PSYC 372 Luchetti Exam #3

empathy

- "elaine" - fellow participant receiving shocks - empathic concern condition -- participants told that they were very similar to Elaine in values and interests - elaine reacts poorly to initial shocks so participants were asked to volunteer to take the remaining 8 shocks - escape condition -- difficult escape - if they didn't help, they would still have to watch Elaine take the remaining shocks -- easy escape - if they didn't help, they could leave immediately - results -- people motivated by unpleasant arousal helped less in the easy escape condition -- people motivated by empathic concern stayed and helped regardless of escape condition - egoistic motives, such as the desire to reduce unpleasant arousal, may often determine whether an individual helps but these reasons may no longer play a decisive role once an individual feels empathic concern

labeling in managing self-image

- "looking glass self" - influence of positive social labels -- i.e children told they were kind and helpful, were more likely to anonymously donate prize money -- i.e adults told they were generous and charitable, were more likely to donate to the MS society

W. D. Hamilton

- 1964 - recognized that, from an evolutionary standpoint, the actions of an individual are designed not so much to ensure that the individual will survive as to ensure that the genes making up that individual will do so

Latane & Darley bystanders as information

- 1968 - participants filling out a questionnaire either alone of with others - smoke was pumped into the room for up to six minutes -- alone: 75% reported -- groups of three: 38% reported -- groups of three (confederates acting unalarmed): 10% helped

Darley & Latane - bystanders as help

- 1968 - students told they were having a discussion with another student about college life - discussion would be held over intercom to avoid embarrassment face-to-face - students heard other student having a seizure over an intercom -- alone: 85% helped -- on other person heard: 62% helped -- four others heard: 31% helped

Shotland and Straw

- 1976 - Study 1 -- participants come to a study on attitudes for an interview and to fill out survey -- while filling out survey they're exposed to a staged fight between a man and a woman --- no marriage cues: 65% intervened --- married: 19% intervened - Studies 2 and 3 -- participants saw video recorded fights and filled out questionnaire about the fight --- no marriage cues vs. married condition: more perceived injury to the victim, victim perceived as wanting more help ---- results were the same when all participants saw identical videos and simply told whether the couple was married or were strangers

James Weyant

- 1978 - Florida State University - procedure: -- put students into a happy, neutral, or sad mood -- then gave them a chance to volunteer for a nonprofit organization - either an organization that would generate a relatively large personal benefit by allowing them to feel they had supported an important cause ( the American Cancer Society) or one that would produce a relatively small such benefit (Little League Baseball) -- finally, half of the students were told that if they decided to help they would have to collect donations in a personally costly fashion - by going door to door. -- the other half were told that they could collect donations in a way that didn't involve much personal cost - by sitting at a donations desk - findings: -- although students in a happy mood volunteered more than those in a neutral mood, these two kinds of participants weren't much affected by the costs and benefits of the helping opportunity -- those in a sad mood were dramatically affected, helping most when the benefits outweighed the costs and helping least when the costs outweighed the benefits -- the saddened individuals are particularly choosy about the prosocial activities they select, volunteering for those likely to dispel their negative mood and avoiding those likely to deepen it

Abraham Tesser and Jonathan Smith

- 1980 - arranged for participants to somewhat poor on a verbal skills task -- described as either a good indicator of "how well people can do in school" or as just a game " that doesn't tell us anything about the person." - next these participants got the chance to give clues to help a friend and a stranger perform the verbal skills task - as predicted, when the task was described as just a game - hence mostly irrelevant to participants' self-concepts - friends were given better clues than were strangers -- just the reverse occurred, however, when they thought the task measured intellectual ability and was relevant to self-esteem; in that case, friends got poorer choices - thus we don't always try to support a positive self-image by helping more. -- depending on who the recipient is and on how we wish to view ourselves, we may actually try to maintain self-esteem by helping less

Frederick Gibbons and Robert Wicklund

- 1982 - University of Texas - the presence of a mirror decreased the helpfulness of those who thought they had scored poorly on a test, but it increased the helpfulness of those who thought they had done fine and who, consequently, had no absorbing self-concern to distract them from helping issues

hodgkinson and weitzman

- 1990 - gave charitable individuals a list of personal backgrounds reasons for help and asked them to indicate all that applied to them

Hebl et al.

- 2002 - student researchers went to a local shopping mall in Texas - following a learned script, they were looking for a job - all students were wearing a hat. They didn't know which hat -- Texan & Proud -- Gay & Proud - when interacting with the "Gay & Proud" job seekers... -- employers spoke less -- came across less helpful -- came across less interested

costs of PSD - hate crimes

- 7,314 hate crimes (8,559 victims) motivated by: -- 55.8% race/ethnicity/ancestry-- 21.4% religion -- 16.8% sexual orientation -- 2.8% gender identity -- 2.2% disability -- 1% gender -Race/ethnicity/ancestry motivated: -- 48.4 percent were motivated by anti-Black or African American bias. -- 15.8 percent stemmed from anti-White bias. -- 14.1 percent were classified as anti-Hispanic or Latino bias. -- 4.3 percent resulted from anti-Asian bias. - Religion motivated: -- 60.3 percent were anti-Jewish. -- 13.3 percent were anti-Islamic (Muslim). -- 4.0 percent were anti-Catholic. -- 3.6 percent were anti-Other Christian. -- 3.0 percent were anti-Sikh. -- 2.8 percent were anti-Eastern Orthodox (Russian, Greek, Other). - Sexual orientation bias motivated: -- 62.2 percent were classified as anti-gay (male) bias. -- 24.5 percent were prompted by anti-lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (mixed group) bias. -- 10.2 percent were classified as anti-lesbian bias. -- 1.9 percent were classified as anti-bisexual bias. -- 1.2 percent were the result of anti-heterosexual bias.

intergroup contact theory

- Allport (1954) - more exposure to different others increases positive feelings towards different others -- positive effects of intergroup contact under four conditions -- 1) equal status -- 2) common goals -- 3) cooperation -- 4) institutional/authority support -- consistently shown to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup interactions (Pettigrew, 1998)

distinguishing PSD - discrimination

- BEHAVIORS directed toward people on the basis of their group membership -- AKA differential treatment --- racial discrimination in housing (Carpusor & Loges, 2006) --- sexual orientation discrimination in job seeking (Hebl et al. 2002) --- disability discrimination in the workplace (Ren, Paetzold & Colella, 2008)

prosocial acts motivated by internal rewards

- Bar-Tal & Raviv, 1982 - Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998 - believe that internally motivated helping is altruistic

traditional weapons effect

- Berkowitz & Lepage, 1967 - tendency for weapons (e.g. guns, knives) to enhance aggressive thoughts and feelings -- students listed ideas to improve a celebrity's public image -- received feedback from another student --- 1 shock - good feedback (rewarding) --- 7 shocks - bad feedback (annoying) -- chance to return shocks --- items in the room for "another experiment" ---- no weapon - 2 badminton racquets ---- weapon - 12-gauge shotgun and .38 caliber revolver ---- aggression increased when participants were annoyed by the shocks and in the presence of weapons

the reformulated frustration-aggression hypothesis

- Berkowitz (1989) - any unpleasant experiences can lead to aggression -- as long as it results in negative feelings -- frustration is only linked to emotional aggression - implications: -- could depend on internal (individual) or external (situational) factors

cost of PSD - employment gaps

- Bloomberg; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018) - gender: 88.5% men; 75.3% women ( ages 25-54 in US) -- globally: 72% men; 47% women (international Labour Organization, 2022) - race: 80% white; 76% black (ages 25-54) - disability: 64% PWoD; 19% PWD

costs of PSD - wage gaps

- Bureau of Labor Statistics; Pew, 2020 - women: .84 of $1 earned by men -- ages 25-34: .93 of $1 earned by men - race/ethnicity (compared to white men): -- black men: .87; black women .63 -- hispanic men: .91; hispanic women: .58 -- asian men: 1.15; asian women: .87

catharsis-aggression theory

- Catharsis- discharge of aggressive impulses -- direct or indirect (displacement) release provides physiological reflief -- displacement - indirect expression of an aggressive impulse away from the person or animal that elicited it

the ashole study

- Cohen, Bowdle, Schwarz & Nisbett, 1996 - participants filled out a demographic survey - told to take it to a table down a long narrow hall - confederate walks out of a door in hall and opens a file cabinet drawer - participant walks to table and confederate has to push in drawer - upon returning confederate has to push drawer in again - this time slams is shut, bumps into participant and calls them an "a$$hole" - observers (also confederates) rated participant behaviors following incident

the frustration-aggression hypothesis

- Dollard et al. (1939) - aggression is an automatic response to frustration (i.e. blocking of goal-directed behavior) -- two tenets of this theory -- 1) aggression always stems from some frustrating experience -- 2) frustration will always lead to some aggressive behavior - Limitations: -- not all aggressive acts follow from frustration --- e.g. instrumental aggression -- frustration doesn't always lead to aggression --- self-control, justified behavior

person factors of aggression - general arousal

- Excitation-transfer theory (Zillman, 1983) -- physiological responses associated with an emotional event can transfer from one emotional state to another -- the emotional reaction of anger produces the same symptoms that one feels during any arousing emotional state (e.g. increased heart rate, sweaty palms, increased blood pressure, etc.) --- watch an erotic film --- increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, sweating --- step on a lego --- more likely to yell at little Billy - Cantor, Zillman & Einseidel, 1978 -- women were first annoyed by a confederate -- either watched a nonviolent control film or nonviolent erotica -- when given the chance to retaliate against the confederate, the erotica watchers did so more --- transfer of arousal

charles manson and family

- Patricia Krenwinkel -- normal child, in church choir, Catholic college in AL - Charles Watson -- A-student, athletic star - Susan Atkins and Linda Kasabian (refused to participate but drove the car) -- trouble children - Joined a commune led by Manson -- drugs, free love, scorned conventional society - August 1969 -- brutal, ritualistic murders of 5 people in a wealthy LA home -- next day, joined by their cult leader Charles Manson, 2 strangers were murdered in their home -- cult members recalled laughing as they watched the subsequent news reports

reciprocal aid

- Robert Trivers 1971 - helping that occurs in return for prior help

costs of PSD - stereotype threat

- Steele & Aronson, 1995 - fear of confirming negative stereotypes - subsequent arousal, performance anxiety, mental interference, negative thoughts -> poor performance - especially when group status or stereotype made salient - students answered tough questions taken from the verbal section of the GRE. Black students performed below their abilities but only when race was made salient, and they believed that a poor performance would confirm the cultural stereotype about intelligence

Sempro Sugihara

- a Japanese diplomat from a samurai family - worked at the Japanese consulate in Lithuania - helped Polish Jews obtain visas in order to flee the country to escape the incoming Nazi soldiers -- knew he would lose his position but did this anyways

increase social status and approval - gender and help

- accross cultures, women tend to be rated as more helping than men - however, men appear to help more in some cases - men and women help in different ways - biological differences and socialized gender roles -- men are rewarded for --- brave and strong - heroic helping -- women are rewarded for --- tender and caring - nurturing helping -- masculine traits and behaviors --- daring, forceful for anyone deserving -- feminine traits and behaviors --- nurturing, supportive for family, friends - when asked for help at a laundromat... -- men are more likely to help carry the laundry -- women are more likely to help fold the laundry - friends vs. strangers -- men are more likely to help strangers -- women are more likely to help friends - emergency assistance -- men are more likely to provide direct help -- women are more likely to provide summoning help

prosocial behavior

- action intended to benefit another -- regardless of motive --- internal rewards - altruism ---- i.e donating to a charity to feel good --- external rewards - self-interest ---- i.e donating to a charity to impress your friend

pure altruism

- action intended to benefit another solely for the other's benefit -- zero regard for internal or external rewards -- completely about the other person

the abcs of bias

- affective = prejudice - cognitive = stereotypes - behavioral = discrimination

what is the purpose of aggression

- aggression and adaptive goals - evolutionary perspective -- humans are not "programmed" to be blindly aggressive -- aggression useful in dire survival situations --- e.g. defending self/territory/resources, protecting young -- blind aggression is maladaptive --- aggressive always involves risk (e.g. retaliation) --- likely not a goal in itself ---- rather: servers other goals

early purpose of aggression

- aggression as a goal in itself - Sigmund Freud's "death instinct" -- an innate drive to end one's life --- conflicts with "life instincts" ---- e.g. reproduction, survival --- redirected toward others --- Problem ---- "death instinct" - likely not adaptive (contradicts what is known about Darwin's theory of Natural Selection) - Konrad Lorenz's aggressive urges -- humans have an innate urge to attack --- builds up over time like others drives ---- e.g hunger, sex --- needs to be released ---- Catharsis-Aggression Theory - Alfred Hitchcock, "One of the television's greatest contributions is that is brought murder back into the home where it belongs. Seeing a murder on television can be good therapy. it can help work off one's antagonism." - Problem: -- research suggests that catharsis increases aggression -- acting aggressively increases the likelihood of aggressive behaviors later

goals of aggression - coping with frustration/negative feelings

- aggression resulting from unpleasant experiences or personal tendencies -- annoyances (e..g heat, pain) -- frustration (e.g. economic hardships, unfavorable circumstances) -- personality (e..g chronic irritability, Type A personality)

heat as an unpleasant situation

- aggressive/violent behavior more likely during hot weather -- assaults, domestic violence, rapes, murders, riots -- even aggressive pitching -- Manson family murders were committed during a heat wave - alternate explanations: -- more people are out during pleasant weather --- Ok, decreases at extreme temps --- within-city increases in aggressive crimes (vs. non-aggressive) --- crime doesn't increase at more pleasant temps -- hot weather decreases accuracy --- effect stands when controlling for inaccuracy --- mis-targeting would be random --- heat -> increased retaliatory pitches

aggression

- any behavior intended to harm another -- three criteria for defining

effect/danger ratio

- assessment of cost/benefit ratio of aggression -- does the benefit of self-defensive violence outweigh the costs of retaliation? -- helps explain differences in domestic aggression -- abusive men: --- generally bigger, stronger than female partners --- motivated by control --- relatively little risk from retaliation -- female victims of abuse: --- motivated by stopping the abuser --- cost of retaliation large compared to benefit of violence --- less risk associated with eliminating the perpetrator all together

direct aggression

- behavior intended to hurt someone via face-to-face confrontation -- physically attacking someone --- I.E hitting, kicking, shoving, etc. -- direct verbal insults --- I.E. insulting, threatening, etc.

indirect aggression

- behavior intended to hurt someone without face-to-face confrontation -- I.E malicious gossip

costs of PSD - psychological costs

- consequences of discrimination (Schmitt et al., 2014) -- psychological well-being (e.g. depression, anxiety): r= .23 -- self-esteem: r= .16 - fear of stigma (i.e. prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination) -- concealing/passing as "normal" --- increased psychological distress (Quinn & Chaudoir, 2009) --- increased physical illness (Quinn & Chaudoir, 2009) --- disidentification from domain/social environment (Dejordy, 2008) --- cognitive interference (Smart & Wegner, 2000) --- reduced self-esteem (Frable, Platt & Huey, 1998) --- increased guilt and shame (Barreto & Ellemers, 2006) --- reduced social support (Chaudoir & Quinn, 2010)

sex and testosterone

- correlational research suggest a link between testosterone and aggression -- in boys aged 9 to 11, higher testosterone levels were associated with more aggressive behaviors (Chance et al. 2000) -- prison inmates with high testosterone levels have more confrontations with prison authorities. Additionally, the crimes committed by these high-testosterone prisoners were, on average, more violent (Dabbs et al. 1987, 1991, 1995) -- among 4,462 military veterans, those with high testosterone levels were more likely to have had trouble with the law, to have been violent, and to have an unusually large number of sexual partners (Dabbs & Morris 1990)

expanded sense of "we" - gaining genetic and material benefits

- develops in the home -- people in contact early in life - cues relatedness -- exposure to more types of people early in life leads to more helping later -- cultural differences in helping: --- asian more private - more willing to help within group - american more open - more willing to help people outside the group

bystanders as a source of help

- diffusion of responsibility - Darley & Latane (1968)

institutionalized discrimination

- discrimination built into broader social-political structures of a culture - not performed by individual people, but instead institutions in society - built into legal, political economic, and social institutions - direct - blatant and hostile -- laws prohibiting gay marriage, female vote: Jim Crow laws; redlined districts -- much (but not all) direct institutionalized discrimination is illegal - indirect - subtle and sometimes accidental -- education gaps, employment gaps, wage gaps

person-situation interaction - weapons effect

- does a weapon (specifically a gun) activate aggression for everyone? -- research suggests no - previous experience with guns moderates the weapons priming effect -- participants who either had experience in sport shooting (i.e. hunting, target shooting) or not -- exposed to hunting guns (i.e. guns intended for sport) and assault guns (i.e. guns intended for human violence --- hunters showed less activation of aggressive thoughts and were less aggressive behaviorally when primed with images of hunting guns compared with assault guns; nonhunters largely did not differentiate between hunting and assault guns

poverty as an unpleasant situation

- downturns in economy/personal finances associated with more aggressive behaviors -- unemployment -> relationship strain (fighting, insulting one another) -- odds of using violence 6x higher among people who recently lost their job -- income inequality associated with increased homicide rates - very difficult to study aggression -- small baseline population -- people don't want to admit to using aggression -- --- social desirability

instilled beliefs

- from learning process -- e.g. economics students less likely to help/donate than psychology students -- e.g. poorer people more likely to develop egalitarian values

distinguishing PSD - prejudice

- generalized ATTITUDE toward members of a social group -- what an attitude? --- an evaluation/judgement of something (i.e, person, group, object, event etc.) on dimension of favorability or unfavorability ---- e.g. "I don't like fans of"

distinguishing PSD - stereotype

- generalized belief about members of a social group -- what we think members of a particular group are like --- can be positive or negative ---- people can hold positive stereotypes for groups they are negatively prejudiced (Maddux et. al 2008) --- can be explicit or implicit ---- examples - high school stereotypes ---- football player ---- music department ---- chess team

effects of violent media

- glamorized violence in the media -- ultra-violent acts are often rewarded with sex, money, status, vengeance, etc. - but does watching violent media lead to violent behavior? -- correlational studies suggest a relationship --- but causality can't be interpreted --- alternative explanation: More aggressive people consume more violent media -- experimental studies offer a causal explanation --- but findings are mixed - meta-analysis paints a clearer picture -- meta-analysis is a statistical technique for combining data across multiple studies --- single study can be unreliable --- random error cancels out across multiple studies -- average correlation between watching violent TV and aggression: r=.30 --- same as r between smoking and cancer --- not everyone who watches violent media will become aggressive - violent pornography -- does viewing pornography increase men's aggression toward women? --- might depend on the type of pornography ---- violent pornography -> more hostility towards women ---- non-violent pornography -> less hostility towards women ---- some studies suggest that violent pornography may lead to less sympathy for a rape victim (Mulin & Linz, 1995) and deliver more electric shocks to a woman (Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981) --- also depends on the person ---- those who view high volumes of violent pornography ---- those who exhibit risk factors of violence towards women -- combination of correlation and experimental data suggest a relationship between viewing violent pornography and later aggression towards women

bystanders as a source of approval or disapproval

- helping behavior is generally approved - people, therefore, are looked upon favorably for helping - consequently, people prefer others to know they helped - this implies that people are more likely to help when others are watching -- or not help if that is the approved behavior - identifiably leads to more helping when helping is approves -- leads to less helping when helping is disapproved - Shotland and Straw (1976)

prosocial behavior - increase social status and approval

- helping can be a way to project status/power -- ability to help on large scale signals abundance of resources --- e.g. thinking about status associated with more prosocial behavior (e.g. buying hybrid car) ---- especially likely when others will know about it - helping generally perceived as honorable behavior -- social responsibility norm - individual difference in desire for approval -- people high in desire for approval are more likely to help --- but, only when they believe others know they helped --- effect disappears when giving in private - effects of those around us -- helping models- helping is contagious --- children learn appropriate conduct ---- when helping is modeled by others --- witnessing helping behavior serves as reminder ---- makes prosocial behavior salient -- population density --- more density ==> less assistance --- stimulus overload and stress - tendency to close self off in urban environments

intrumental aggression

- hurtful behavior in order to accomplish some other goal -- nature of goal not aggressive -- involves planning

emotional aggression

- hurtful behavior that stems from angry feelings -- little to no planning -- impulsive/"blind rage"

implicit vs. explicit bias

- implicit bias -- bias that individuals are not consciously aware they hold -- largely automatic -- implications --- if directly asked about the bias, people won't be able to report it --- related to more subtle behaviors. those that individuals aren't aware of - explicit bias -- bias individuals are consciously aware they hold -- controlled -- implications --- researchers can use straightforward questions to measure this --- related to blatant discrimination behaviors - research suggests the two are not related. could be due to issues with measurement and social desirability - different interventions function differently to change these two biases - implicit bias is largely impacted by things outside of our control (the environment)

types of aggression

- indirect vs. direct - emotional vs. instrumental -- this distinction is not always clear -- some aggressive acts can be both emotional and instrumental

protecting oneself or others

- individual differences in self-defensive aggression -- defensive attributional style -- effect/danger ratio

self-focus on managing self-image

- looking in the mirror - focus on personal values -- i.e looking a picture: increases first-person pronouns - increased helping - increase helping efforts - can also decrease assistance if helping values aren't salient -- i.e when distracted by other problems - likely to lead to grater assistance primarily when that focus is directed to one's internal value for helping - deciding not to help friends or to seek their help -- helping may threatens self-esteem --- is this just a game or a game about intelligence? --- more likely to help a friend when it's just a game compared to a stranger -- gender and age dependent --- male gender role: independence, self-sufficiency ---- more threatened by gestures of help from others ---- perceive not needing help as much --- critical age points ---- age 7-8: connection made b/n helping and self-worth ---- after age 60L self-sufficiency threatened -> desire to maintain control

situation factors influence on harassment behaviors

- male students exposed to either -- sex stereotypical images taken from violent video games -- non-stereotypical images of professional men and women - those exposed to the stereotypical images were less likely to interpret an ambiguous encounter (between a professor and grad student) as harassing

prosocial behavior - manage moods and emotions

- managing emotional arousal in emergencies: - the arousal/cost- reward model -- desire to reduce one's own distress => increased chance of helping others -- watching another person's suffering activates similar brain activity to experiencing suffering --- strong arousal ---- more arousal => more helping --- small costs and large rewards ---- net positive benefit => more helping - managing moods in non-emergencies: -- the negative state relief model

culture of honor

- many aggressive acts stem from insults and other petty issues (e.g bumping into someone) -- Manson murders were retaliatory (given the house they picked) but also furthured by the rude interaction he had with the new inhabitant -- damaged status - most common motive for murder -- status invoked homicides depend heavily on broader culture --- southern states and western states in U.S --- culture of honor - appropriate to use violence to defend honor ---- old south- being insulted was justifiable defense for murder ---- southern states have higher argument-related homicide rates - the "a$$hole" study -- Cohen, Bowdle, Schwarz, & Nisbett, 1996

person factors influences harassment behaviors

- men who view themselves as hypermasculine and who think that power and sex are closely connected have a greater inclination to sexually harass - whether they actually harass depends on the situation - are harassing opportunities available and do the norms seem to suggest it's ok?

helping among twins - gaining genetic and material benefits

- monozygotic: identical twins -- developed from same egg (zygote) --- 100% genetic match - dizygotic: non-identical twins -- developed from separate eggs --- 50% genetic match - identical more alike in helping behavior than non-identical - identical help each other more than non-identical help each other -- 94% vs. 46% on a puzzle-solving task (Segal. 2000)

negative state relief model

- mood management hypothesis: people use helping tactically to manage their moods -- often helps relieve sadness -- positive reinforcement - associated with past rewards - presence of sadness -- particularly helpful in fund raising (PBS; sad dog commercial) - costs/benefits -- most painless route - ability of helping act to influence mood -- deeply depressed individuals - gourmets and gourmands -- sad people - selective in choice of opportunity -- happy people - eager to help no matter the reward

bystanders as a source of information

- not always clear that an emergency is occurring - other people are sources of information about what is happening - people look around subtly to appear unalarmed - but what happens if everyone is going that -- everyone will conclude that nothing is wrong ! --- pluralistic ignorance ---- in terms of bystander effect: people believe there is no emergency because no one is acting concerned - a shared illusion that nothing is wrong - Latane & Darley (1968)

tokenism

- originated by Kanter (1977) - occurs when the majority of a group is composed of similar people, and those with a stigmatized identity represent a clear minority -- research has demonstrated these effects for gender and racial/ethnic minorities (minority is determined by the situation) - characterized by increased visibility due to standing out amongst the group, avoidance and isolation from majority members, and pigeonholing into stereotypically congruent roles (Aldossari et al., 2023) -- inability to concentrate and lowered work performance (Lord & Saenz, 1985; Saenz, 1994) -- lowered job satisfaction -- lowered self-esteem -- heightened job-related depression (Krimmel & Gormley, 2003)

mood cost and benefit condition study

- participants assigned to mood condition, cost condition and benefit condition - low cost: sitting at a donations desk - high cost: going door-to-door - low benefit: little league baseball - high benefit: american cancer society - happy mood volunteered more compared to neutral and were less impacted by the cost/benefit - sad individuals were very much influence by the cost/benefits - suggests that sad individuals are choosy- volunteering for experiences likely to relieve negative mood and avoiding experiences that would worsen it

situational influences on aggression

- perceived threats -- provocation from another person -- hostile environments - reduced identifiability -- gender difference in aggression disappears when retaliator is anonymous

sexual harassment & gender discrimination

- person and situation effects impact what is perceived as sexual harassment -- who is doing the behavior? -- who is targeted by the behavior? -- who is doing the labelling? - perceived as more damaging when engaged in by a person of power (e.g. boss) - perceived as less damaging when engaged in by an attractive single person - flirting and staring are seen as more harassing when directed at women than at men

personal norms and religious codes in managing self-image

- personal norms: internalized beliefs and values -- inner beliefs of appropriateness of particular conduct -- approval/disapproval of self-administered -- religious codes of conduct --- encourage prosocial behaviors --- religious service attendance associated with increase charitable giving

empathy-altruism sequence

- perspective taking: ability to put oneself in another's position -- strong connection -- empathy and prosocial action -- true even for those who help for a living - empathic concern: compassionate feelings resulting from taking another's perspective -- shift from selfish to selfless -- feelings of tenderness and compassion -- orients focus on other's welfare

person factors that may impact aggression

- psychopathology -- characterized by a lack of empathy, grandiose self-worth, and insensitivity to punishment - empathy - intoxication -- alcohol can remove behavior restraints

person-situation interaction

- self-defensive aggression can perpetuate violence- self-fulfilling prophecy -- 1/10 inner-city students reported carrying a gun to school within the last 30 days --- increases the chance a gun will be used -- home gun-ownership for protection --- gun more likely to be used against friend or family member --- increased likelihood of suicide

prosocial behavior - managing self-image

- self-enhancement: enhance self-image (ego boost) -- I'm a good person because i donated -- self-verification: confirmation of self-concept -- I'm a giver (I'm altruistic) so I donated - personal norms and religious codes - labeling - self-focus

short-term strategies for coping with stereotype threat

- self-handicap - disidentify

self-handicap for coping with stereotype threat

- short-term strategy - make excuses/create obstacles (think back to chapter 4 - discounting and augmenting principles0 -- short-term benefit - boost self0esteem, avoid negative self-presentation by using excuses to buffer poor performance --- others less likely to attribute performance to individual's ability when other excuses are present -- long-term costs - doesn't help the individual overcome negative stereotypes --- potential to perpetuate stereotype - increased chances of doing poorly

stanford prison study takeaways

- similar to Milgram obedience studies -- powerful situations can take normal everyday people and lead them to engage in extreme, inhumane acts - but contrary to Milgram, this was not about obedience to authority, rather about what happens when given authority/status/power -- study was supposed to go for 1-2 weeks but ended on the 6th day -- no guard ever came late for his shift, called in sick, left early, or demanded extra pay for overtime work -- people engage in acts to maintain status -- people conform to the roles they've been assigned -- situations and roles have power

situations influence on helping behaviors - gaining genetic and material benefits

- similarity -- cues genetic relatedness - shortcut to decide who to prioritize for helping --- physical characteristics --- personality traits - familiarity -- associated with shared genes -- family members -> more contact -- more contact -> cues familial tendencies

rewarding violence - goas of aggression

- social learning perspective -- aggression can be learned vi --- direct rewards for violent/aggressiveness behavior --- observing others being rewarded for violent/aggressive behavior --- E.G, In Bandura's Bo Bo Doll study: children were more likely to mimic the aggressive behavior when the model was rewarded and less likely when the model was punished

social responsibility norm

- societal rule that people should help those in need -- leads to helping to gain social approval --- e.g. students less likely to help when they were told that altruists were not admired at their school (Reykowski, 1980) --- based on our norms --- more likely to help when others help (descriptive norm) and others approve of helping (injunctive norm) - while looking to others can increase helping, in certain circumstances it can decrease helping -- bystander effect - bystanders affect individual's helping devisions in three ways: -- bystanders as sources of help -- bystanders as sources of information about helping -- bystanders as sources of approval or disapproval

diffusion of responsiblity

- spreading responsibility for helping among all the group members -- norm of social responsibility demands that we aid those in need of help -- presence of others reduces victims' dependence on any individual person -- individual feels less obligated to help, assumes someone else will help

reducing violence

- strategies for reducing aggression: -- remove rewards for aggression/reward alternatives --- point system for children ---- child receives points for appropriate behavior/lost points for inappropriate behavior ---- rewarded for earning specified amount of points in a given day -- using cognitions to manage anger --- four stages of provocation --- 1) prepare for provocation --- 2) confront the provocation --- 3) cope with arousal and agitation --- 4) reflect on the provocation -- remove threats --- identify potential threats (i.e situations, persons with high likelihood of behaving aggressively) ---- curfews for adolescents (teenagers 2.5x"s more likely to be victims of violent crime than adults over 20) ---- identify at-risk children (early-age symptoms - find productive outlets and prosocial friends) ---- gun control (64% of murders done with a gun) ----- owning a gun increases risk of being killed substantially

pain as an unpleasant situation

- strong negative emotion - impulsive reaction - to avoid.eliminate source - Berkowitz and colleagues - main findings -- reluctance to harm weakens when people experience pain --- cold-pressor paradigm - hand immersed in ice-cold water --- work-solution evaluation study ---- participants who were "supervisors" and had their hand in cold water gave more shocks and fewer rewards to the student -- stimuli associated with pain can elicit aggression (classical conditioning)

defensive attributional style

- tendency to notice threats and interpret others' behaviors as threatening - characterized by two features - 1) a tendency to be overly emotional - 2) a tendency to believe that others are threatening --- based on Dodge and colleagues (1990) social-information processing model of aggressive behavior in children --- goal of aggressive children is to strike first ---- aggressive children fear being hurt -> aggression against perceived threat

prosocial behavior - gaining genetic and material benefits

- the evolution of help -- two main perspectives: 1) protect kin: inclusive fitness -- inclusive fitness: --- helping associated with relatedness --- accept risks and losses if it increases inclusive fitness --- seen in humans, animals, and across cultures 2) reciprocal aid: helping in return for prior help -- material advantages of cooperation -- explains why people often help non-relatives - helping among twins - people learn to help -- instilled beliefs -- expanded sense of "we" -- aligns with intergroup contact theory - situations can also influence helping behavior

inclusive fitness

- the odds that one's genes will survive -- Gene survival of own offspring but also the offspring of relatives

bystander effect

- the tendency of individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency if there are other onlookers present -- inspired by the murder of Kitty Genovese

person factors of aggression - personality

- type B behavior pattern - laid back - type A behavior pattern - pattern of behavior associated with higher risk of coronary disease -- characterized by.... --- competitive/self-critical --- time urgency --- anger/hostility - strongest link with heart disease ---- more conflicts with coworkers ---- more likely to drive aggressively/carelessly

cognitive-neoassociation theory

- unpleasant situation triggers internal events - 1) unpleasant experience creates negative feelings - 2) activates other negative experiences --- assumes that negative memories are stored in an interconnected web of ideas, images, and feelings and that when one is activated so are others --- activation of angry or fearful associations depends on person-situation interaction ---- same situation but different person can lead to different activations ---- different situations but same person can lead to different acitvations ---- interaction matters --- situation: presence of aggression-flavored objects enhances hostility

aggression and sexual selection

- why would men behave aggressively even if they know they'll be punished? -- because they think it will increase their chances of mating --- sexual selection - characteristics that improve chances of reproduction are more likely to be passed on --- women are highly selective about their sexual partners ---- they have more to lose (ie. becoming pregnant and raising a child) - differential parental investment --- if they're more choosy, men have more competition ---- aggression is a way to beat out competition (demonstrate dominance/strength to females) ----- less likely that this manifests in actual violence (aggression dominance/strength to females) ----- more likely to manifest in competitive behavior and shows of dominance

who's more aggressive

- women or men - well, if we look at homicide stats... -- men in the United Stats, as in all societies, commit most of the homicides - maybe these differences are due to sex-role stereotypes - if so, since the Manson murders, we should see more women committing homicides -- changes in sex role norms since the 1960s have not been followed by a tendency for American women to commit a greater proportion of homicides - in everyday life, there is a shared assumption that women are less aggressive - early research supported this idea, however... - depends how aggression is defined and measured -- men use more physical aggression --- fighting homicide -- women use more indirect aggression --- gossip, social rejection, spreading rumors - however, women equally likely as men to use physical aggression on romantic partners -- but why are abuse shelters disproportionately filled with women? -- biological differences tend to result in different levels of physical damage -- a woman physically at

examples of stereotype threat

- women performed worse on math tests when gender was made salient - latinos performed more poorly on an intelligence test when they believed the test was diagnostic about intellectual ability - white men performed relatively poorly on an athletic task when they thought it was related to "natural ability" whereas black men performed relatively poorly on the task when they thought it was related to "athletic intelligence" - asain american women performed worse on a math test after their gender was made salient, but better on the same test after their asian identity has been made salient - white men performed worse on a math test when they thought they were being compared to asian men

goals of aggression

1) coping with frustration and negative feelings (annoyance) 2) gaining material and social rewards 3) gaining and maintaining status 4) protecting oneself or others

aggression inducing experiences

1) general arousal -- person factors including chronic irritability and the type A personality 2) Unpleasant situations/experiences -- pain -- heat -- poverty

goals of prosocial behavior

1) improve basic welfare/genetic and material benefit 2) increase social status and approval 3) manage self-image 4) manage moods and emotions

quid pro quo harrassment

attempts by the perpetrator to exchange something of value for sexual favors

hostile environment harassment

creating a professional setting that is sexually offensive, intimidating, or hostile

pluralistic ignorance

people in a group misperceive the beliefs of others because everyone is acting inconsistent with beliefs