PSYC 523- Chapter 3

For example,___ behavior is a broad meta- category, clarifying work roles is a midrange category, and setting clear performance goals is a specific, narrow category.

- task-oriented

Behavior categories are ___ rather than tangible attributes of the real world. The categories are derived from ___ in order to organize perceptions of the world and make them meaningful, but they do not exist in any objective sense.

-abstractions -observed behavior

Some taxonomies contain a small number of _____ behavior categories, whereas other taxonomies contain a larger number of ____ behavior categories.

-broadly defined -narrowly focused

Some taxonomies are developed by examining the pattern of covariance among be-havior items on a behavior description questionnaire describing actual managers (_______); some taxonomies are developed by having judges group behavior examples according to perceived similarity in content or purpose (_____); and some taxonomies are developed by deduction from theory ( _______).

-factor analysis method - judgmental classification -theoretical- deductive approach

Unfortunately, multimethod studies are very rare. It is more common for researchers to select a method that is ___,___ and ____ rather than determining the most appropriate method for their research question.

-familiar, -well accepted, and -easy to use

For example, when a leader consults with team members about the action plan for a project, the result may be more commitment to the project ( ____), better use of available personnel and resources (____), and discovery of more innovative ways to satisfy the client ( _____).

-human relations - task efficiency -adaptation

Few studies checked for ___ among behaviors with ____. To understand why a leader is effective requires examination of how the behaviors interact in a mutually consistent way.

-interactions -interrelated effects

Another type of study uses descriptions of leader behavior obtained from ___, diaries, __, or interviews with leaders and subordinates.

-observation -critical incidents

Monitoring can take many forms, including ___ of work operations, reading ___, watching computer screen __ of performance data, inspecting the ___ of samples of the work, and holding ____ with an individual or group.

-observation -written reports -displays -quality -progress review meetings

Thus, taxonomies that differ in __ can be expected to have somewhat different __.

-purpose -constructs

The use of empowering decision procedures reflects a strong concern for ___ such as subordinate commitment and development, but it can alsoinvolve a concern for ___ such as decision quality.

-relations objectives -task objectives

The component behaviors vary for different theories and measures of transformational leadership, but they usually include a few ___ behaviors such as supporting and developing, a few ____ behaviors such as articulating an appealing vision and encouraging innovative thinking, and a few behaviors that are difficult to classify into a single meta- category ( e. g., leading by example, talking about personal values, making self- sacrifices for the team or organization).

-relations- oriented -change- oriented

The content of leader decisions may involve __ objectives ( plan work procedures), ___ objectives ( determine how to improve employee benefits), ___ objectives ( identify innovative new initiatives), or some combination of the three types of objectives.

-task -relations -change

When a leader provides coaching for an employee, the result may be improved productivity ( ___), an increase in employee skills relevant for career advancement ( ____), and better implementation of an innovative new program ( ____).

-task efficiency -human relations -adaptive change

The purpose of planning is to ensure efficient organization of the ___, coordination of ____, and effective utilization of ___.

-work unit -activities -resources

____ is the development of detailed action steps and schedules for implementing a new policy or carrying out a project.

Action planning

____ are descriptive aids that can help us to analyze complex events and understand them better.

Behavior taxonomies

The behavior descriptions are coded into categories and related to measures of leader effectiveness.____ and ____ of famous leaders can also be content analyzed to identify behaviors used by effective ( or ineffective) leaders.

Case studies and biographies

____ behavior is primarily concerned with understanding the environment, finding innovative ways to adapt to it, and implementing major changes in strategies, products, or processes.

Change- oriented

The following guidelines indicate how leaders can effectively assign tasks to subordinates and clarify subordinate roles and responsibilities: _____ an assignment.

Clearly explain

_____ is the development of procedures for avoiding or coping with potential problems or disasters.

Contingency planning

_____ ( also called external monitoring ) includes collecting information about relevant events and changes in the external environment, identifying threats and opportu-nities for the leader's group or organization, and identifying best practices that can be imitated or adapted

Environmental scanning

___ involves gathering information about the operations of the manager's organizational unit, including the progress of the work, the performance of individual subordinates, the quality of products or services, and the success of projects or programs.

Monitoring

___ involves building and maintaining favorable relationships with peers, superi-ors, and outsiders who can provide desired information, resources, and political support. The behavior category includes attending professional conferences and ceremonies, joining social networks, socializing informally, doing favors, and using impression management tactics such as ingratiation

Networking

____ is a broadly defined behavior that includes making decisions about objectives, priorities, strategies, organization of the work, assignment of responsibilities, scheduling of activities, and allo-cation of resources among different activities according to their relative importance.

Planning

____ behavior is primarily concerned with increasing mutual trust, cooperation, job satisfaction, and identification with the team or organization.

Relations- oriented

___ includes lobbying for resources and assistance from superiors, promoting and defending the reputation of the leader's group or organization, negotiating agreements with peers and outsiders such as clients and suppliers, and using political tactics to influence decisions made by superiors or governmental agencies.

Representing

_____ planning of work activities means deciding what to do, how to do it, who will do it, and when it will be done.

Short- term

___ behavior was not consistently related to subordinate satisfaction.

Task- oriented

____ behavior is primarily concerned with accomplishing the task in an efficient and reliable way.

Task- oriented

A major problem in research on the content of leadership behavior has been the identification of ____ that are relevant and meaningful for all leaders.

behavior categories

questionnaires: Each subordinate indicates how often the leader has been using the behaviors, and then the ____ are correlated with measures of criterion variables such as subordinate satisfaction, turnover, task commitment, and performance.

behavior scales

In many studies, the measures of leader behavior and the criterion variable are obtained from the same respondents. The correlation will be inflated if both measures are __ in the same way.

biased

Theories and research on dyadic leadership seldom include ____ behaviors, in part because information about a leader's behavior is typically obtained only by surveying subordinates who have little opportunity to observe how their leader interacts with people outside the work unit or organization.

boundary- spanning

The descriptive studies of managerial work and research using ___ and ___ suggest that complementary behaviors are woven together into a complex tapestry such that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts

case studies and biographies

Unless leader behavior is manipulated in an experimental study, it is very difficult to deter-mine ____.

causality

The early leadership theory and research paid little attention to behaviors directly concerned with encouraging and facilitating change. In the 1980s, some ___ behaviors were included in theories of charismatic and transformational leadership but leading change was still not explicitly recognized as a separate dimension or meta-category.

change- oriented

table 3-1 and 3-2

check it out

They are all abstract behavior categories, but goal setting is a part of ___, which is a part of task behavior

clarifying

Planning is mostly a ___ involving processing of information, analyzing, and deciding.

cognitive activity

Planning is most observable when a manager takes action to implement plans by ____ to others and making specific task assignments.

communicating them

One set of behaviors involves concern for relationships and was labeled ___ . This behavior category included doing personal favors for subordinates, finding time to listen to a subordinate with a problem, backing up or defending a subordinate, consulting with subordi-nates on important matters, being willing to accept suggestions from subordinates, and treating a subordinate as an equal.

consideration

The only consistent finding in the survey research was a positive relationship between ___ and ___

consideration and subordinate satisfaction

Participative decision procedures such as ___ or a _____ can be used with peers and outsiders ( e. g., suppliers, clients) as well as with subordinates.

consultation or a joint decision

This pattern of results suggests the possibility of a ____ relationship such that satisfaction is highest for a leader who uses a moderate amount of task- oriented behavior.

curvilinear

A third source of diversity among behavior taxonomies is the method used to ___ them.

develop

Another source of diversity among taxonomies, even for those with the same purpose, is the possibility that behavior constructs can be formulated at ___ of abstraction or generality.

different levels

The following guidelines indicate how leaders can effectively assign tasks to subordinates and clarify subordinate roles and responsibilities: Set specific ___ and ___ for important tasks.

goals and deadlines

In the survey studies, measures of leadership effectiveness had a weak positive correlation with task- oriented behavior and relations- oriented behavior, but once again the results were not consistent across studies. The weakest results were found in studies with an independent, objective measure of effectiveness such as ____.

group performance

The results from experiments and studies with critical incidents, diaries, and interviews are more consistent, and they generally support the proposition that effective leaders ___ and ___ the work to accomplish task objectives, while at the same time maintaining cooperative relationships and teamwork.

guide and facilitate

table 3-4; page 59

guideline for action planning

Evidence from many studies ( including some field experiments) indicates that setting specific, challenging goals usually ____

improves performance

The other set of behaviors was involved concern for task objectives and was labeled ____ . This behavior category included assigning tasks to subordinates, maintaining defi-nite standards of performance, asking subordinates to follow standard procedures, emphasizing the importance of meeting deadlines, criticizing poor work, and coordinating the activities of different subordinates.

initiating structure

When a positive correlation is found, the researchers usually assume the ___influenced the criterion variable

leader's behavior

A number of different types of studies have found a positive relationship between clarifying and ____

managerial effectiveness

In a theory called the ____ , Blake and Mouton proposed that effective managers have a high concern for people and a high concern for production. These concerns are defined as values rather than as behaviors.

managerial grid

A small number of studies have involved an experiment in which leader behavior is ___ by the researchers to determine how it affects the attitudes or performance of subordinates

manipulated

Most theories and research on effective leadership behavior involve one or two broadly defined behaviors ( sometimes called ____ ).

meta- categories

The optimal level of abstraction for the behavior categories in a taxonomy depends upon the purpose of the taxonomy. For research on effective leadership, the broad _____ are less useful than more specific behavior categories.

meta- categories

For example, monitoring operations is useful for discovering problems, but unless something is done to solve the problems, monitoring will not contribute to leader effectiveness. Thus, when necessary, effective leaders will use other behaviors ( e. g., problem solv-ing, coaching) in combination with ____

monitoring

some ___ is usually beneficial, but an excessive amount can reduce subordinate satisfaction.

monitoring

The use of ____ is highly recommended to minimize the limitations of a single method.

multiple methods

The following guidelines indicate how leaders can effectively assign tasks to subordinates and clarify subordinate roles and responsibilities: Provide any _____ in how to do the task.

necessary instruction

Three distinct and broadly defined categories of external behavior are __,__, and ___

networking, environmental scanning, and representing

Few studies checked for the possibility of a _____between behavior and the performance criterion ( such as when a moderate amount of the behavior is optimal).

nonlinear relationship

Some specific types of leader behavior in a meta- category affect only one __, but other types of behavior affect more than one ____.

objective

_____ is the scheduling of routine work and determination of task assignments for the next day or week.

operational planning

Figure 3- 1 Possible Causes of a Correlation Between Leader Behavior and Criterion

page 56

Another behavior category identified in the early leadership research is ______ , which is also called empowering leadership and democratic leadership . It involves a leader's use of decision procedures that allow other people such as subordinates to have some influence over decisions that will affect them

participative leadership

Clarifying is the communication of plans, policies, and role expectations. Major subcategories of clarifying include: setting ____ goals,

performance

Each of the three meta- categories has a different ___, and they are all relevant for effec-tive leadership.

primary purpose

The following guidelines indicate how leaders can effectively assign tasks to subordinates and clarify subordinate roles and responsibilities: Explain __ for different objectives or responsibilities.

priorities

The following guidelines indicate how leaders can effectively assign tasks to subordinates and clarify subordinate roles and responsibilities: Explain the ___ for the assignment.

reason

In the same way, _____ behavior is a broad meta- category, developing is a midrange relations behavior, and providing career advice is a very specific type of developing.

relations- oriented

Thus, effective managers will only use specific behaviors that are __________. Aspects of the situation that determine which task- oriented and relations- oriented behaviors are most relevant include the type of team or organization, the nature of the task, and characteristics of subordinates

relevant for their situation

However, just as the research on managerial work identified important boundary- spanning roles and activities, the __ on leadership of groups and organizations has identified relevant boundary- spanning behaviors

research

Each type of method has advantages and limitations, and the most appropriate method depends in part on the ___.

research question

Clarifying is the communication of plans, policies, and role expectations. Major subcategories of clarifying include: defining job ____ and ____

responsibilities and requirements

Clarifying behavior is likely to be more important when there is substantial ___ or ___ for members of the work unit.

role ambiguity or role conflict

Less clarifying is necessary if the organization has elaborate ___and ___ dictating how the work should be done and subordinates understand them, or if subordinates are highly trained professionals who have the expertise to do their jobs without much direction from superiors.

rules and regulations

Much of the behavior research suffers from the tendency to look for ___ to complex questions, and it is not surprising that meta- analyses of survey studies find only weak positive relationships between effective leadership and meta- categories such as task and relations behavior.

simple answers

The behavior research provides some useful insights about effective leadership, but more research is needed to understand how effective leaders adapt their behavior to the situation and are able to be flexible as the ____.

situation changes

In some studies, subordinates were more satisfied with a _____, but other studies found the opposite relationship or no significant relationship.

structuring leader

A leader's skill in selecting and enacting appropriate behaviors is related to the _____, and unless a behavior is used in a skillful way it may not be effective.

success of the outcome

Several types of research methods have been used to study the effects of leader behavior. By far, the most common method is the use of ___ with behavior description questionnaires filled out by subordinates.

survey research

It was widely accepted that leaders must use some ___ and ___ to be effective, and these two meta- categories influenced most of the early leader-ship theories.

task and relations behaviors

It is likely that all leaders need to use some ___ and ____ behaviors.

task- oriented and relations- oriented

Clarifying is the communication of plans, policies, and role expectations. Major subcategories of clarifying include: assigning specific ____

tasks

What is treated as a general behavior category by one ___ is viewed as two or three distinct categories by another ___.

theorist

Another possibility is that both leader behavior and the criterion variable are affected in the same way by a ____

third variable

Finally, planning also includes determining how to allocate time to different responsibilities and activities (" _____").

time management

Another behavior meta- category that was identified in the 1980s is usually called ____, but other terms for it include visionary leadership and inspirational leadership .

transformational leadership

For example, a significant correlation between consideration and subordinate performance is usually inter-preted as showing that considerate leaders cause subordinates to be more motivated and produc-tive. However, it is also possible that causality is in the opposite direction, and leader behavior is influenced by the criterion variable . For example, leaders are more support-ive to subordinates with high performance than to subordinates with low performance.

understand

page 54 and 55 examples of critical incident , diary incident, and field experiments

understand

table 3-3

understand

The following guidelines indicate how leaders can effectively assign tasks to subordinates and clarify subordinate roles and responsibilities: Check for ___ of the assignment.

understanding

In most survey studies, the researchers failed to consider whether some specific component behaviors are more relevant than others for the leadership situation, or how the relevance of a specific behavior _______.

varies across different situations

Many organizations use ___ to observe operations and increase security, and monitoring of telephone calls and internet correspondence is commonly used to check on quality for customer service representatives.

video cameras

Planning seldom occurs in a single behavior episode; instead it tends to be a prolonged process that occurs over a period of ___ or ___.

weeks or months

The more complex and multifaceted the job, the more difficult it is to determine _________________.

what needs to be done