a lot of people to death - sample you end up with because they are healthy give different results - the oldest people will probably be happier because they are healthy, still alive 4. Time consuming and expensive 5. Possible practice effects 6. Measures/Technology changes - do you keep using your old scare to compare efficiently or do you use the better new scale 7. Researchers change 8. Progression of knowledge - somebody might find the answer while you're still doing it

Somatosensory System Changes

1. Touch - loss of the ability to discriminate touch - can compromise the adult's ability to grasp, maintain balance, and perform delicate handwork and can also interfere with speech 2. Pain - Pain gets worse - can interfere with cognitive functions - symptoms of benign pain may diminish because older adults have become habituated to the daily aches and pains associated with changes in their bones, joints, and muscles - obesity is highly associated with chronic pain

Effects of Stroke Depend On:

1. Type of Stroke - hemorraghic is worse 2. Area and side of brain impacted 3. Amount of damage to the area 4. Amount of time the brain has no blood 5. Amount of time before treatment - critical to get to the hospital right away

What are the signs and symptoms of diabetes?

1. Unusual thirst 2. Frequent urination 3. Weight change (gain or loss) 4. Extreme fatigue or lack of energy 5. Blurred vision 6. Frequent or recurring infections 7. Cuts and bruises that are slow to heal 8. Tingling or numbness in the hands or feet 9. Trouble getting or maintaining an erection

Effects of Stroke

1. Weakness (or paralysis) in arms and legs - will effect one side of the body - hard to walk, may have difficulties using the restroom 2. Problems with speaking, understanding, reading and writing (aphasias) - often quite severe right after stroke, but usually through therapy can get better 3. Swallowing problems - muscles involved are impaired 4. Vision Problems - 60% to 20% after stroke - takes time for vision problems to subside 5. Losing bowel and bladder control 6. Pain and headaches 7. Fatigue - tiredness that does not go away with rest - difficulty sleeping 8. Problems with memory and thinking 9. Pseudobulbar Affect - uncontrollable bouts of crying or laughing

Metabolic Theories - Remaining Questions

1. What is the specific mechanism(s) that impacts aging? 2. May depend on when, what, and how much 3. Decreased risk of morbidity, may not impact longevity 4. Quality of life for humans? Caloric restriction can be extreme

Chronic stress has been related to:

1. Wound healing - changes in immune system 2. Chronic inflammation - inflamed = immune system is continually on 3. Vaccination response - decreases; produce about 1/2 amount of antibodies 4. Mortality - die earlier

The three factors that jointly influence the individual's performance on a given psychological measure at any point in life

1.Age - chronological age measured in years a.measurement of change within the individual 2. Cohort - period of birth measured in interval of time (generation) a. influences relative to history at time of birth 3. Time of measurement - date at which testing occurs a. current influences on individuals being tested

Osteoporosis in Men

1/5 men will break a bone 37% who suffer a hip fracture will die within 1 year Occurs after 65 for men Less at risk than women

What is Diabetes?

A chronic disease in which the body: 1. Cannot produce insulin 2. Does not make enough insulin, or 3. Cannot properly use the insulin it produces (called insulin insensitivity) When there's too much sugar, insulin is produced to store excess sugar - insulin tells muscle and liver cells to take excess sugar

Joints: Osteoarthritis

A condition in which the cartilage that cushions the ends of bones in your joints gradually deteriorates Most common change in joints Doesn't happen to everyone As we age, cartilage shrinks and gets rough leading to bone rubbing on bone Most common places: spine, hip, hand, knee, foot Risks increase with: 1. Age 2. Sex - women more 3. Injury - if you've ever damaged a joint (even if you feel like it's healed) 4. Genetics - if your family has had it 5. Obesity - more weight you put on body

Bones: Osteoporosis

A disease characterized by low bone mass (amount) and deterioration of bone tissue (quality) - less mass and strength "The Silent Killer" - no way to know this is happening - find out if you break a bone, but it's too late to reverse the effects Break bones from really little falls or ripping

Cancer

A generic term for a group of more than 100 diseases Each type has its own symptoms, characteristics, treatment options, and overall effect on a person's life and health Skin cancer is the most common

Elder Abuse

A large category of actions taken directly against older adults that inflict physical or psychological harm Older adults in poor health who are at particularly high risk

Mental Illness: Poorer Medical Treatment and Outcomes

A large number of nurses appear to share with the general population some commonly held stereotypical beliefs of mental illness - "dangerous", "unpredictable", "violent", "bizarre" - leads to fearful behaviour and avoidance in nurses Lacked skills/confidence to deal with those with mental health issues Placed blame on individuals with mental health issues Spent more time/effort on patient who were "really sick"

Gompertz Equation

A mathematical function showing the relationship between age and probability of death Showed that the mortality rate increases in a geometric progression with age (takes the form of a straight line) There is a different Gompertz function for each species, supporting the idea that longevity is an inherited, species-specific trait

Focus Groups

A meeting of a group of respondents oriented around a particular topic of interest An investigator attempts to identify important themes in the discussion and keep the conversation oriented to these themes Goal: to develop concrete research questions to pursue in subsequent studies Advantage: = issues can be identified through a focus group prior to conducting a more systematic investigation Often considered a pilot study, useful when little preexisting research on the topic is available Disadvantage: = the method is not particularly systematic, and the data cannot be readily analyzed or systematically interpreted

Stress

A negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioural changes Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and that thereby tax one's coping abilities and resources

Physical Changes: Nails

A part of the skin Toenails grow more slowly and become yellowed, thicker, and ridged Many older adults develop fungal infections in their toenails, causing them to thicken and separate from the nail bed Older adults experience more difficulty caring for their own feet given that they often have limited joint movement and flexibility

Ageism

A set of beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups based on their chronological age Implicit attitudes: - everybody values children, young adults - old adults are seen negatively (even by old adults) Represent stereotyped views of different age groups Founded on overgeneralizations about individuals based on a set of characteristics that have negative social meaning Any view of older adults as having a set of characteristics, good or bad, that are the same for everyone Ex. calling an older adult "cute" or "with it" or "senile"

Normal Aging/Primary Aging

A set of changes built into the hard wiring of the organism, which progresses at different rates among individuals, but nevertheless are universal, intrinsic, and progressive Ex. skin wrinkling

The Most Efficient Design

A set of three designs manipulating the variables of age, cohort, and time of measurement Enables the most amount of information to be condensed into the most inclusive data framework Researchers organize their data by constructing a table that combines year of birth (cohort) with year of testing (time of measurement), the cohort-sequential design (cohort by age), and the cross-sequential design (cohort by time of measurement) Ex. Seattle Longitudinal Study

Ligament Changes

A short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint Become less elastic over time - less flexible joints Prone to damage and tearing

Cross-Sectional Design

A snapshot in time, see differences in ages at that time Ask people of different age groups happiness levels at one time point Can't generalize that you get happier as you age - because there could be cohort effects (Ex. 90 year olds survived 2 world wars) - individual differences - can't assume how someone will be feeling at a certain age

Health

A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence or disease or infirmity Not just neutral state, but functioning well

(Bivariate) Correlation (r)

A statistic that indexes the degree of relationship between the 2 continuous variables +/- = "direction" of relationship Number = strength of the relationship Linear relationships can be summarized by a single number - r / correlation r can range from -1 to +1

The Biopsychosocial Perspective

A view of development as a complex interaction of biological, psychosocial, and social processes Biological: - physiological factors - genetics Psychological: - cognition - emotion - personality Sociocultural: - social context - history - culture

DSM-5: Major Depressive Disorder

A. 5+ of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning; at least 1 symptom is either 1) depressed mood or 2) loss of interest or pleasure - significant weight loss - insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day - psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day - fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day - feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt - diminished ability to think or concentrate or indecisiveness - recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan B. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning C. The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or to another medical condition D. The occurrence of the major depressive episode is not better explained by schizoaffective disorder, schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder E. There has never been a manic episode or a hypomanic episode

Caregivers: Burdens of Daily Demands

Activities of daily living: 1. Feeding 2. Grooming 3. Toileting 4. Washing 5. Dressing 6. Walking Problem Solving - how to put socks on, grab the remote - how do I modify the house to allow independence Absorbing Patient's previous responsibilities Burden from being sole caregiver Restraints of social life - psychological constraints: burden from being sole caregiver

Functional Age

Age based on how people function

Problems with Experimental Designs

Aging is not a true independent variable This means you can never state with certainty that aging "caused" people to receive certain scores on a dependent variable of interest If a manipulation produces a different effect in a younger age group than in an older one, you may infer that the treatment has some relationship to age

Average Longevity

Aka average life expectancy The age at which half of the individuals who are born in a particular year will have died Ex. a child born today, half will die by the age of 80, half will be alive

Active Life Expectancy

Aka health span Refers to years living in a healthy state Don't have many disabilities, don't need help from others to live

Maximum Longevity

Aka lifespan The oldest age to which any individual of a species lives The healthiest person could live this long Around 120 years

Causes of Death

All Ages: 1. Cancer 2. Heart Disease 3. Cerebrovascular 4. Chronic Lower respiratory 5. Unintentional injuries 6. Diabetes

Cancer: Risk Factors

All cancer is genetically caused in the sense that it reflects damage to the genes that control cell replication Some damage is associated with genetic mutations linked to an inherited tendency for developing cancer, most often involving breast and colon cancer Most cancer is not of the inherited variety Cancer develops when random mutations occur that cause the body's cells to malfunction - mutations develop either as a mistake in cell division or in response to injuries from environmental agents such as radiation or chemicals Risk factors: 1. Exposure to sun 2. Cigarette smoking 3. Lack of control over diet 4. Environmental toxins include chemical compounds found in the air, food, and water 5. Alcohol consumption 6. Having an abortion or miscarriage 7. Race 8. Hormonal factors

Qualitative Studies

Allow for the exploration of such complex relationships outside the narrow restrictions and assumptions of quantitative methods Also used in the analysis of life history information, which is likely to be highly varied from person to person and not easily translated into numbers Advantage: = They provide researchers with alternative ways to test their hypotheses - can be adapted in a flexible manner

Inoculation Hypothesis

Alterative to multiple jeopardy hypothesis Proposes that older minorities and women become immune to the effects of agism through years of exposure to discrimination and stereotyping These years help them to develop a tolerance, so that they are better able to withstand the negative attitudes applied to older adults than their counterparts

Age-as-leveler view

Alternative to multiple jeopardy hypothesis As people become older, age overrides all other "isms" Older adults, regardless of what characteristics have been applied to them, become victims of the same stereotypes In this view, minorities and women are no more disadvantaged than other persons of their age

Fear of Cancer Recurrence

Among the most commonly reported problems and one of the most prevalent areas of unmet needs for cancer survivors and their carers Risk factors: 1. The younger the age of diagnosis, the more fear - have younger kids, career - more things they want to accomplish 2. Greater severity of physical symptoms = more fear - ex. fatigue/pain continues on (people attribute to reoccurrence even if not) - people who are fearful may interpret or are more aware of physical symptoms 3. Lower Quality of life = more fear 4. More religious = less fear

Mini-Mental State Exam

An assessment instrument used extensively in the diagnostic process for older adults is the mental status examination Quick relatively easy to administer, and is useful for charting changes in dementing symptoms over time Not particularly specific to dementia and does not allow for precise measurement of cognitive functioning

Male Sexual Changes

Andropause - age related declines in the male sex hormone testosterone Testosterone supplements include maintained or improved bone density, greater muscle strength, lowered ratio of fat to lean muscle mass, increased strength, libido, and sexual function and even lower rates of cognitive decline Erectile Dysfunction increases with age - related to health problems in older men, metabolic syndrome

Age Effects

Any differences caused by underlying processes, such as biological or psychological changes that occur with aging Are differences between ages because of underlying biological processes? What we're interested in How do people change as they get older?

Old = Survival

Are shared traits amongst the old a result of aging or were these traits present from an early age? All elderly people we are studying have survived Are all old people a certain way or did they have these survival traits from the beginning (selected to survive) Did aging make them this way?

Individuality

As individuals age, differences between them are magnified as a result of: 1. Personality 2. Physical Function 3. Life Experiences 4. Opportunities Ex. differences between uni students or kids from high school who didn't go to uni The older you get, the more individualistic you become

DSM - Five Axes

Axis 1 includes all major clinical syndromes: collections of symptoms that together form a recognizable pattern of disturbance comparable to an illness in medical terms - mood disorders, dementia, anxiety disorders, substance-related disorders, schizophrenia, sexual disorders, eating disorders, sleep disorders, and disorders of childhood and adolescence Axis 2 includes disturbances that are of a more chronic or long-standing nature (personality disorders) - mental retardation and disorders in the individual's ability to carry out the tasks of daily living are also included Axis 3 - used to characterize medical conditions that have a bearing on the client's psychological condition - particularly important for older adults Axis 4 - used to rate psychosocial stressors and environmental problems - these can be important influences on a middle-aged or older adult's psychiatric diagnoses Axis 5 - characterizes the individual's overall level of functioning, ranging from suicidal to superior

How Serious is Cancer?

Based on 2010 estimates: - 1/2 Canadians is expected to develop cancer during their lifetime Based on 2012 estimates: - 1/4 Canadians is expected to die from cancer Increases with age Mortality rate increases around 50 s

Programmed Aging Theories

Based on the assumption that aging and death are built into the hard-wiring of all organisms Following from this assumption is the notion that there are "aging genes" that count off the years past maturity, just as "developmental genes" lead to the point of maturity in youth Support: 1. Life span varies according to species, suggesting that life span is part of an organism's genetic makeup - THere is a different Gompertz function for each species, supporting the idea that longevity is an inherited, species-specific trait

Random Error Theories

Based on the assumption that aging reflects unplanned changes in an organism over time Propose that mutations acquired over the organism's lifetime lead to malfunctioning of the body's cells

Organismic Model

Based on the notion that "nature" drives development Growth in childhood and beyond is the manifestation of genetic predisposition as expressed in the physical and mental development of the individual Qualitative or structural alterations in the individual's psychological qualities such as intelligence and personality are the cause of change

Mechanistic Model of Development

Based on the premise that "nurture" is the primary force in development Growth throughout life occurs through the individual's exposure to experiences that present new learning opportunities Because this exposure is gradual, there are no clear-cut or identifiable stages Development is a smooth, continuous set of gradations as the individual acquires new experiences

Biological Age

Based on the quality of an individual's bodily systems Standards of performance on various biological measures for an individual can be compared with age norms for those measures

Physical Changes: Teeth

Become discoloured due to loss of their enamel surface and staining from lifetime intake of substances such as coffee, tea, certain types of food, and tobacco Many lose their teeth

Physical Changes: Mobility

Beginning in the 40s (or earlier if injury occurred) - each component of mobility undergoes significant age-related losses A gradual reduction of walking speed occurs

Cancer Treatments

Best way to treat is to prevent it - cancer detection with frequent screenings is the primary step in treatment Common forms: 1. Surgery - remove the entire tumour - debulk a tumour (so large it's pressing tissues, remove section to make smaller) - ease cancer symptoms 2. Radiation Therapy: - kills cancer cells or slows their growth by damaging their DNA - external beam: point radiation machine at cancer area (entire area is targeted) - internal: placed in body (through liquid or place physical strips of radiation) - often used in conjunction with surgery - depends on site of treatment for which method 3. Chemotherapy - uses drugs to kill, stop or slow the growth of cancer cells - sole treatment - often used with surgery or radiation

Biopsychosocial Model of Diabetes

Biological: Changes in glucose metabolism, obesity Psychological: Sedentary lifestyle; also associated with depression and stress Sociocultural: habitual eating patterns, lack of education, low economic resources

Fields involved in adulthood and aging

Biology Medicine Nursing Sociology History Arts and literature

Physical Changes: Bones

Bone is living tissue that constantly reconstructs itself through a process of bone remodeling in which old cells are destroyed and replaced by new cells As people experience decreases in sex hormones, they also lose bone mineral content Does not pose a significant problem until people reach their 50s or 60s Ways to slow down bone loss: 1. High levels of physical activity - resistance weights are good 2. Not smoking 3. Maintaining a BMI of approximately 25 4. Ingesting high amounts of dietary protein 5. Increasing calcium intake prior to menopause 6. Using Vitamin D 7. Adequate intake of magnesium also good

Incidence of Strokes

Can happen at any age But more and more likely as we age Men are more likely, until 85 because there are just more women

What is Cancer?

Cancer starts when cells change abnormally Cancer grows as cells multiply over and over Cells that won't stop growing and dividing If cells have too many mutations, can lead to cancer Primary cancer: original spot of cancer Once it spreads - secondary cancer Some cancers can spread to other parts of the body - travel through blood or lymphatic system - lead to secondary tumor or metastasis

Cancer: Early Diagnosis is Critical

Cancer that's diagnosed at an early stage, when it isn't too large and hasn't spread, is more likely to be treated successfully Reasons people don't get checked: 1. Wait times 2. Don't know about symptoms 3. Scared of diagnosis

Type 1 Diabetes

Cannot produce insulin Generally develops in childhood and adolescents Treated with insulin, diet planning and exercise - daily, multiple injections

Type 2 Diabetes

Cannot properly use the insulin it produces (called insulin insensitivity) or does not make enough Develops mostly in adults Managed by physical activity, dietary planning, medication and/or insulin Some need medication, some don't Some need insulin, some can manage with just physical activity and diet Can be very serious if not managed well

Protective Buffering

Caregiver doesn't talk about their own feelings Study: spouses who engage in protective buffering have higher levels of distress and ill partner doesn't feel better - just harms themselves

Effect of Ageism

Cause younger people to avoid close proximity to an older person May also take the form of not being overtly hostile but of making older adults "invisible", that is, not worthy of any attention at all Often experienced in the workplace - older workers are penalized for making mistakes that would not incur the same consequence if made by younger workers

Diabetes

Caused by a defect in the process of metabolizing glucose, a simple sugar that is a major source of energy for the body's cells Symptoms: fatigue, frequent urination, unusual thirst, weight loss, blurred vision, frequent infections, and slow healing of sores Symptoms develop less gradually and are less noticable in Type 2, compared with Type 1 (child-onset) If blood sugar levels become too low (hypoglycemia), the individual can become nervous, jittery, faint, and confused

Ischaemic Strokes

Caused by blockages which cut off the blood supply to parts of the brain Blockages in arteries As we get older we form plaques in artery walls, can lead to a blockage Or a clot can get stuck Account for 80% of all strokes

Haemorrhagic Strokes

Caused when a blood vessel bursts within or on the surface of the brain More severe 1/10 will lead to death Can form as a result of high blood pressure Aneursym - swelling, bursts causing strokes

Physical Changes: Skin Colouration

Changes are most visible in fair-skinned people "Age spots" start to develop - areas of brown pigmentation are more likely to occur in sun-exposed areas of the face, hands, and arms Pigmented outgrowths (moles) and elevations of small blood vessels on the skin surface (angiomas) can also develop Capillaries and arteries in the skin may dilate and generally are more visible due to the loss of subcutaneous fat Large irregularities in the blood vessels (varicose veins) may develop on the skin of the legs

Impaired Aging/Secondary Aging

Changes due to disease are a function of an abnormal set of changes afflicting a segment rather than the entirety of the older population Ex. development of cancer

Personal Aging

Changes within the individual Ontogenetic change ("being development")

Influences on Longevity: Country of Residence

Clean water, war, sanitation Blue bar shows how many years of good health people have

Depression: Age Differences in Symptoms

Compared to depression in younger adults, older adults are: 1. Less likely to endorse symptoms of: - dysphoria (sadness) - worthlessness and guilt 2. More likely to endorse symptoms of: - sleep disturbance - fatigue - poor memory and concentration - psychomotor retardation - loss of interest in living - hopelessness about the future

Men's Appearance and Sexual Orientation

Compared to heterosexual men, young gay men: 1. Report greater feelings of body dissatisfaction 2. Are less likely to have a positive body image 3. Are less likely to be at a desirable weight 4. Engage in more disordered eating 5. Are more likely to aspire to a more muscular physique

Acute Diseases

Conditions that develop over a short period of time and cause a rapid change in health Ex. pneumonia, flu, cold

Chronic Diseases

Conditions that last a longer period of time (at least 3 months) and may be accompanied by residual functional impairment that necessitates long-term management

Social Aging

Considered to represent the fact that people change along with or perhaps as the result of changes that occur in their environments Three major categories of influence: 1.normative age-graded influences a.lead people to choose experiences that their culture and historical period attach to certain ages or points in the life span b.ex. graduate from college in early 20s, get married and begin a family in the 20s or 30s, retire in their 60s 2.normative history-graded influences, a.influences associated with changes in society as a whole b.events that occur to everyone within a certain culture or geopolitical unit (regardless of age) and include large-scale occurrences such as world wars, economic trends, or sociocultural changes in attitudes and values 3.nonnormative influences a.idiosyncratic factors that occur due to a combination of coincidence, the impact of earlier decisions made on later events, and relationships with other people b. there is virtually no way of predicting their occurrence

Sequential Research Designs

Consists of different combinations of the variables age, cohort, and time of measurement Involves a sequence of studies, such as a cross-sectional study carried out twice (two sequences) over a span of 10 years Automatically provide an element of replication Statistical analyses can permit remarkably strong inferences to be drawn about the effect of age as distinct from cohort or time of measurement

Chromosomes

Contains strands of DNA that carry genetic information DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid Codes for everything that makes you you; eye colour, disease risk, height - certain portion of your DNA are genes 23 pairs

A researcher is interested in age and frequency of exercise (hours of exercise per week). In 2018 she surveyed 1000 adults, ranging in age from 18-90. What kind of research design is this?

Cross-sectional and correlational

Epigenetic Principle

Crucial to Erikson's Theory is the epigenetic principle Asserts that each stage unfolds from the previous stage according to a predestined order The stages are built into the hardwiring of the human being

Rods

Dark, peripheral (don't have great colour sensitivity) Sensitive to light

Depression Trends

Decreases with age More depression in women Rates go up when people are in hospitals or care homes

Physical Changes: Joints

Deleterious processes are at work even before people reach the age of skeletal maturity Affect women more than men By the 20s and 30s, the arterial cartilage that protects the joints has already begun to degenerate, and the bone underneath wears away Joints lose flexibility and become more painful the more stress they endure Exercise can ameliorate some effects of aging on the joints if practiced with caution Proper footwear helps

Depression: Age and Chronic Conditions

Depression may be either underdiagnosed or overdiagnosed in the presence of chronic conditions Ex. Cancer: fatigue and weight loss Ex. Stroke: fatigue and difficulties sleeping Ex. Dementias: cognitive impairment DSM says do not include symptoms that are clearly attributable to another medical condition Depends on how the doctor interprets these chronic conditions - might be having symptoms only from different diagnosis - leads to overdiagnosis

Sequential Designs

Designs that include: 1. Two or more cross-sectional studies conducted at two or more times of measurement 2. Two or more longitudinal designs that represent two or more cohorts Adding cohorts, measure same cohorts at different time points - can look at differences in age groups at different times - ex. 35 year olds in the 30s, 60s, 90s, 2020s Can look at happiness levels in each cohort - if you have 3 cohorts with the same results, you could probably generalize Cohort effects: if all groups have different results No cohort effects: if all groups have same results

Physical Changes: Skin Around Eyes

Develop bags Small lines at the creases ('crows feet") Areas of dark pigmentation Puffiness The need for eyeglasses, which increases in middle adulthood, means further changes in the appearance around the eyes

Aging Skin

Development of: 1. Age Spots 2. Moles 3. Angiomas Prevention: avoid sun exposure and smoking - sun exposure increases age spots and moles get darker quicker

Secondary Aging

Developmental changes related to disease, lifestyle, and other environmentally induced changes Ex. Alzheimer's, cancer, illnesses related to unhealthy behaviours, exposure to pollutants - not everyone develops these - could be genetic

Inter-Individual Differences

Differences between people The principle that people become more different from each other with age People of the same age may vary so dramatically from one another that they may more closely resemble people from different age groups, even on measures typically thought to decline with age

Cohort Effects

Differences caused by experiences and circumstances unique to the generation to which one belongs Often normative, history graded influences Ex. if you lived through the Great Depression/war, you look different than generation that hadn't Generation that experienced something similar Ex. for my generation: social media, internet (born with it), Me Too movement, environmental concerns

Time of Measurement Effects

Differences stemming from sociocultural, environmental, historical, or other events at the time of data collection When you collected data, what was going on Ex. if measuring income, differences if collecting during a recession

Depression: Age at Onset

Early Onset Depression: experienced first episode of depression considerably before old age - more likely linked to family history of depression - genetic link Late Onset Depression: a new condition arising only in old age

Depression Risk Factors

Early Onset: 1. Genetic risks 2. Stressful life events 3. Neuroticism 4. Previous depression Late Onset: 1. Anxiety Disorder 2. Cardiovascular Disease 3. Insomnia 4. Stressful life events 5. Activity curtailment 6. Cognitive impairment, neuropsychology

Depression Protective Factors

Early Onset: 1. Socio-economic advantage 2. High education Late Onset: 1. Engagement 2. Sense of mastery 3. Emotion regulation 4. Close social network 5. Meaning in life

Face Changes

Ears and nose get bigger Teeth yellow

Studying Differences and Changes Across the Lifespan

Example: 1. Does happiness change as individuals age? 2. Is happiness different at different ages? Are these the same questions? How should we study this? - cross sectional - longitudinal

Pressure

Expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way or perform to a certain level Stressful Self-imposed pressure - want to look perfect Pressure from social roles - expectations to be a certain type of way Work and school pressure - teaching a course first time, get As Time Pressure: the perception that there is not enough time to do what needs to be done

Sociocultural Theories

First Generation: 1. Disengagement Theory 2. Activity Theory Second Generation: 1. Continuity Theory 2. Brofenbrenner's Ecological Perspective 3. Life Course Perspective Third Generation - greater focus on social structures

Free Radical Theory

Focuses on a set of unstable compounds known as free radicals, produced when certain molecules in cells react with oxygen The primary goal of a free radical is to seek out and bind to other molecules - the molecule attacked by the f.r. loses functioning Although oxidation caused by free radicals is a process associated with increasing age, researchers have questioned the utility of this approach

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Focuses on the development of self or ego through a series of eight stages - each stage has a psychosocial crisis involving transitions in important social relationships Each stage of development is defined as a crisis in which particular stage-specific issues present themselves as challenges to the individual's ego Individuals pass through a series of transitions in which they are particularly vulnerable to a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social forces characteristic of their period of life Epigenetic matrix implies that developments may occur in boxes outside of the diagonal line

Longitudinal Designs

Follow the same group of people over some period of time (multiple assessments) - Period of time depends on variables of interest (e.g., cognitive development/decline vs health status) Ask same group at 35 years, 65 years, 95 years how happy they are - if you see that the group gets happier, can only say that this group got happier with age, but we don't know if another group would show the same results - don't know about time of measurement effects that could confound

Proportion of Canadians with One or More Chronic Diseases

From 65+ most have at least one 80+ most have more than four

Weight Changes

Gains then losses across adulthood Put on weight until 50s, then start to lose - gains in fat, loss of lean muscle Reasons: - harder to exercise when you get busier with life - metabolism slows down - food intake increases Older age: - loss of muscle and some fat - loss of muscle and bone density Averages change because people who are heaviest are dying, so skinnier people live longer

Niche-Picking

Genetic and environmental factors work together to influence the direction that children's lives take Children are born with certain abilities and predispositions that lead them to explore certain types of activities Once started down a particular pathway, further changes occur that influence the later development of those particular abilities

Divisions by Age of the Over- 65 population

Gerontologists make the distinction among: -young-old (ages 65 to 74) -old-old (ages 75 to 84) -oldest-old (ages 85 and older)

Mortality of Strokes

Getting more deaths but only because population is growing Rate of deaths is decreasing More survivors of stroke than before

Physical Changes: Hair

Graying of hair - the number of pigmented (coloured hairs) diminishes over time while the number of hairs that no longer are pigmented increases - hair loses its pigment because of the production of melanin (which gives hair its colour) slows and eventually ceases Thinning of the hair - though more visible in men, occurs in both sexes The most common form of hair loss with increased age is male and female pattern hair loss - androgenetic alopecia = affects 95% of adult men and 20% of adult women - causes the hair follicles to stop producing the long, thick, pigmented hairs known as terminal hair

Stroke

Happens when blood stops flowing to any part of your brain, damaging brain cells

Sexual Orientation and Women's Body Image

Heterosexual Women: 1. 63% described themselves as "fat", "overweight", "too heavy", or "concerned about getting fat" 2. 63% felt "bad" about aging or themselves because of their weight 3. 79% dyed greying hair Lesbians: 1. 73% wanted to lose weight 2. 73% didn't associate sense of self with body weight 3. 27% dyed greying hair Most straight women talked about their weight Lesbians didn't associate size/weight with sense of self Suggest the ideals of femininity matter differently for lesbians and straight women - could change for next generation of women

Cones

High detail, colour sensitivity

Prevalence of Diabetes

Higher rates as we get older Expected to have a 32% increase in diagnoses Around 11 million in Canada

Suicide in Older Adults

Highest rates among white males aged 85 and older Due to the difficulty in diagnosing depression among older adults, it would seem particularly important for health care providers to be aware of suicide risk factors when working with older adults

Life Span Perspective

Human development is divided into 2 phases: 1. Early Phase (childhood and adolescence) - period of growing/learning 2. Later Phase (young adulthood, middle age, old age) - still building abilities but learning to adjust, learning about ourselves and how we fit in the environment

Brofenbrenner's Ecological Perspective

Identifies multiple levels of the environment that interact with individual processes of change 1. The inner biological level represents the physiological changes that take place over time that affect the functioning of the body 2. The next level of individual functioning includes cognition, personality, and other processes of adaptation 3. Proximal social relational level: involves the individual's relationships with significant others, peers, and members of the nuclear 4. Sociocultural level: relations with the larger social institutions of educational, public policy, governmental, and economic systems The interactions that have the greatest impact happen at the proximal level in the immediate environment Development in one sphere interacts with development in other spheres

Gestational Diabetes

If not managed, child could be really heavy when born and higher risk for child to get diabetes Goes away when baby is born, but mom's risk for Type 2 is higher Impacts around 20% of pregnant women Managed through diet, exercise, medication

Cancer: Life After Treatment

If treatment is successful, life is not impacted too much Quality of life increases after surviving it Predictors of quality of life for breast cancer survivors: 1. Co-morbidities - poorer quality of life 2. Use of chemotherapy - poorer quality of life 3. Social support - less social support before and after, poorer qol - type and quality 4. Income - lower income = less qol 5. Employment - better quality of life if you have a job still 6. Having children under 18 living at home - poorer quality of life Breast cancer survivors aren't all that different from healthy controls When treated with surgery, subsequent life isn't affected too much - most people don't need help with activities of daily living Quality of life improved after surgery Social functioning and mental health may be better than normal population - because they survived so they compare - fatigue levels continue on after treatment

Taking a life course perspective, how might a cancer diagnosis or stroke in a loved one (spouse/parent/child) impact a person's life?

If you're a child and your parent gets cancer, very different than when you're in your 40s If your spouse gets it at a young age, different than when both old

Percentage of Deaths By Age

In 1921, most deaths occurred at birth or younger ages - most people died from acute diseases Now most people live into their 70s - most deaths occur later in life and we're dying more from chronic diseases

Projections for Obesity

Increase in chronic diseases Past 30-40 years have had steep increase Now it's still increasing just not as steep

Electroconvulsive Therapy

In cases of severe depression in which medications do not produce results, this is an option An electric current is applied through electrodes attached across the head The individual suffers seizure like symptoms (which can be controlled with muscle relaxants) but the main effect of the treatment is thought to result from the passage of electrical current through the brain

Influences on Longevity: Gender

In developed countries, women tend to live much longer (~5 years) than men Possible reasons: 1. Biological differences - men tend to have higher metabolic rates - more prone to infections (immune system decreases faster) - y chromosome 2. Lifestyle differences - men drink and smoke war - men have poorer social support - men are riskier at a younger age 3. Types of work/war - more risky than women's jobs In undeveloped countries, babies die which drags number down

The Geriatric Depression Scale

Includes a true-false set of questions about depression symptoms that excludes somatic disturbances likely to be endorsed by older adults regardless of their levels of depression Its validity is well established with older adult populations

Health-Related Quality of Life

Includes all of the aspects of life that are affected by changes in one's health status What is it like living with a disease

Psychological Disorders

Includes the range of behaviours and experiences that fall outside of social norms, create adaptational difficulty for the individual on a daily basis, and put the individual or others at risk of harm

Hierarchal Linear Modeling (HLM)

Individual patterns of change are examined over time rather than simply comparing mean scores of people at different ages Particularly important in longitudinal research because not every participant exhibits the same patterns of change over time - solely looking at means does not capture this individual variation Individual patterns can be explored statistically in addition to examining whether particular variables affect some individuals more than others

Polypharmacy

Individual takes multiple drugs, sometimes without the knowledge of the physician, can be particularly lethal Can cause dementia-like symptoms The excretion of medications is slower in older adults because of changes in the kidneys, so that older adults are more vulnerable to such toxic effects of medications

Genes and DNA

Inherited characteristics are found in the genome, the complete set of instructions for "building" all the cells that make up an organism The genome for each living creature consists of tightly coiled threads of DNA DNA resides in the nucleus of the body's cell as two long paired strands spiraled into a double helix A gene is a functional unit of a DNA molecule carrying a specific set of instructions for producing a specific protein The genome is organized into chromosomes, which are distinct, physically separate units of coiled threads of DNA and associated protein molecules Genes may undergo alterations called mutations, when DNA reproduces itself If a protein vital to survival becomes damaged, the results of the mutation can be serious Acquired mutations are changes in DNA that develop throughout a person's lifetime If repair mechanisms fail, the mutation can be passed on to future copies of the altered cell

Interpersonal Therapy

Integrates cognitive methods with a focus on social factors that contribute to psychological disturbance Involves a combination of methods, but its main focus is on training in social skills, interpersonal relationships and methods of conflict resolution

Self-Stigma

Internalized stigma Characterized by negative feelings (about self), maladaptive behaviour, identity transformation, or stereotype endorsement resulting from an individual's experiences, perceptions, or anticipations of negative social reactions on the basis of their mental illness A related construct is perceived stigma, which refers to an individual's beliefs about the attitudes of others to mental illness Seeing others beliefs about mental illness A lot of time they have these beliefs and then develop mental health issues and see themselves negatively

Archival Research

Investigators use existing resources that contain data relevant to a question about aging Archives might consist of a governmental data bank, or the records kept by an institution, school, or employer, newspapers, magazine records Advantage: = information is readily accessible Disadvantage: = the researcher does not necessarily have control over the form of the data = the material may not be systematically collected or recorded (might have incomplete or biased data)

Simple Correlational Designs

Involve determining the statistical relationship between two variables (called a bivariate relationship)

Life Review Therapy

Involves helping older adults rework past experiences, both pleasant and unpleasant, with the goal of gaining greater acceptance of the past This process facilitates the natural reminiscence process that accompanies resolution of the ego integrity vs. despair psychosocial issue

Mutivariate Correlational Designs

Involves the analysis of relationships among more than two variables The researcher can simultaneously evaluate the effects of many potentially important factors, rather than being restricted to the study of two variables, which can lead to overlooking an important third Also enable researchers to test models in which a set of variables is use to "predict" scores on another variable - multiple regression analysis

Experimental Design

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable followed by the measurement of scores on the dependent variable Random assignment to treatment and control groups and then measured on the dependent variable

Selective Compensation with Optimization Model

Key Assertions: 1. Adults attempt to preserve and maximize the abilities of greatest importance, while reducing efforts to maintain those of lesser importance 2. Conscious decisions on how to spend time and effort in addressing declines in cognitive and physical resources 3. Selection, Optimization, and Compensation At the beginning of life, everything is about gains (spend most resources on growth) As we age, losses increase (resources dedicated to maintenance and regulation of losses - how to manage declines) What should I pay attention to now that I'm declining: - Optimization: where I will spend most of my energy - Compensation: coming up with strategies to maintain what you want to

Programmed Aging Theories

Key Assertions: 1. Aging and death are encoded within our genes - mechanisms for growth but also decline 2. Genetic timing mechanism triggers declines in physiological function Evidence: 1. Species specific life spans 2. Cell senescence - the cell can't divide anymore

Metabolic Theories

Key Assertions: 1. Organisms have a finite amount of energy to expend in a lifetime 2. Organism's metabolism is related to its longevity Evidence: Caloric restriction studies in non-humans and humans - if you reduce how much you eat, you live longer - depends on when in the life span administered to rats In humans 6 months on caloric restriction in non-obese adults: 1. Lower levels of fasting insulin 2. Lower core body temperature (metabolism) 3. Less DNA fragmentation (damage)

Contextual Influences

Life span change is a function of nature and nurture

Balance Changes

Loss of balance is one of the main factors responsible for falls in older adults Fall risk is predicted by the experience of previous falls, strength, gait, and medication use Two symptoms most frequently associated with age-related vestibular dysfunction are: 1. Dizziness 2. Vertigo - sensation of spinning when the body is at rest

Hair Loss

Loss of pigmentation = graying Around 35, 2/3 of people may start to notice some hair loss Around 65, 85% of men will have some hair loss Around 20% for women Hair follicle shrinks, hair becomes small, thin hairs, that eventually don't provide

Telomere

Made up of DNA, don't code for anything, protect the chromosome Every time cell divides, a bit of telomere comes off When telomeres become too short is when cell goes into senescence A lot of telomerase in cancer cells, which allows them to keep dividing When you increase telomerase, increase cancer risk

Central Nervous System Changes

Major effects on the prefrontal cortex and temporal cortex Hippocampus becomes smaller Associated with changes in the frontal lobe in the form of abnormalities known as white matter hyperintensities (WMH) - made up of parts of deteriorating neurons - presence interferes with long-term memory because they disrupt the integrity of the white matter

Supporting Caregivers

Many caregivers themselves may also deal with chronic health conditions It is critical to assess their abilities and to ensure they can maintain their current levels of functioning 1. Family-Centered Care Model - so much for the family to juggle - don't just treat the patient but treat the family and whether the family is able to deal with all this stuff 2. Skills and Communication Interventions - study to test the short-term efficacy of a brief, fully manualized marital communication and interpersonal support intervention for couples facing recently diagnosed breast cancer (pamphlet vs. workshop) - at 3 months post, depression and anxiety decreased for experimental groups - people felt like they had the skills and are able to support spouses - both husband and wife feel better expressing sad feelings - husband felt more confident using the skills - another study with stroke patients showed caregiver burden is less in experimental group, quality of life was better in caregiver experimental group, anxiety and depression was less, patients also reported less anxiety and depression, but not better quality of life, reduced overall costs 3. Caregiver Self-Care - prioritize own health - manage stress - taking time off without guilt (even just 15 minutes outside of caregiver role) - ask and accept help (find small things people can help with) - discuss patient and caregiver needs with a doctor (discuss own mental and physical health)

Self-Report Clinical Inventories

Many of these tests were developed for young or middle-aged adults, and therefore their applicability to older adults is either unknown or low Older adults may not interpret the questions as the authors of the test had intended

Caregivers: Relationship Shifts

Marital Strain Spouses must learn how to provide appropriate support - instrumental - emotional Impatience with slow recovery from condition - how do you help spouse feel independent Patient moods, depression, anxiety can be contagious - hard to be around someone who is grumpy, sad Both partners don't know how to talk about it Most provide instrumental support, but what people want is emotional support Spousal support for caregiver is lacking - caregiver isn't getting support that they once were Changes in Intimacy: - decreased sexual activity - increased sexual dysfunction - decrease in libido among patients and spouses - performance anxiety - lack of education (people don't talk about sex in rehab) Illness can bring couples closer

Life Expectancy

Means that for that age how many people are alive/dead - can be skewed by new born deaths A lot more old people now than before Most research on elderly people has been on survivors of world war 2 - this new generation may be different than the last

Multivariate Analyses

Measure 3 or more different variables - what are the relationships amongst the variables? - can one variable (criterion) be "predicted" by other variables (predictors)? - if you go to church, decreased chance of dying - shouldn't be a prediction if at same time point (just correlation)

Neuroleptics

Medications for the treatment of schizophrenia Alter dopamine activity and are effective in reducing delusions and other forms of thought disorder as well as lowering the chance of an individual's experiencing a relapse Side effect: tardive dyskinesia (involves involuntary, repetitive movements, particularly in the muscles of the face) - second most common cause of parkinson's disease Medications that alter serotonin functioning do not produce these effects on motor functioning

Female Sexual Changes

Menopause: menstruation stops permanently - in common speech, it's referred to as a phase in middle adulthood covering the years in which a women's reproductive capacity diminishes = real term is climacteric (applies to men as well) Climacteric occurs over a 3- to 5-year span called perimenopause (ending in the menopause when the woman has not had her menstrual period for 1 year) Average age of menopause is 50 years Occurs earlier in women who are thin, malnourished, or who smoke Throughout perimenopause: - diminution in the production by the ovarian follicles of estrogen (primary female sex hormone) - progesterone levels decline Estrogen decline occurs 10 to 15 years before menopause = results in hot flashes (estrogen decreases causes the endocrine system to release higher amounts of other hormones that affect the temperature control centers in the brain) - fatigue, headaches, night sweats and insomnia - irritability, mood swings, depression, memory loss, difficulty concentrating Menopause is associated with alterations in the reproductive tract: - lower estrogen levels, less blood supply to vagina and surrounding nerves and glands - tissues become thinner, drier and less able to produce secretions to lubricate before and during intercourse (discomfort) - more susceptible to urinary problems - weaker bones, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease are more prevalent

Transient Ischaemic Attack

Mini-stroke The same as a stroke, except the symptoms last for less than 24 hours Should be treated just as seriously as strokes Warning strokes: usually within same day Around 50% have a stroke

Stroke Risk Factors

Modifiable Risk Factors: 1. High blood pressure - what causes build up 2. High cholesterol 3. Diabetes (Type 2) 4. Being overweight 5. Smoking 6. Excessive Drinking 7. Drug Use - marijuana increases risk by 33% 8. Inactivity Non-Modifiable Risk Factors: 1. Age 2. Ethnicity - caucasians are less likely 3. Gender - more men 4. Family history of heart disease 5. Diabetes Type 1

Is Cancer Genetic?

Most cancers start due to gene changes that happen over a person's lifetime More rarely, cancers start due to inherited faulty genes passed down in families Most cancers aren't genetic

Mental Health Rates

Most disorders have an early onset and decrease by old age

Living with Cancer: Activities of Daily Living

Napping and activity pacing are essential to the daily lives of patients with metastatic breast cancer to manage pervasive fatigue Readjusting how much you can accomplish in a day Women with advanced-stage breast cancer carry out usual family and professional roles while coping with physical challenges and cancer treatments -some work, try to maintain a sense of normalcy

Developmental Science

Need to look at multiple factors in development

Primary Aging

Normal, disease free development during adult aging Occurs for everyone Doesn't include getting ill - loss of loved ones, strength

Multidirectionality of development

Not all systems develop at the same rate within the person - while some functions may increase over time, others decrease

Interactionist Model

Not only do genetics and environment interact in complex ways (as suggested by the niche-picking concept), but the individual also actively participates in his or her development through reciprocal relations with the environment Multidirectional: there are multiple paths in development, development does not proceed according to a series of linear stages operating along a single pathway - assume there is plasticity in development, meaning that the course of development may be altered depending on the nature of the individual's specific interactions in the environment

Temperature Control Changes

Older adults are among those reported to have a greater risk of dying from hyper-or hypothermia (dysthermia) Most that die also have heart disease In less extreme conditions there remains changes in the ability of older adults to adjust to high heat levels due to a decrease in sweat output, causing the body's core temperature to rise to a greater degree The reduction of the dermal layer of skin further contributes to an impairment in skin cooling

Multiple Jeopardy Hypothesis

Older individuals who fit more than one discriminated-against category are affected by biases against each of these categorizations Ex. women are subject to ageism and sexism Heterosexism and classism further add to multiple jeopardy These systematic biases interact with age to produce greater risk for discrimination in attitudes and the provision of services to specific subgroups of older adults

Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Piaget identified 2 basic ways in which people interact with their experiences: 1. Assimilation: when individuals interpret new experiences in terms of their existing mental structures (schemas) 2. Accommodation: changed your existing schema The ideal state (equilibrium) is one in which people are able to interpret experiences through a consistent framework (assimilation) but are able to change this framework when it no longer is helpful in organizing experiences (accommodation) The process of achieving this balance is called equilibration

Identity

Plays a central role in the biopsychosocial model A composite of how people view themselves in the biological, psychological, and social domains of life The interaction of these domains forms an overall view of the "self"

Post-Traumatic Growth

Positive psychological change experienced as a result of the struggle with highly challenging life circumstances Stronger perceptions of oneself Place a lot more value on family and friends People reevaluate life priorities - what's important Greater appreciation of life Receiving support predicts this - not just perceiving support

Muscles: Sarcopenia

Progressive, age related loss of muscle tissue and strength - fibers decrease - strength seems to be lost at a greater rate than muscle mass - strength and size of muscle mass is 1 to 1 at a young age, then with age, strength is lost quicker 1. Process of primary aging (normal aging) - usually occurs in 40s - greater loss of fast twitch fibres 2. Multifactorial causes - changes in hormones (around 45; declines in testosterone and when women hit menopause) - disuse (less you use your muscles) - chronic disease (ex. diabetes, HIV, cancer) - nutritional deficiencies 3. Slowed by strength training 4. Increased risk of falls - can't catch yourself 5. Increased risk of physical disability - doesn't lead to it, just risk

Disengagement Theory

Proposed a set of specific linkages between social roles and well-being among older adults The normal and natural evolution of life causes older adults to wish to loosen their social ties - this natural loosening is not only inevitable but desirable Aging is accompanied by a mutual process of withdrawal of the individual and society Retirement and isolation from family members are circumstances that older adults wish for and benefit from in terms of having higher levels of well-being

Cross-Linking Theory

Proposes that aging causes deleterious changes in collagen, the fibrous protein that makes up about 1/4 of all bodily proteins Collagen provides structure to many of the body's tissues - the molecule is composed of 3 chains of amino acids wound together in a tight helix - strands are attached through horizontal strands of cross-linking proteins (like rungs on a ladder) With age, the rungs of one ladder start to connect to the rungs of another ladder, causing the molecules to become increasingly rigid and shrink in size The process of cross-linking occurs because exposure to certain types of sugars leads to a process known as glycation, which in turn leads to the formation of what are called AGE - AGEs induce cross-linking

The Autoimmune THeory

Proposes that aging is due to faulty immune system functioning The immune system mistakenly recognizes cells of invading organisms rather than the cells of the body When autoimmunity occurs, the body attacks its own cells, causing damage to bodily tissues

The Multiple Threshold Model

Proposes that individuals realize the fact that they are getting older through a stepwise process as aging-related changes occur Each age-related change brings with it the potential for another threshold to be crossed Ex. your hair turning gray may be an area of particular concern and provide a threshold for you, but experiencing diminished weakness in your muscles is not Whatever the area of greatest relevance, at the point of crossing a threshold, people are prompted to recognize the reality of the aging process in that particular area of functioning It is during the process of moving from identity assimilation to identity accommodation through the occurrence of these thresholds that a new state of balance is reached

Continuity Theory

Proposes that whether disengagement or activity is beneficial to the older adult depends on the individual's personality Some older adults prefer to withdraw from active involvement with their families and communities - others are miserable unless they are in the thick of the action Older adults will be negatively affected and suffer a loss of wellbeing by being excluded from social roles - if this exclusion goes against their will

Common Forms of Cancer

Prostate Lung Breast Colorectal Makes up half of cancers Lung cancer has a lot of mortality - breast and prostate cancer low mortality rates

Social Stigma

Public stigma The phenomenon of social groups endorsing stereotypes about and acting against a stigmatized group Can lead to self-stigma Negative beliefs, idea Can lead to prejudice and discrimination and can lead to self-stigma

Basic Experimental Design

Random assignment Manipulate independent variable Example: - Research Question: do increased feelings of choice and personal responsibility impact happiness, sociability, health and mortality in elderly nursing home residents? - IV: Personal responsibility induction vs. comparison vs. control (either caring for a plant or told nurse will do everything) - DV: Subsequent (18 months later) mortality, health and nurse ratings of happiness, sociability, vigorousness - less dead

Error Catastrophe Theory

Random errors are not solely responsible for changes associated with aging, but rather errors in the manufacturing of proteins, a process that plays a key role in the maintenance of the body's cells The impairment in the cell would lead to widespread tissue and organ malfunction

Tertiary Aging

Rapid losses that occur shortly before death Eg. terminal drop Quite steep cognitive declines - see this even without diseases at the end of life

Fear and Worry from Cancer Diagnosis

Receiving a 'cancer' diagnosis elicits many emotions, of which fear is one of the most common People report being fearful of and worried about: 1. Death 2. Pain and side effects of treatment 3. Taking care of one's family 4. Paying bills 5. Keeping one's job Some people deny it for a while

Dependent Life Expectancy

Refers to remaining years living in a dependent state

Non-Health-Related Quality of Life

Refers to things in the environment, such as entertainment, economic resources, arts, and so on that can affect our overall experience and enjoyment in life

Endocrine System Changes

Regulate the actions of the body's other organ systems Hormones are the chemical messengers produced by the endocrine systems Endocrine glands may release more or less of a particular hormone Hormones: 1. Growth Hormone: stimulates the growth of bones and muscles and regulates the growth or most internal organs in youth - affects the metabolism of proteins, lipids, and carbs through life - insulin-like growth factor-1 stimulates muscle cells to increase in size and number - GH and IGF-1 are called the somatotrophic axis (a decline in their activity = somatopause of aging is thought to account for a number of age-related changes in body composition acorss adulthood = loss of bone mineral content, increases in fat, decrease in muscle mass 2. Cortisol - increases negatively affects memory and other forms of cognitive functioning in older adults - glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis: aging causes dangerous increases in cortisol levels (accelerate neuronal loss in hippocampus) 3. Thyroid Hormones - control the rate of metabolism - metabolism slows in middle age and is responsible for weight gain that occurs even when a person's caloric intake remains stable 4. Melatonin - significant changes in circadian rhythm throughout middle and later adulthood occur that some researchers believe correspond to declines in melatonin production across adulthood 5. DHEA - weak male steroid (androgen) produced by adrenal glands - precursor to the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen - increases production of other sex steroids - pronounced decrease over the years (adrenopause) - greater in men

Correlational Designs

Relationships are observed among variables as they exist in the world A type of non-experiment Measure 2 or more different variables - see how well they "hang together" - how co-related are the variables? - how strongly is one associated with the other? No attempt to divide participants into groups or to manipulate variables Variables must be continuous and not grouped (categories) Age can be treated as a continuous variable and it is therefore unnecessary or even desirable to put people into arbitrarily defined groups 1. Simple Correlational Designs 2. Multivariate Correlational Designs

Telomeres

Repeating sequences of proteins that contain no genetic information The primary function is to protect the chromosome from damage With each cell division, the telomeres become shorter Researchers have linked telomere length to social factors - shorter in women from lower SES - stress, body mass index, smoking, and lack of exercise

Hayflick Limit

Replicative Senescence Fetal cells (in culture) can only reproduce (divide) about 50 times

Stress' Impact on Telomeres

Research Question: Is exposure to stress related to shorter telomere length? Design: quasi-experimental, correlational Participants: 58 premenopausal women - 19 biological mothers of a healthy child - 39 biological mothers of a chronically ill child Variables: perceived stress, length of caregiving, telomere length Results: - The longer someone's been caring for sick child, the shorter the telomere length (body is aging quicker) - the more stress the women perceives, the shorter the telomere length - mothers who are stressed while pregnant, their babies have shorter telomeres

Quasi-Experiment Design Example

Research Question: are there age differences in the recall of memories for positive, negative, or neutral stimuli? Design: IV x PV quasi-experimental design IV: stimuli valence (positive, negative, neutral photos) - people are shown a picture for 2 seconds PV: age (young: 18-29; middle: 41-53; old: 65-80) - participant variable - age; can't manipulate DV: number of photos recalled after 15 minute distractor task Results: - recall deteriorates with age - older people remember positive pictures better than negative or neutral

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

Researchers develop hypotheses regarding the relations among observed (measures) and latent (underlying) variables or factors SEM serves purposes similar to multiple regression taking into account the possibilities that there are complex relationships among the variables and factors of interest

Observational Method

Researchers draw conclusions about behaviour through careful and systematic examination in particular settings Recordings may be made using videotapes or behavioural records Participant-Observation: the researcher participates in the activities of the respondents = ex. researcher may spend several days living with people in the nursing home May be used to determine whether an intervention is having its intended effects

Exercise and Meditation

Researchers have begun to use exercise as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of psychological disorders in later adulthood to supplant or replace medications Meditation is another alternative approach that builds on the known association between pain and depressive symptoms in older adults

Logistic Regression

Researchers test the likelihood of an individual receiving a score on a discrete yes-no variable Often used to determine whether non-random sampling has occurred

Buffering Effects of Health Behaviours on Stress on Telomere Shortening

Results: - for every major life event, shorter telomeres - high health behaviours (eat well, exercise) - telomere length stays the same with increases in number of life events - low health behaviours, decrease in telomere length

Buffering Effects of Exercise on Stress on Telomere Shortening

Results: - more stress you feel and don't exercise, increased risk of telomere length - if you exercise, effects of stress is reduced

Physical Changes: Muscles

Sarcopenia: progressive age-related loss of muscle tissue - reduction in the number and size of muscle fibers, especially the fast-twitch fibers involved in speed and strength Muscle strength reaches a peak in the 20s and 30s, remains at a plateau until the 40s to 50s, then declines at a faster rate

Genes

Sections of DNA that contain hereditary information

Balance: Vestibular System

Semicircular canals filled with liquid, liquid moves, hairs get displaced, tell you where you are in space Hairs are connected to nerve cells which go to the brain Researchers have found with age you lose nerve cells

Microgenetic Studies

Shorter time period than normal longitudinal Days, weeks, or months - observe change as it occurs Not really used for aging

Influences on Longevity: Genetics

Siblings, child, and parents of someone who lived a long time had less risk of dying than general population Up to age 60, genetics don't have much of an effect After 60, longer one twin lives, the longer other - strong for MZ twins

Poor Health Habits

Smoking, no exercise, drinking, poor diet Exercise is preventative

Stages of Cancer

Stage 0: no cancer, only abnormal cells with the potential to become cancer - can be treated Stage 1: the cancer is small and only in one area (early-stage cancer) Stage 2 and 3: the cancer is larger and has grown into nearby tissues or lymph nodes Stage 4: the cancer has spread to other parts of your body - advanced or metastatic cancer - most advanced

Psychiatric Stigma

Stereotypical negative attitudes against people who have a mental illness label The stigma can be wore than the symptoms themselves A survey found that 33% would not be interested in being friends with someone with mental health issues - 20% thought it was associated with lower intelligence - 62% would not hire someone - 42% thought seeking help was a sign of weakness

Internal Validity

The ability to infer that the IV causes changes in the DV - covariation between 2 variables (if IV changes, DV changes) - temporal precedence - eliminate plausible alternative explanations Can the difference in the DV be attributed only to the manipulation of the IV? - "good" designs - "isolating" variables

Supercentenarians

The age of 110 and older Numbers might change as the population lives longer

Psychological Appraisals of Stress

Stress is a subjective experience that is dependent on the interaction between the individual and the environment - people respond differently to same stressor Primary Appraisal: is event positive, neutral or negative? - if negative, is it presently harmful, threatening to the future or challenging? - positive/neutral = no stress - negative = stress if it is threatening to future Secondary Appraisal: are coping abilities and resources sufficient to overcome the harm, threat or challenge posed by the event? - self-efficacy (do i have confidence that i can get a different job, ex.) - social support - knowledge, training, experience (will feel more able to deal with stressors) - resources (ex. money often gives you a buffer) - if you have coping abilities and resources you won't feel stress

Stress and Health

Stress plays a role directly influencing our physiology Also indirect role on our health behaviours - tobacco smoking - physical inactivity - unhealthy diet - harmful alcohol use Affects: - raised blood pressure - raised blood sugar - raised and abnormal blood lipids - obesity Which leads to: - cardiovascular disease - cancer - diabetes - chronic respiratory disease

Descriptive Research Designs

Studies in which age alone is the variable of interest Two categories: 1. Longitudinal Designs 2. Cross-Sectional Designs

Psychotherapeutic Medications

Substances that by their chemical nature target the central nervous system In prescribing to older adults, clinicians must take precautions to avoid adverse drug reactions Risk of polypharmacy

Maturation Hypothesis

The "immature" personality types (borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, and antisocial) improve or at least become more treatable in older adults In contrast, the "mature" types (obsessive-compulsive, schizoid, and paranoid) become more symptomatic over time

Life Expectancy

The average number of years of life remaining to the people born within a similar period of time To calculate, statisticians take into account death rates for a particular group within the population, and use these figures to project how long it will take for that entire group to die out completely Once people reach the age of 65, the life expectancy becomes 83.5 years of age

Social Age

The characterization of a person's age based on occupying certain social roles Takes into account the person's family, work, and role within the community Ex. a grandparent would have an older social age than a perent Ex. a retiree would have an older social age than a worker

Clinical Interview

The clinician asks questions of the client to establish insight into the client's psychological processes The clinician can also use the opportunity to interact face-to-face with the client to observe the client's behaviour An unstructured interview can also be beneficial in assessing older adults with cognitive difficulties who find it difficult to concentrate or need help in maintaining their focus To be most useful, should be combined with more structured instruments

Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment

The clinician encourages the client to develop new behaviours and constructive ways of thinking about the self Considerable relevance to work with older depressed patients, particularly for those who have a tendency to focus excessively on age-related changes in physical functioning, memory, and health Social skills can be taught Can be adapted to a variety of settings, including physician's offices and even the telephone Seen as an effective alternative to antianxiety medications in treating anxiety disorders in older adults

Metabolic Syndrome

The cluster of symptoms associated with cardiovascular disease Symptoms: 1. High levels of abdominal obesity 2. Abnormal levels of blood cholesterol (low "good" HDL, high "bad" LDL) 3. Hypertension 4. Insulin Resistance 5. High blood fats 6. High levels of C-reactive proteins in the blood 7. Presence of coronary plaques

Cell Senescence

The essentially irreversible arrest of cell proliferation (i.e., growth or division) - the passage of time can lead to damage and mutations of genes that can lead to cancer, which is uncontrolled cellular growth - the more divisions you have the more likely to have mutations that can lead to cancer - senescence might reduce this risk Senescent cells undergo a series of changes including the excretion of numerous proteins implicated in (normal) aging, leading to: - thickening of artery walls - changes in the skin - arthritic joints - degeneration of intervertebral discs - changes in muscles of the heart (cardiovascular disease) - neurodegeneration (dementias, Alzheimer's) A result of telomere shortening after repeated divisions over time In humans, certain cells produce telomerase, an enzyme (if produced) that can lengthen telomeres, slowing or stopping the cellular aging process - fetal cells, adult germ cells, cancer cells

Reciprocal Nature of Development

The explicit recognition that people both influence and are influenced by the events in their lives Ex. chose this class and school because of prior events in life Choices and behaviours made by each person leave a mark on the environment

Using Age to Define "Adult"

The first three or four years of adulthood represent the period of "emerging adulthood" or the transition prior to assuming the full responsibilities associated with adulthood

Cross-Sectional Designs

The goal is to describe age differences Only applicable to one historical period

Immunosenescence

The gradual deterioration of the immune system brought on by natural age advancement Innate Immunity: attack right away Adaptive Immunity: takes longer, but has a memory - will remember if you've had a flu virus before Both categories decline - B, T cells and natural killer T cells become less effective

Continuity

The idea that as we age we still are the same person - the person inside doesn't see themselves as "frail" as others may see them - you still have the same accomplishments Life Span Perspective

Modernization Hypothesis

The increasing urbanization and industrialization of Western society have led to lower social value for older persons

Physical Changes: Skin

The largest organ in the body is the most vulnerable to a series of age-related changes that become visible as early as the 20s, although rarely noticeable until the mid or late 30s - small wrinkles, slight drooping or loss of resilience, and some changes in colour With increasing age: - becomes more translucent (making it easier to see underlying bones and veins - in hands particularly) - skin discolorations and small outgrowths accumulate so that by the 50s, the skin (particularly the face) shows distinctive marks of the passage of time What you see on the surface is an expression of changes occurring within the skin's three layers: 1. Outermost layer (epidermis) is a thin covering of skin cells that protects the deeper two layers - over time, thy lose their regular patterning, although this change is not visible to the naked eye 2. Middle layer (dermis) changes are more noticeable: - the cells responsible for the skin's flexibility and elasticity decrease their functioning - collagen undergoes cross-links: skin becomes less flexible - elastin: becomes less able to return to its original shape after it is stretched - sebaceous glands (produce oils that lubricate the skin) become less active: skin surface becomes drier and more vulnerable to damage from being rubbed or chafed 3. Subcutaneous fat layer: provides the cushioning, giving the skin its opacity and smoothing the curves of the arms, legs, and face - layer starts to thin in middle adulthood which accentuates the other changes (less support for the layers above it, which exacerbates the wrinkling and sagging caused by changes in the dermis)

Replicative Senescence

The loss of the ability of cells to reproduce

Serious Psychological Distress

The majority of older adults do not experience significant distress Lower rates of anxiety and depression among older adults

Optimal Aging/Successful Aging

The way the aging process is slowed or altered because the individual has engaged in preventative and compensatory strategies to avoid negative changes that would otherwise occur with normal or impaired aging Optimal aging would occur in a person who has minimal wrinkling and discolouration due to having taken precautions to avoid or slow down primary and prevent secondary aging

Social Class and Women's Body Image

The more money people have, the more they spend on anti-aging - matters more to upper class - working class knows they can buy more expensive things, but they'd rather put that money elsewhere Lower income, less importance given to appearance Time Horizons: 1. Working Class: focus on short term investments in appearance 2. Upper Class: focus on long term investments and inner beauty - cosmetic surgery, spa, personal trainer, nutrition - inner beauty: how you carry yourself, talk, walk A means for social distinction: - Lower SES: appearance foes not impact social distinction - Higher SES: concerns with the "Art of Living" (designer clothes), "quality and excellence", "inner beauty"

Why Does Stigma Matter?

The negative effects of stigma can outweigh the negative effects of the mental disorder itself 1. Can lead to decreases in help seeking - stigma is considered to be the foremost barrier to mental health care - stigma of mental illness is the most fundamental reason why older adults choose not to seek mental health services (ageism and mental illness stigma) Already ageist beliefs about the elderly, so you are adding stigma on top of it 2. Can lead to discrimination - property owners are not likely to rent to a person they think has a mental illness or history of mental illness - employers avoid hiring individuals with a history of mental illness - stigma by health care professionals results in poorer treatment and worse treatment outcomes - not every health care professional is trained to deal with mental health - mental health is seen in a different light than physical health - largely due to media representations - leads to fearful and avoidance behaviour in nurses

Social Clock

The normative expectations for the ages at which major life events should occur When a person's life is off-time, the individual may feel a great deal of personal distress and perhaps criticism from others who expect people to follow the normative prescriptions for their age group

Social Risk Factors for Late-Life Depression

The number of stressful life events a person experiences has been associated with depression in late life, as at other ages Common events include: 1. Bereavement (friends and family) - loss of one's spouse spouse (husbands vs. wives) - more bereavement with age, but usually less stressful than in younger years - lasts around 2 months usually - men become more depressed after losing a wife because the women ran the household - and men have smaller social circles 2. New physical illness or disability (self or close other) 3. Loss of Residence 4. Retirement - not predictor of depression 5. Problems with social support are associated with depression, but the causal direction is unclear - being depressed might push people away - poor quality of support - too much support (ex. stroke survivors where people do everything for them, might feel useless) - spousal depression

Structural Stigma

The policies and practices of institutions in positions of power, that systematically restrict the rights and opportunities for people living with mental illnesses Ex. insurance companies, if you want life insurance, more expensive if you have mental health issues Ex. police and health providers see mental health issues differently

Multiple Regression Analysis

The predictor variables are regarded as equivalent to the independent variables, and the variable that is predicted is regarded as equivalent to a dependent variable - still correlational - but the statistics allow investigators to suggest and test inferences about cause-effect relationships

Illness

The presences of a physical or mental disease or impairment

Quasi-experimental design

The process of comparing groups on predetermined characteristics You cannot conclude that the predetermined characteristic caused the variations in the dependent variable, but are able to use the results to describe the differences between groups Studies of aging are by definition quasi-experimental and thus do not allow cause and effect conclusions

Identity Process Theory

The processes of assimilation and accommodation can account for interactions between the individual and experiences through the schema or framework provided by identity We assume that people approach their experiences from the vantage point provided by their personal identities, their ideas or concepts about the self 1. Identity: favorable view of the self 2. "Threshold Experiences": normal changes (Ex. illness) 3. Three possible outcomes: - Identity accommodation (ex. "over the hill" syndrome; compulsive illness behaviour) - Identity Balance (gradual integration, appropriate adaptation) = ideal - Identity Assimilation (unhealthy denial, healthy denial) Identity Assimilation: a tendency to interpret new experiences relevant to a person's self-view as competent, well liked and ethical - preserves a positive view of the self Identity Accommodation: people change their identity to incorporate a view of the self that is not perfect - can be advantageous The natural tendency is to use assimilation when confronted with a new situation, but in order to adapt and be as well adjusted as possible, accommodation is necessary when the situation warrants changes

Psychological Age

The quality of an individual's functioning on psychological measures such as intelligence, memory, and learning ability is measured

Caregiver Burden

The stress that caregivers experience in the daily management of their afflicted relative

Gerontology

The study of the aging process The scientific study of aging from maturity through old age A relatively new, multidisciplinary field of study - has only been around for around 40 years (70s was first masters program) - sociology, biology, psychology - anything that is associated with aging - changed because of the increase in life expectancy

Activity Theory

The view that older adults would rather be involved and not forced out of productive social roles Older adults do not seek disengagement from society but instead prefer to remain active and involved Older adults should be given as many opportunities as possible to be engaged in their work, families, and community

Caloric Restriction Hypothesis

The view that restriction of caloric intake is the key to prolonging life It reduces the formation of free radicals

Neuronal Fallout Model

There is a progressive loss of brain tissue across the adult years that is noticeable by the age of 30 because neurons do not have the ability to replace themselves when they die

Embodiment

There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies Your size, your body is you

Centenarians

Those over the age of 100 Becoming more and more common in the population

Chronic Stressors

Threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent end point Ex. abusive relationship, financial issues, homelessness, caregiving for someone with a lot of disabilities

Acute Stressors

Threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear end point Ex. midterms, flat tire, first date

Sleep Changes

Up to half of all older adults have difficulty sleeping Older adults spend more time in bed relative to time spent asleep - take longer to fall asleep, awaken more often during the night, lie in bed longer before rising, and have sleep that is shallower, more fragmented, and less efficient Rise in stage 1 sleep and a large decrease in both stage 4 and REM sleep People shift from a preference to working in the later hours of the day and night to a preference for the morning at some point during middle to late adulthood - adults over 65 are "morning people" Sleep Apnea - experience a particular form of snoring in which a partial obstruction in the back of the throat restricts airflow during inhalation - a loud snore is followed by a choking silence when breathing stops Exercise is helpful in reducing disturbed circadian rhythms

Surveys

Used to gain information about a sample that can then be generalized to a larger population Typically short and easily administered with simple rating scales for answers Advantage: = provides data that allows the researcher to gain insight into the behaviour of more people than it would be possible to study in the lab = they can be administered easily Disadvantage: = the quality of the data itself may be limited

The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule

Useful in assessing older adults as it has been found to provide ratings in agreement with clinical diagnoses of social phobia, general anxiety disorder, simple phobia, and panic disorder

The Life Span Perspective

Views development as continuous from childhood through old age Includes a focus on the social or contextual influences on development

Case Reports

When researchers want to provide an in-depth analysis of particular individuals Data may be integrated from interviews, psychological tests, observations, archival records, or even journal and diary entries Focus is on the characteristics of the individual and what has influenced his or her development and life experiences Advantages: = provides insight into the lives of individuals as they change over time Disadvantage: = relies heavily on clinical judgements by the researcher

Plasticity Model

While neurons die, the remaining ones continue to develop, allowing older adults to compensate for neuronal losses Ex. areas of the brain involved in complex language and word processing skills continue to develop and reach maturity in middle age

Immune System Changes

Widespread age-related declines = immune senescence - T and B cells fail to develop properly and lose their ability to perform effectively, causing older adults to be less resistant to infections

Mobility Challenges: Gait

With age, shorter slower steps Weakening of calf muscles and less flexibility in ankle muscles

Perceptions of the Self/Ideal

Women want to be skinnier and think men want them skinnier Men's ideal figure is more muscular - women like men skinnier than what they think