PSYC 545 Exam 2

Catatonic Schizophrenia (Heine 14)

(characterized by a near absence of motor activity and an insensitivity to external stimuli) was rarely observed in the West (only 1%-3% of cases in the United States and the United Kingdom), it was seen in more than 20% in India.

Paranoid schizophrenia (Heine 14)

(characterized by delusional visions) was the most commonly observed subtype in most locations, although the proportions varied considerably across locations.

Steps people take so that others think of them positively (Heine 8)

* One strategy, as discussed earlier, would be to take a prevention orientation to identify any weaknesses that might jeopardize their face. * A second strategy would be to present oneself to others in a way that would enhance one's face.

Moral Ethics - 3 codes of ethics that guide moral reasoning across cultures (Heine 12)

1) Ethics of AUTONOMY 2) Ethics of COMMUNITY 3) Ethics of DIVINITY

Choice in Collectivist Societies (Heine 8)

Individuals tend to identify with their group's goals (where parental decision making is more common)

Ethic of Community (Heine 12)

emphasizes that individuals have duties that conform with their roles in a community or social hierarchy. According to this code, there is an ethical principle to uphold one's interpersonal duties and obligations toward others. Actions are seen as wrong when individuals fail to perform their duties.

Holistic Thinking (Heine 9)

evident among the ancient Chinese in that their intellectual traditions of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism emphasized harmony, interconnectedness, and change.

Analyctic Thinking (Heine 9)

evident in the Platonic perspective that the world is a collection of discrete, unchanging objects that can be categorized by reference to a set of universal properties.

Ethics of DIVINITY (purity)

people are motivated to achieve purity and are disgusted at behaviors ruled by the carnal passions (such as lust or gluttony) or by behaviors that suggest contamination of any kind. Concerned with sanctity and perceived natural order of things. Code that one is obligated to preserve the standards mandated by a higher power. Lower socioeconmic westerners and people of orthodox religion

principle of need (Heine 12)

which dictates that resources are directed toward those who need them the most

Self-Improvement Motivation (Heine 8)

A desire to seek out potential weaknesses and work on correcting them, is a strong motivation in East Asian contexts

Meritocracy (Heine 12)

A social system that rewards individuals on the basis of the equity principle

Happiness (Heine 10)

A universal emotion Associated with increased longevity and career success

Dictator Game (Heine 12)

An economic game in which a pair of people are randomly divided into the roles of a proposer, who determines how much of his or her money to give to the other participant, and a receiver, who receives the money from the proposer. American samples offered the largest amounts in the dictator game, indicating that they have stronger motivations for fairness. The offers from the various subsistence societies varied, such that those societies where markets were more common and where people participated in a world religion made more fair offers than others did. Cultures with more exposure to markets and world religions are more likely to make fair offers in the dictator game,

Dictator Game (Heine 12)

An economic game in which a pair of people are randomly divided into the roles of a proposer, who determines how much of his or her money to give to the other participant, and a receiver, who receives the money from the proposer. Their innate desire for fairness allowed people to behave in a trustworthy manner with strangers, which facilitated trade and the development of markets and made it possible for large groups of strangers to live together in relative harmony. The average American response was not representative of how people elsewhere made offers; rather it represents an extreme response, which suggests that it is not a good sample to use for building a model that generalizes to all of humanity. The motivations for fairness were considerably weaker in most of the other societies.

Justice Rules (Heine 12)

An ethical decision should distribute benefits and harm among people in a fair, equitable, and impartial manner

Hypertension (Heine 13)

Being African-American in the United States, with the resultant discrimination and experienced racism, leads to the stress causing hypertension. High correlation between hypertension (HBP) and African Americans who aspire to achieve in the face of discrimination

Study about promotion/prevention

Canadians: more likely to work on the things they did well because this gave more opportunities for them to succeed and view themselves positively. (PROMOTION) Japenese: more likely to work on the things they didn't think they were good on because they got better at the skill and were less likely to face failure in the future (PREVENTION) Americans more likely to focus on what they are good at, or good qualities their children have (promotion) whereas Asians are more likely to focus on what they are bad on and try to improve (prevention)

Holistic Thinking (Heine 9)

Characterized by an orientation to the context as a whole. It represents an associative way of thinking, which gives attention to the relations among objects and among the objects and the surrounding context. Objects are understood in terms of how they relate to the rest of the context, and their behavior is predicted and explained on the basis of those relationships. emphasizes knowledge gained through experience rather than the application of fixed abstract rules. more common in East Asian and other cultures than in Western cultures.

Tendencies associated with holistic thinking (Heine 9)

Characterized by an orientation to the context as a whole. Non western cultures. (East Asian cultures) Some research suggests that holistic thinking is quite widespread throughout the world and that analytic thinking is the relatively unusual thinking style, in that it is largely restricted to people who have had much contact with Western society or education systems.

Sticking in/out (Heine 8)

Collectivistic cultures more likely to want to form close relationships and act in ways that conform to others. Individualistic cultures are more motivated to stick out and "be unique"

Level 2: The Conventional Level

Conventional moral reasoning is about viewing actions as moral to the extent that they help maintain and facilitate the social order. people are able to identify themselves with a particular group and social order, and they show loyalty toward this group. The social order of the group is actively maintained, supported, and justified by individuals' efforts to live up to the group's standards. This level dictates that morality is about following the rules, and individuals should not question where those rules come from.

Depression (Heine 14)

Depression is common in Western cultures, less common in non-western cultures. Somatization is more common in non-western culture (China) while psychologization is more common in the west (North America) somanitc = physical symptoms, experiencing symptoms in their body (china) psychologization = psychological symptoms, experiencing symptoms in their mind (North America)

Moral Obligations (Heine 12)

First, they are viewed as objective obligations. That is, people believe that they have an obligation to act in a certain way, even if there is no official rule or law that requires them to do so. Second, they are perceived as legitimately regulated. That is, people should be prevented from engaging in a moral violation, or they should be punished if they act in such a way.

French Paradox (Heine 13)

French drink more wine, eat fewer calories, containers are bigger in the U.S., French spend more time eating their food. Females view food less favorably (especially in U.S.) than males. The fact that despite eating a cuisine that's rich in fat, French people have low obesity rates and relatively long lifespans, possibly due to regular and moderate drinking of red wine. Portion sizes and attitudes toward food

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development (Heine 12)

He maintained that cognitive abilities underlie moral reasoning and that these abilities progress as individuals develop, mature, and are educated. The ways people conceive of what is right and what is wrong hinge on the stage of moral development they have reached.

Moral Ethics (Heine 12)

High-socioeconomic Westerners who belong to progressive sects are likely to base their moral judgments on the ethic of autonomy. With this ethic, they base their judgments of right and wrong on whether individual rights have been protected and justice has been delivered. In India and other interdependent cultures, people are likely to make moral judgments based on the ethic of community. This ethic maintains that people have interpersonal duties toward others that they are morally obligated to uphold. Among lower-socioeconomic Westerners and adherents of orthodox religions, people are more likely to subscribe to the ethic of divinity. Actions that violate the perceived natural order of things and God's creations are viewed in moral terms. More generally, people's moral views differ in accordance with their political attitudes.

Ethic of Divinity (Heine 12)

Is concerned with sanctity and the perceived "natural order" of things. This code contains the ethical principle that one is obligated to preserve the standards mandated by a transcendent authority. It involves a belief that God (or gods, depending on one's religion) has created a sacred world, and everyone's obligation is to respect and preserve the sanctity of this world. In this ethic, actions are seen as immoral if they cause impurity or degradation to oneself or others, or if one shows any disrespect for God or God's creations.

The Independent Self (Heine 8)

Is perceived as relatively immutable and consistent. This view of self as an immutable entity, working within the context of a mutable world, sustains a perception of primary control.

Positive/negative affect and happiness (Heine 10)

Not all positive emotions are created equal. Some positive emotions, such as excitement and elation, involve a great deal of arousal. Other positive emotions, such as feeling calm or at peace, involve a low degree of arousal. *Latinos have high levels of positive affect, when may lead to many health benefits

Regulatory focus theory (Heine 8)

Notion that consumers orient their behavior either through prevention or promotion focus. Promotion: (gaining something) focuses on promoting oneself, trying to get closer to good, avoid challenging tasks, constructing opportunities. Prevention: (trying not to lose something) comes from others via social, physical context.

Tendencies associated with analytic thinking (Heine 9)

Objects are perceived as existing independently from their contexts they are understood in terms of their component parts. Western cultures

Group enhancing bias (Heine 8)

Our bias to think highly of ourselves also occurs in social identity. Studied by Henri Tajfel (1972, 1982), people felt strong bias in favor of their own groups over other groups even when the groups were randomly assigned.

Primary Control (Heine 8)

People achieve a sense of this by striving to shape existing realities to fit their perceptions, goals, or wishes. EX: It's the kind of control you perceive when you decide you want a hamburger and you go down to a burger joint to get yourself one. This is desired so much in individualistic cultures that when people feel less personal control over their life outcomes they tend to feel much anxiety.

Secondary Control (Heine 8)

People achieve a sense of this when they attempt to align themselves with existing realities, leaving the realities unchanged but exerting control over the psychological impact of these realities. It's the kind of control that you perceive when you're with a group of people going for lunch and the group decides to get pizza, and you come to feel that pizza is just what you'd like for lunch. Your desires and goals adjust themselves to what your environment is most likely to provide. Are an effective means for managing one's successful functioning in group contexts.

Choice in Individualist Cultures (Heine 8)

People are less dependent on the actions of others

Ethics of COMMUNITY (loyal to in-groups, respect hierarchy)

People are motivated to be loyal to their ingroups, identifying with them, making sacrifices for them, and trusting them more than they trust outgroup members. People tend to respect hierarchy, admiring their superiors and believing that subordinates need to act in accordance with the wishes of authority figures. Emphasizes that individuals have duties that conform with their roles in a community or social hierarchy. India and other interdependent cultures

Ethics of AUTONOMY (avoid harm, protect fairness)

People have intuitions to avoid harm and to protect fairness. People are sensitive to any behaviors that cause harm to others, and they attend closely to whether resources or rights are distributed in a fair way. View morality in terms of individual freedom and rights violations. High socioeconomic westerners

Political identity (Heine 12)

People who are more politically liberal have stronger moral intuitions for harm avoidance and fairness when compared with their intuition to be loyal to ingroups, to respect authority, and to achieve purity. Political conservatives, in contrast, have strong moral intuitions for all of these. Liberals are primarily concerned with harm and fairness; conservatives are also concerned about ingroup loyalty, authority, and purity.

Primary/secondary control (Heine 8)

Primary: Shaping reality to fit your perceptions/goals/wishes. You decide to choose regardless of the environment. EX: taking a yoga class because the time is convenient in YOUR schedule. Secondary: You align yourself with what's going on in the world. Accepting the circumstances. (Adjustment) Change how you think based on the world around you. EX: taking a yoga class because IT fits your level. Japanese = secondary, Americans = primary, Primary more frequent in Western cultures than Eastern

Epistemology rules v. Relational Reasoning

Rule reasoning: mostly focused formally logically reason which is more analytic reasoning. Relational: Different solutions than would be reached with associative reasoning. Asians went with family-based organization while Americans went with rule based.

Thematic Categorization Strategy (Heine 9)

That the stimuli are grouped together on the basis of causal, temporal, or spatial relationships among them.

Linguistic relatively (Sapir-Whorf)

The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that the language people use affects their thoughts. Although this hypothesis was rejected for a few decades, recent research has found much evidence in support of it. Whorf = language shapes how we think. Sapir = language shapes cultural behaviors. Evidence: Prelinguisitc infants and toddlers show evidence for quite complex thinking in the absence of language. Test hypothesis with color. Structural differences between languages are paralleled by nonlinguistic cognitive differences (the structure of the language itself effects cognition) The number and the type of the basic color words of a language determine how a subject sees the rain bow

Schizophrenia (Heine 14)

The course of schizophrenia was better for patients in the less developed country than in the more industrially advanced ones; however, it is one of the most universally similar psychopatholgies across cultures. More prevalent in lower class economy than higher class, but people in less developed societies have a stronger sense of community so they are more likely to not leave people on their own to be homeless.

Ideal affect (Heine 10)

The kinds of emotions that people (ideally) want to experience, and thus they structure their lives in order to increase their experience of them. For most Americans, ideal affect contains positive emotions that are high in arousal, whereas for most East Asians ideal affect contains positive emotions that are low in arousal.

Epidemiological Paradox (Heine 13)

The surprisingly healthy outcomes of Latinos across a variety of conditions does not apply equally to all groups of Latinos. "healthy migrant hypothesis," proposes that only the healthiest Latinos were able to endure and survive the often taxing and potentially dangerous move to the United States "salmon bias," proposes that many Latino immigrants return to their home countries when they are old or ill, and thus their deaths are not included in the U.S. data

Cultural psychology of choice (Heine 8)

There is little evidence that people are any happier when people make choices vs. their family making it for them. Asian-americans view the situation of their in-groups making a choice as promoting harmony, the upper middle class was the only class that viewed a usurped choice as less favorable. Americans choose what they want, Indians choose what is more favorable to other people.

Choice in Indian Cultures (Heine 8)

There is relatively little emphasis on making choices in life. Making choices appears to be more difficult for them than for Americans; they take significantly more time to make choices than do Americans. Their choices are guided by other considerations, such as what significant other people might prefer that they do.

James-Lange theory of emotion (Heine 10)

These physiological responses were products of the autonomic nervous system, such as changes in heart rate, breathing, pupil dilation, tear secretion, blood flow to the skin, and stomach contractions our bodies respond to stimuli in the world by preparing us to react in a survival-facilitating way (such as running away from the bear), and our emotions are our bodily changes that signal how we should behave.

Ethic of Autonomy (Heine 12)

This ethic views morality in terms of individual freedom and rights violations. It emphasizes personal choice, the right to engage in free contracts, and individual liberty. An act is seen as immoral under this ethic when it directly hurts another person or infringes on another's rights and freedoms as an individual. appears to be of critical importance in all cultures, and indeed it's hard to imagine how any culture could function if its members did not view harming each other to be problematic.

Prevention Orientation (Heine 8)

This kind of defensive, cautious approach to not losing something

Principle of equality (Heine 12)

This principle dictates that resources should be shared equally among the members of a group.

Principle of equity (Heine 12)

This principle states that resources are distributed based on an individual's contributions.

Fundamental Attribution Error (Heine 9)

This tendency to ignore situational information (such as the conditions under which the writers wrote their essays) while focusing on dispositional information (the essay writers' assumed attitudes)

Factors That Effect Subjective-Well Being (Heine 10)

Wealth (for poorer cultures) Human Rights Equality Among People Independent View of Self (individualist) Respect by Others (collectivist) Theory on how happy they should feel

Cultural variation in emotion experience (Heine 10)

Westerners = interpersonally disengaging acts feel good, subjective well-being is associated with positive feelings, people operate under the implicit theory that more positive feelings are better, positive emotions serve as a bulwark against depression, and high-arousal positive emotions are preferred. Among East Asians = interpersonally engaging acts feel good, subjective well-being is associated with appropriate role behaviors, people operate under the implicit theory that it is good to experience both positive and negative feelings, positive emotions are not associated with less depression, and low-arousal positive emotions are more sought after.

Promotion Orientation (Heine 8)

a concern over advancing oneself and aspiring for gains

Learned Helplessness (Heine 8)

an individual feels that he or she is unable to control or avoid unpleasant events, and the person will suffer from stress and potentially depression

Cultures Vary in Happiness (Heine 10)

because they have quite different ideas about what happiness is and what it is derived from.

Analyctic Thinking (Heine 9)

characterized by a focus on objects and their attributes. Objects are perceived as existing independently from their contexts they are understood in terms of their component parts. The attributes that make up objects are used as a basis for categorizing them, and a set of fixed abstract rules is used to predict and explain the behavior of these objects.

French Paradox (Heine 13)

combination of a diet rich in fats yet lower rates of heart disease has puzzled researchers for decades the French drink more wine, which serves to inhibit platelet reactivity and thereby reduces the risk of coronary heart disease The French eat significantly fewer calories per day than Americans, and they do so because they live in a different cultural environment that affects the size of their portions and their attitudes toward food. French view eating as a more leisurely and enjoyable activity than Americans do.

Moral Intuitions (Heine 12)

demonstrates that although liberals and conservatives differ somewhat in the kinds of moral intuitions that are of the greatest concern to them, there is relatively little difference between them in the strength of their concerns with the moral intuition of protecting fairness.

Culture Display Rules (Heine 10)

dictate what kinds of emotional expressions people are supposed to show alter the ways that people express their emotions, which, in turn, can potentially alter their emotional experiences.

Cultural Differences in Depression (Heine 14)

differences are due to the social stigma associated with having a mental illness. in Chinese contexts there might be greater social costs in acknowledging a psychological disorder than a physiological one when compared with those in Western contexts. differences in symptom presentation is that the symptoms experienced by people across different cultures may be the same, but that people from some cultures tend to focus on different symptoms more than those from other cultures.

Negative Emotions (Heine 10)

does not appear to have the same consequences across cultures.

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion (Heine 10)

emotions are primarily the interpretations of those bodily responses. This view (named for the factors of the physiological signals and the interpretation of those signals), redirected the focus of emotions away from the physical body and into the mind.

Promotion (Heine 8)

if people have a _______________ focus, they will strive for opportunities for advancement and, as such, should focus their efforts on things they can do well, because these will provide more opportunities for success.

Level 1: The Preconventional Level

individuals understand the cultural rules and labels of what is good and bad but interpret these labels in terms of either the physical or hedonistic consequences of their actions. people interpret morality based on a calculation of how much better or worse off they would be for acting in a certain way. Morality at this level is about trying to behave in a way that provides the best overall return.

* Subjective Well-Being (Heine 10)

is the feeling of how satisfied one is with one's life. Research reveals that there are pronounced cultural differences in subjective well-being. In general, the nations that score highest on this measure are Scandinavian and Nordic countries, much of Latin America, various English-speaking countries, and Western Europe. On the low end are the former Soviet republics and some impoverished countries in Africa and South Asia

Moral Intuitions (Heine 12)

judgements that occur automatically and rely on emotional feelings "quick gut feelings"

Whorfian (or linguistic relativity) Hypothesis (Heine 9)

language determines how we think—that is, we are unable to do much thinking on a topic if we don't have the relevant words available to us.

Hypertension (Heine 13)

linked to stress particularly high among African-American men West Africans have similar hypertension rates as those of European-Americans

Choice in Individualist Cultures (Heine 8)

making individual choices seems to be especially valued in _______________ cultures, and this appears to be the most true in the United States

Level 3: The Postconventional Level

moral values and principles are seen to exist separately from the authority of the social groups that hold them. based on the consideration of abstract ethical principles of what is right and wrong, and moral decisions are reached based on the logical extensions of those principles. Good behavior is seen as that which is consistent with a set of universal ethical principles that emphasize justice and individual rights.

Suicide (Heine 14)

recognized quite similarly across cultures, but its frequency varies enormously virtually absent in Egypt and in some other Muslim cultures, where religion is especially prohibitive toward suicide. people in different cultures tend to commit suicide at different points in their lives. rates also tend to be high in many colonized indigenous populations around the world.

Epidemiological paradox (Heine 13)

refers to the pattern that Latino elders tend to be healthier than Caucasians despite lower SES and a variety of conditions "healthy migrant hypothesis," proposes that only the healthiest Latinos were able to endure and survive the often taxing and potentially dangerous move to the United States. Hence, the mortality rates in the United States only capture the healthiest subset of Latinos. An alternative account, known as the "salmon bias," proposes that many Latino immigrants return to their home countries when they are old or ill, and thus their deaths are not included in the U.S. data

Positive Emotions (Heine 10)

seem to vary considerably across cultures. Not all positive emotions are created equal. Some positive emotions, such as excitement and elation, involve a great deal of arousal. Other positive emotions, such as feeling calm or at peace, involve a low degree of arousal. These two kinds of positive emotions are sought after differently by Americans and East Asians.

Suicide (Heine 14)

suicidal tendencies are universal in that they are observed everywhere. However, cultural influences on suicide are clearly evident in that suicide prevalence rates vary tremendously, and the motivations behind suicide also differ across cultures. Cultures where religion is highly placed have less suicide rates.

Schizophrenia (Heine 14)

symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, and negative symptoms emerges quite regularly across cultures the course of _____ was better for patients in the less-developed societies than in the more industrially advanced ones

Taxonomic Categorization Strategy (Heine 9)

that the stimuli are grouped according to the perceived similarity of their attributes.

Face (Heine 8)

the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position * The higher your social position, the greater the amount of ______ available to you. * Hence, the president of a company has a lot of ________, whereas the person in the mailroom has very little. _______ can also be shared by groups.

Ideal Affect (Heine 10)

the kinds of feelings that people desire. They are the emotions that people are trying to achieve, so they structure their lives in order to increase the likelihood that they will experience these emotions. For most Americans, ideal affect contains positive emotions that are high in arousal, whereas for most East Asians ideal affect contains positive emotions that are low in arousal.

Depression (Heine 14)

the most familiar disorder less commonly diagnosed in some other cultures, particularly in China Some of the key symptoms are psychological (e.g., depressed mood and feelings of guilt), whereas some are primarily physiological appears to manifest itself more so in terms of mood-related concerns among Westerners and more so in terms of headache and sleep-related concerns among Chinese

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) (Heine 9)

the tendency for observers when analyzing behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation (external, situational factors) and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition (internal factors on behavior).