PSYC1000: EXAM III (Fabian)

social traps

-a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior ex. people justify not driving electric cars because they are expensive and they believe that their emissions do not have a significant effect on the environment; many people reason similarly and it adversely affects the whole -social traps force us to reconcile our right to pursue self interest with our responsibility of well-being for all

passionate love

-an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship; mixes something new with something positive -sexual desire + growing attachment = passionate love ex. people who are stimulated by fright, disgust, humor, etc. often find themselves more attracted to a desirable person

what makes us angry?

-anger is a response to someones perceived misdeeds especially when they are seen as unjustified and avoidable

criticism of behavior modification

-another human is controlling another human's behavior and the process is authoritarian -behavior therapy only rewards positive behaviors yet negative behaviors associated with disorders are perpetuated by natural reinforcers-- symptoms are addressed rather than the disorder itself

biopsychosocial approach to mental illness

-biology, culture, individual ways of coping with stress all influence our behavior, thoughts and feelings -certain disorders as specific to some cultures and not others; these may share an underlying dynamic (ex. anxiety) while manifesting differently due to cultural factors

benefits controlled expressions of anger

-can communicate strength or competence -motivate us to act courageously -allows people to discuss issues -non-accusing statements help resolve conflicts

criticisms of the DSM diagnostic labeling

-casts too wide a net and allows for any behavior to be characterized as a disorder -labels can be subjective and they cause us to look down upon those who are labelled with specific disorders

reinforcement and modeling of aggression

-children who learns that aggression pays off tend to become bullies -parents who scream and hit their children reinforce the idea that aggression is productive -the idea of a "culture of honor" or "manly honor" reinforce aggression (ex. white southerners tend to use firearms more)

major risk factors form coronary heart disease:

-depression (4x as likely) -pessimism (2x) -suppressing negative emotions (western cultures) -anger over little things

Criticisms of Humanistic Theory

-Concepts are "fuzzy", unclear about nature of concepts -subjective to the nature of the theorists own ideals and values -emphasis on individualism can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, erosion of moral restraint -said to be naive and idealistic

insula

-a neural center deep inside the brain that controls multiple emotions -the insula activates when we experience various negative social emotions such as lust, pride and disgust -this region of the brain is activated when people eat disgusting food, smell disgusting food, think about a cockroach or feel moral disgust over personal exploitation

if emotions share similar biological responses, how do they differ?

-fear and joy both cause similar physiological responses (increased HR, etc.), but they stimulate different facial muscles (frown vs. smile) -certain emotions activate different areas of the brain's cortex (right-lobe of prefrontal cortex is more active for negative emotions and left is more active for positive emotions) -emotions like fear are directed straight to the amygdala and travel via a different neural circuit

why do people engage in self-harm?

-find relief from intense negative thoughts through the distraction of pain - attract attention and possible get help -relieve guilt by punishing themselves -get others to change their negative behavior (bullying, criticism) -fit in with a peer group

neo-Freudians

-followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories -adopted personality structures of id, ego and superego, the importance of the unconscious, childhood roots of personality, dynamics of anxiety and defense mechanisms

What predicts happiness levels?

-genes: happiness is heritable -personal history and culture -happiness set point

how do humans detect emotion?

-humans excel at detecting subtle expressions like body language, nonverbal threats, facial muscles associated with expressions (ex. abused children are more sensitized to anger and therefore are more able to detect it in facial expressions than non-abused children) -humans are ineffective at detecting deceit (ex. only 54% of people were able to detect truth from lie)

health risks of prolonged stress

-increase risk of heart disease -early death -telomere shrinkage

benefits of group therapy

-it saves the therapist's time and client's money. -It offers a social laboratory for exploring social behaviors and developing social skills. -It enables people to see that others share their problems. -It provides feedback as clients try out new ways of behaving.

Why can stress indirectly cause illness?

-it takes energy for the body to defend against invaders -stress causes an aroused fight or flight response, so the stress response diverts energy from the immune system and sends it to the muscles/brain to accommodate for the stress response stress does not make us sick, but it creates a competing energy need that alters immune function

why do online relationships tend to be more successful?

-less posturing -increased comfort -more/quicker disclosure

causes of suicide

-loss of loved ones -aversion to bodily changes from illness -worry over medical bills -social isolation

vulnerability to antisocial personality disorder

-low arousal in response to threats caused by low autonomic nervous system activity -lower than average stress hormone levels -less active frontal lobe -low in anxiety and conditioned fears -impaired theory of mind -11% smaller frontal lobes -low impulse control -predisposed to alcohol and drug abuse -low birth weight combined with poor environment -larger and hyperactive dopamine reward system

prenatal risks of schizophrenia

-low birth weight, maternal diabetes, older paternal age, oxygen deprivation during delivery, malnutrition -maternal infection -birth in densely populated areas where viral infections spread ***fetal-virus infections contribute to the development of schizophrenia

mirror-image perceptions

-mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive ex. we see our enemy as evil and untrustworthy and they see us in the same way ex. muslims who kill are seen as fanatics and terrorists, while an american who killed 16 afghans was a man stressed by his marriage and four tours of duty

physical attractiveness

-once proximity affords contact, the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance -predicts how often people date and how popular they feel -attractiveness is surprisingly unrelated to self esteem -symmetry is attractive -when we love someone their physical imperfections grow less apparent and their attractiveness more apparent

biology and anxiety disorders

-some genes suppress serotonin and glutamate levels which canterm-230 cause anxiety; these genes are heritable -epigenetic markers are the result of long-term stress/abuse and can cause genetic vulnerability to disorders when expressed -the brain areas associated with impulse control and habitual behaviors have overarousal which can cause disorders

Why is psychoanalysis controversial?

-the analysts interpretations are subjective and cannot proved or disproved -conclusions not supported by research -requires time and years of several sessions a week -rarely practiced anymore

companionate love

-the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined -passion-faciliating hormones like adrenaline and dopamine pass and oxytocin remains to facility feelings of trust and bonding

bystander intervention effect

-the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present -we will only help if the situation enables us first to notice the incident, then to interpret it as an emergency, and finally to assume responsibility for helping -the presence of others at each step can turn us away from helping the victim -the presence of bystanders reduces brain activation i the motor cortex, signaling that we don't need to take action

neo-Freudian theories

-theories derived from Freud's model, but with less emphasis on sexuality as a driving force in personality and more optimism regarding the prospects for long-term personality growth -places more emphasis on the conscious mind's role in interpreting experience

how to facial expressions influence our feelings?

-they regulate and amplify emotions (ex. outward expressions of the emotion we want to experience can cause us to experience that emotion)

criticisms of social cognitive theory

-too concerned with change and the situation rather than inner traits -ignores the role of biology -very specific predictions hinder generalization

cognition

-we learn many of our own fears by observing others (ex. lab monkeys are not afraid of snakes because they have not observed their parents fear of snakes in the wild) -hypervigilance: people with anxiety disorders attend more to threatening stimuli; it is difficult for them to shut off intrusive thoughts

happiness breeds helpfulness

-when we are in a good mood we tend to help others in need -helping this in need activates the brain areas associate with reward, so helping others makes us feel good

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania (week to week rather than day to day/moment to moment) large predictor of suicide, typically over-diagnosed in adolescents

prejudice

A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.

lobotomy

A now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

antisocial personality disorder

A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

Stanford Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.

social psychologists

Psychologists who study how people influence one another's behavior and mental processes, individually and in groups; how does the situation affect behavior? why does the same person act differently in different situations

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

genetic influences of aggression

Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at times for research. Twin studies show aggression may be genetic. In men, aggression is possibly linked to the Y chromosome.

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

mindfulness

Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks.

the depressed brain

Brain activity slows during depression Left frontal lobe less active Scarcity of norepinephrine and serotonin

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces (archetypes) from our species' history most psychologists discount the idea of inherited experiences, but they do believe that our shared evolutionary history shaped some universal dispositions (epigenetics)

Electra complex

Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals

Side effects of antipsychotics

Drowsiness, dizziness Dry mouth, constipation Increased appetite, weight gain ECG changes Extrapyramidal symptoms Hyperglycemia and diabetes

Gordon Allport

Founder of Trait Theory: defines personality in terms of identifiable behavior patterns

What was Freud's view of personality?

Freud believed that personality results from conflict arising from the interaction among the mind's three systems: the id (pleasure-seeking impulses), ego (reality-oriented executive), and superego (internalized set of ideals, or conscience).

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions first major psychological therapy

The Bay of Pigs is an example of _______.

Groupthink; Kennedy has just been elected and morale was high, so his advisors self-censored their dissenting views after Kennedy had voice his enthusiasm for the plan; because no one spoke up, everyone assumed support was unanimous

epigenetic marks

Heritable changes to DNA or chromatin structure that do not involve alteration of the base sequence and that bring about changes in gene expression

oral fixation

In Freud's personality theory, an excessive need for oral pleasures (such as eating, gum-chewing, or talking) that results from extreme denial or excessive indulgence of them during the first stage; may also be expressed through excessive dependence

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a person experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions; we cannot directly control our feelings but we can influence them by altering our behavior ex. if we participate in something we don't believe in we try to reduce the tension we feel by starting to believe in it ("i chose to do it so i must believe in it")

Stigma of introversion

Introversion is often misunderstood as shyness, but introverted people often simply seek low levels of stimulation from their environment.

dopamine overactivity

Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine D4 receptors in the brain; intensifies positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia

resistance phase

Second phase of the GAS, during which the body adapts to and maintains resources to cope with the stressor.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

MAOA gene

The gene responsible for the activity of the enzyme monoamine oxidase in the brain. The low-activity variant of the gene is closely associated with aggressive behaviour; warrior gene

depletion effect

The idea that self control takes energy, and therefore when exerting a lot of self control in one area, you have less energy to exert it in other areas (ex. time of day; morning has more energy hence more self control). People who believe this doesn't exist, however, are not as affected by it.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

excessive optimism

May lead to complacency May prevent recognition of real risks May be self-defeating when dealing with temptations May be directed toward group (illusionary optimism)

media models for violence

Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Playing violent video games increases aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to snap judgements

neural influences of aggression

Neural systems facilitate or inhibit aggression when provoked Aggression more likely to occur with frontal lobe damage

biomedical therapy

Offers medications and other biological treatments; prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology.

dialectical behavior therapy

A form of treatment in which the focus is on getting people to accept who they are regardless of whether it matches their ideal; helps change harmful or suicidal behaviors

cognitive therapies

A group of psychotherapies based on the assumption that psychological problems are due to illogical patterns of thinking; treatment techniques focus on recognizing and altering these unhealthy thinking patterns. aims to change peoples mindsets with new constructive ways of perceiving and interpreting events

Eysenck's Theory

We can reduce many of our normal individual variations to basic personality dimensions; introversion/extraversion, emotional stability/instability

Schizophrenia

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions the mind is split from reality; only 1 in 7 people have full recovery

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.) type of nondirective therapy that utilized active listening

fixate

a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

mania

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)

a new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them

biofeedback training

a physiological and behavioral approach in which an individual receives information regarding particular autonomic functions and is rewarded for influencing those functions in a desired direction

cognitive behavioral therapy

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior); treats anxiety, depression, bipolar, OCD altering the way people think and act by training people to practice a more positive approach in everyday settings

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes provides a valid and reliable map of people's implicit motives-- the storytelling can be used to assess achievement and affiliation motivation

personality inventories

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

dissociate identity disorder

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities; multiple personality disorder

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

disorganized speech (schizophrenia)

a severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently from one to another unrelated topic

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others; prevents us from being overwhelmed by emotion when we experience trauma

catatonia

a state of unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, compulsive actions, and inability to communicate

2 accepted Freudian defense mechanisms

reaction formation and projection

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

fugue state

a sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelmingly stressful situation

psychological disorder

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

progressive relaxation

a technique of learning to relax by focusing on relaxing each of the body's muscle groups in turn; helps people to overcome phobias by introducing them to stressful imagery and allowing them to conquer the associated stressors

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence; this is why clinician testimony about therapy is misleading

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

Psychotherapy

a trained therapist uses psychological techniques to assist someone seeking to overcome difficulties or achieve personal growth

deep brain stimulation (DBS)

a treatment procedure for depression in which a pacemaker powers electrodes that have been implanted in Brodmann Area 25, thus stimulating that brain area

Beck's Cognitive Therapy

a type of cognitive therapy, developed by Aaron Beck, in which the therapist works to develop a warm relationship with the person and has the person carefully consider the evidence for his or her beliefs in order to see the errors in his or her thinking getting people to change what they say to themselves is an effective way to change their thinking

aversive conditioning

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol) generates a negative response to a harmful event

Freudian slip

a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion

Rogers believed that a growth-promoting social climate provides:

acceptance genuineness empathy

personality psychologists

study of personal traits and dynamics

psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

in crisis, the _________ division of the _________ nervous system mobilizes your body for action.

sympathetic; autonomic

why do feelings hijack thinking?

the amygdala (emotional control center) sends more neural projections up to the cortex than it receives back; this is why our emotional responses are so instinctual and almost automatic

receptive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity

psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control

supergo

the mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority; strives for perfection, judging actions and producing positive feelings of pride or negative feelings of guilt

the foundation of Freud's theory was the belief that ___________________.

the mind is mostly hidden

why can stress cause heart disease?

the more psychological stressors a person faces, the more their bodies generate inflammation, which leads to increased risk of coronary heart disease and cortisol levels

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots valid in some circumstances but is subjective and not effective for inferring past trauma

biochemical influences of aggression

alcohol, testosterone, poor diet

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" if our self-concept is positive we tend to act and perceive the world positively

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal that persists for 6 months or more

virtual reality exposure therapy

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise characterized by weight fluctuations within and above normal ranges, unlike anorexia

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves

social-cognitive theory of depression

the negative expectations and assumptions of people with depression influence their perception of the world and themselves criticisms: do negative thoughts cause depression? which comes first

tyranny of choice

brings information overload and a greater likelihood that we will feel regret over some of the unchosen options ex. citizens in stable democracies report having higher levels of happiness, but the excess of freedom in western cultures can result in decreased satisfaction

reappraisal

changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus; can reduce distress and the corresponding amygdala response

depression

the number one reason people seek mental health services; the top cause of disability in the work today

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate people who feel this way are more likely to develop PTSD

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself our happiness and satisfaction is relative to those around us ex. we feel gratified when we do better in comparison to those around us and incompetent when we don't

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate; belief in free-will internals are better functioning than externals (less anxiety, lower levels of stress hormones)

the best predictor of future behavior is _______________________.

the person's past behavior patters in similar situations

resilience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them ex. at 3 months, babies prefer familiar faces

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression ex. pitchers are more likely to hit batter when the pervious batter had hit a home run; domestic abuse and violent crime increases with hotter weather

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

identification process

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

catharsis

the process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get; the idea that good is rewarded and evil is punished **enables the rich and wealthy to see their own wealth and other's poverty as deserved

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors most people see themselves as better than average

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request; behavior influences attitude succumbing to a temptation or acting on behalf of a position you disagree with becomes easier with repetition (works with good deeds as well)

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions; going through the motions of behaviors associated with a specific emotion cause us to feel that emotion

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

negative explanatory style

the tendency to make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events; symptom of depression

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors ex. people who break speed limits tend to think others are doing the same

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

effort justification

the tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort, or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing; this is why client testimonies are not very reliable when it comes to evaluating the effectiveness of therapy

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

outgroup homogeneity

the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of ingroups

Cannon-Bard Theory

the theory that bodily responses and experienced emotions occur separately but simultaneously; the emotion-trigger stimulus activates the sympathetic nervous system to cause the body's arousal and activated the brain's cortex to cause awareness of the emotion completely independently ***this theory is disproved because people with high spinal cord injuries report changes in their ability to feel emotions

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli ***emotions result form attention to our bodily activity ex. we observe our heart racing after we experience a threat and subsequently feel afraid

social exhange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

reward theory of attraction

the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

behavior modification

the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior; effective in treating children with ASD by positively reinforcing good behaviors with rewards

humanistic theories

the ways people strive for self-determination and self-realization in contrast to the scientific objectivity of behaviorism, humanists study people through their own self-reported experiences and feelings

nondirective therapy

therapeutic approach in which the therapist does not give advice or provide interpretations but helps the person identify conflicts and understand feelings

humanistic therapies

therapies that emphasize the development of human potential and the belief that human nature is basically positive; attempt to reduce the inner conflicts that interfere with natural development and growth

group therapy

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction

family therapy

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members

environmental triggers for schizophrenia

there are no environmental causes that will produce schizophrenia in people who are not related to a person with schizophrenia warning signs: - A mother whose schizophrenia was severe and long-lasting - Birth complications, often involving oxygen deprivation and low birth weight - Separation from parents - Short attention span and poor muscle coordination - Disruptive or withdrawn behavior - Emotional unpredictability - Poor peer relations and solo play - Childhood physical, sexual, or emotional abuse

are young americans typically internals or externals?

they are externals compared to their parents; this generation has higher levels of depression and other mental illness

Are personality traits stable over time?

they can be, but new situations and major life events can shift personality traits

impaired theory of mind

they have difficulty perceiving facial emotions and reading others' states of mind and perceiving or feeling sympathy of compassion

why do non-western cultures have lower divorce rates?

they prioritize commonality and compatible background over love

how do depressed people tend to explain bad events

they use terms that are stable, global, and internal (pessimistic)

________ are stable and potent but the consistency of our ________ from one situation to the next is variable.

traits; behaviors ex. you can be conscientious about attending classes but you could not be about eating unhealthy foods

Psychodynamic therapists

try to understand a patient's current symptoms by focusing on themes across important relationships, including childhood experiences and the therapist relationship; they also help the person explore and gain perspective on defended-against thoughts and feelings arms to help people gain insight into unconscious dynamics that arise from their life experiences ex. one patient was hypercritical and defensive in his personal relationships and with his therapist; the therapist helped the patient recognize the relationship pattern that stemmed from attacks and humiliation by his alcoholic father

most of a person's everyday life is determined by _________ thought processes

unconscious

implicit prejudice

unconsciously held prejudicial attitudes; also called automatic

learned helplessness and stress response

uncontrollable events create a learned helplessness losing control provokes and outpouring of stress hormones that decrease immune function; perceived control is basic to human functioning ex. a dog was harnessed and shocked so he could not escape or reduce the stimulus; when he was unharness he made no attempt to escape because he was unable to alleviate the stressor when he was confined ex. the more control employees have over their work environment, the longer they live; wealthy people tend to live longer lives because they have financial control

according to Freud, repression _________________.

underlies all defense mechanisms

explicit prejudice

unfounded negative belief of which we're aware regarding the characteristics of an out-group

when do people usually develop mental illness?

usually by early adulthood, but symptoms of antisocial personality disorder and phobias can occur in children

Does NSSI lead to suicide?

usually not, but it is a risk factor for suicidal thoughts and future suicide attempts, especially when coexisting with bipolar disorder

negative self-image

The result of social conditioning, differential treatment, or both, causing people or groups to believe themselves inferior; people with low self-image are more likely to disparage others

self-fulfilling prophecies

The stress and lowered expectations regarding a situation contribute to making beliefs into reality ex. if i believe that my friend is annoyed with me, i will snub her and she will act in a way that justifies my original perception

goals of psychoanalysis

To bring patients' repressed feelings into conscious awareness; to give patients insight into the origins of their disorder; to resolve id-ego-superrgo conflicts

benefits of humanistic psychology

US high school students report higher levels of self-esteem and greater expectations of future career success than they did in 1975; humanistic theories influence popular psychology

person-centered perspective

people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies

support of dissociative identity disorder

people believe that DID is a way for people to cope with anxiety and traumatic experiences; a second personality enables the discharge of forbidden impulses

conditioning

people learn to associate certain cues with their trauma/anxieties due to stimulus generalizations and reinforcement

traits

people's characteristic behaviors and conscious motives

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood doing good also promotes feeling good and spending time, money on others activates pleasure centers of the brain and promotes social relationships

phobias

persistent, irrational fears of specific objects or situations

Paraprofessional

person with no professional training who provides mental health services

_______ control and _______ control interact

personal; social

projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind; brings to light projections of their own inner feelings or conflicts

how does outlook affect health?

pessimists are more likely to belle that situations are out of their control or that poor performance is due to their lack of ability; thus, optimist are typically healthier and happier

humanistic psychologists laid the groundwork for _______ psychology

positive

how can we experience less stress?

1. develop sense of control 2. optimistic thinking 3. social support

Self-Disclosing intimacy + mutually supportive equity = _____________

enduring companionate love

repress

forcibly block from our consciousness because some memories would be too unsettling to acknowledge; Freud believed that these repressed memories have the potential to influence us without our awareness

defensive self-esteem

fragile; focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening

importance of mental processes in behaviors

how we think about a situation affects our resulting behavior; how do we respond and interpret external events?

Why do antidepressants take so long to work?

increased serotonin promotes new synapses and neurogensis that perhaps reduces the stress-induced loss of neurons

in Freud's theory, all defense mechanisms function _____ and ____

indirectly and unconsciously

how does anger differ between cultures?

individualist cultures encourage us to vent our anger but group-centered cultures see anger as a threat to interdependence

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informative social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality; conforming because we want to be correct

the unconscious involves _______________________

information processing that occurs without our awareness includes schemas, priming, split brain, implicit memories, emotions that activate instantly, stereotypes and implicit prejudice

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises

positive herding

positive ratings generate more positive ratings

distress

negative stress

happiness set point

one's basic level of happiness when one is not intentionally trying to increase happiness

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness ex. a student may feel high self-efficacy in a math course but low self-esteem in life

3 factors of attraction

proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity

faith factor

religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active; due to healthy behaviors, social support, positive emotions

depression gender gap

women are 2x more likely to develop depression than men; women are more vulnerable to eating disorders, self-esteem issues and anxiety during adolescence; in adulthood they experience more stressor that can lead to depression like childbirth and occupying caregiver roles

functions of the parasympathetic nervous system

when crisis passes, the ANS causes: -stress hormones gradually leave the bloodstream -body calms down

functions of the sympathetic nervous system

when in crisis, the SNS: -directs adrenal glands to release stress hormones epi and norepi -liver releases sugar to bloodstream -respiration rate increases to supply more O2 -HR and BP increase

abnormal brain activity and anatomy

- Often low activity in frontal lobes - Vigorous activity in thalamus and amygdala when experiencing hallucinations - Enlarged, fluid-filled areas and corresponding shrinkage and thinning of cerebral tissue - Smaller-than-normal cortex and corpus callosum -decreased neural connections

How can we manage stress?

- Aerobic exercise - good for the cardiovascular system! - biofeedback - relaxation - meditation - lowers HR, BP and cholesterol - spirituality - Cognitive Flexibility - allowing ourselves to perceive differently --> e.g. talking with a counsellor.

genetic predisposition to schizophrenia

-1% general population, 50% identical twins, 40% with 2 parents with Schizophrenia, 12% with 1 parent with Schizophrenia -103 genomes linked with the disorder that can affect dopamine or myelin production (reducing neural connections) -epigenetic factors determine if these genes are expressed

risk factors for eating disorders

-Females (10% male) -Childhood/adolescence (4-5% of adolescents) -Sports (crew, wrestling, figure skating, ballet, gymnastics) -Modeling -low self-esteem, distorted self-image -concerned with how others perceive them -genes that result in serotonin reduction -western emphasis on beauty -images of unnaturally thin models decreases overall body satisfaction -weight-obsessed cultures -peer influences

how many people have psychological disorders?

1 in 5 in the US

three types of personality disorders

1. avoidant personality disorder: caused by anxiety, sensitivity to rejection 2. schizotypal personality disorder: eccentric, odd, disengaged behaviors 3. borderline personality disorder: dramatic or impulsive behaviors

Criticisms of Freud's Theory

1. development is lifelong and not fixed in childhood 2. Freud overemphasized parental influence and underestimated peer influence 3. gender identity forms later in life and even without the presence of a same-sex parent 4. childhood abuse happens and is not always attributed to the person's own childhood sexual wishes and conflicts 5. dreams do not necessarily disguise and fulfill wishes 6. Freudian slips are not that deep 7. suppressed sexuality does not cause psychological disorders 8. Freud did not present testable hypotheses and based his conclusions on biased and anecdotal observations

three ways individuals interact with their environment

1. different people choose different environments based on their dispositions, and in turn their environment shapes them 2. our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events: anxious people attend and react strongly to relationship threats 3. our personalities help create situations to which we react: how we view and treat people influences how they treat us

signs of major depressive disorder

1. difficulty making decisions and concentrating 2. feeling hopeless 3. poor self-esteem 4. reduced energy levels 5. problems regulating sleep 6. problems regulating appetite

evidence for scapegoat theory:

1. economically frustrated people tend to express heightened prejudices 2. experiments that create temporary frustration intensify prejudice ***denigrates others boosts our own sense of status

techniques for describing personality traits

1. factor analysis 2. biology

how do humanistic psychologists asses a person's sense of self?

1. having people describe their ideal self and their actual self 2. life story approach

what are the three elements all psychotherapies share?

1. hope for demoralized people 2. a new perspective 3. an empathetic, trusting, caring relationship

if self serving bias prevails, why do so many people disparage themselves?

1. it is a subtle strategy for validation 2. prepare us for possible failure 3. helps us learn from our past mistakes

impact of Freud's conclusions on modern psychology

1. most of mental life is unconscious 2. assume we often struggle with inner conflicts among our wishes, fears, values 3. childhood shapes our personalities and ways of becoming attached to others

3 aspects of prejudice

1. negative emotions 2. stereotypes 3. a predisposition to discriminate

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction (GRIT)

1. one side announces its recognition of mutual interests and intent to reduce tensions 2. initiates a small conciliatory act opens doors for reciprocity by the other party without wearing status

recent findings about speed dating:

1. people who fear rejections often elicit rejection 2. given more options, people make more superficial choices 3. men wish for future contact with more of their speed dates while women tend to be choosier

what can we do to promote peace?

1. postive contact: exposure to those we oppose in a noncompetitive manner facilitates positive attitudes (ex. friendly contact between people of different racial groups) 2. cooperation: cooperative contact facilitated by superordinate goals 3. communication 4. conciliation: GRIT

what increases vulnerability to mental disorders?

1. poverty (2.5x higher)- the stresses of poverty can cause mental illness, but mental illness can also cause poverty 2. abuse 3. academic failure 4. stressful life events 5. trauma etc. etc. etc.

when the immune system does not function properly, it can either:

1. respond too strongly: immense system may attack the body's own tissues (ex. allergic rxn or autoimmune disease) 2. underreacting: immune system suppression by reducing release of lymphocytes that fight disease or by allowing infection

4 aspects of depression

1. stressful events occurs 2. person ruminates and provides a pessimistic explanatory style for the event 3. a hopeless, depressed state arises 4. the person's way of thinking and acting is hampered

psychologists test for implicit prejudices by

1. testing for unconscious group associations: pairing a person's image with a trait 2. considering unconscious patronization: inflated praise and insufficient criticism 3. monitoring reflexive bodily responses: examining telltale signals of body language

why do only 5-10% of people develop PTSD after a traumatic event?

1. the greater the amount of trauma-related emotion distress, the greater the likelihood of developing PTSD 2. sensitive emotion-processing limbic system that increases levels of stress hormones 3. women are 2x more likely to develop PTSD after a traumatic event

When is obedience highest?

1. the person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure. 2. the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution. 3. the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, even in another room 4. there were no role models for defiance

exceptions to fundamental attribution theory

1. we attribute our admirable and deliberate actions to our disposition and not our behavior 2. as we age we tend to attribute the behavior of our younger selves to our enduring traits or disposition

Carl Jung

1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation

Karen Horney

1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

how many people have depression?

350 million worldwide, 60 million have bipolar

catastrophizing

A cognitive distortion involving the assumption that terrible but incorrect consequences will result from an event.

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. ex. the line test-- we are willing to "call black white" if those around us do so, even if we know the answer is not correct

how does social support affect health?

Emotional support, such as affirmation and affection, reduces the risk of mental and physical health problems. ex. at age 50, healthy aging was better predicted by a good marriage than low cholesterol; divorce predicts poor health ex. women who were given electric shocks showed below-average stress hormone levels when holding their partner's hand

active listening

Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.

When are attitudes most likely to affect behavior?

External influences are minimal The attitude is stable The attitude is specific to the behavior The attitude is easily recalled ex. people exposed to ads about skin cancer regularly were more likely to give up tanning; persuasion changed attitudes (about skin cancer risk) which changed behavior (less tanning)

Henry Murry initial experiment (Murder)

Murray showed children photographs and then had the children play a frightening game titled Murder and after the game they perceived the images as more frightening than before the children had projected their inner feelings into the pictures

chameleon effect

Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

self-help groups

a group composed of people who have similar problems and who meet together without a therapist or counselor for the purpose of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support; ex. AA

counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient; reduced suicidal ideation, can promote neurogenesis, can calm overactivity that causes depression

therapeutic alliance

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem

Dunning-Kruger Effect

a cognitive bias in which unskilled people make poor decisions and reach erroneous conclusions, but their incompetence denies them the metacognitive ability to appreciate their mistakes. Accounts for why low-skilled individuals are prone to greater overconfidence than are higher-skilled persons (in a particular area). our ignorance of what we don't know sustains our self-confidence, until what we don't know is pointed out to us (thinking you did well on an exam until you see what you did wrong on the answer key)

chronic schizophrenia

a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten; slow-developing and more often exhibit NEGATIVE symptoms

acute schizophrenia

a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods; more often exhibits POSITVE symptoms

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

how can angry outbursts reinforce bad behaviors?

a person who releases their anger by belittling others will find that it makes them feel better so they will continue to do so

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types the test remains mostly a counseling and coaching tool and not a research instrument

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) which he believed to be a censored expression of the dreamers unconscious wishes

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

peak experiences

according to Maslow, times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person; important for therapists to have

nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)

act of deliberately cutting, burning, puncturing, or otherwise significantly injuring one's skin with no intent to die

behavior therapies

action therapies based on the principles of classical and operant conditioning and aimed at changing disordered behavior without concern for the original causes of such behavior; based on the belief that self-awareness of problem behavior is not enough to fix them

Antisocial behavior

actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person

anger primes prejudice

after 9/11, angry americans were generally more intolerant toward muslims and immigrants

why are mixed race people typically assigned to their minority group?

after learning the facial features of a familiar racial group, the observers selective attention is drawn towards the distinctive features of the less-familiar minority

why can giving praise in the absence of good performance be harmful?

after receiving weekly self-esteem boosting praise, struggling students earned lower than expected grades when good things occur that aren't earned, well-being is not increased-- it produces helplessness and people become passive

appraisal

an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus; Lazarus hypothesizes that emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous ex. we appraise the sound of rustling bushed in the forest (stimulus) as a potential threat that signals a fear response, until we conclude that it was just the wind; we determine that the situation is not dangerous which defines our resulting emotion

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help even if the cost outweighs the benefits ex. highly religious people are more inclined by their doctrines to engage in this norm

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them ex. paying it forward

Milgram Experiment

an experiment devised in 1961 by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

do different emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses?

answer: no; different emotions share common biological signatures ex. it would be almost impossible to tell the difference between the physiological responses of 4 people who each watched a horror, boring, arousing or anger-provoking film

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

reinforcement of anxiety disorders

anything that enables us to avoid or escape a feared situation can reinforce maladaptive behaviors ex. if we fear a panic we might not leave the house; because we are reinforced by feeling calmer, we are inclined to repeat that behavior and can develop serious maladaptive behaviors

seasonal pattern depression

applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year

vulnerability-stress model

approaches that emphasize how individual vulnerabilities interact with external stresses or circumstances to increase or decrease the likelihood of developing specific mental disorders, such as depression this theory is supported by epigenetics (certain genes will only be expressed in certain environments)

spillover effect

arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event experiment: Schachter and Singer injected men with epinephrine which caused them to experience physical arousal; if they were exposed to people acting euphoric, they would "catch" the same emotion **conclusion: a state of arousal can be experienced as one emotion or another depending on how we interpret and later it

______ fuels emotion; _______ channels it

arousal; cognition

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

persuasion

attempts to influence peoples behavior by changing their attitudes; situational pressures and other factors can override the attitude-behavior connection attitude influences behavior ex. politicians will vote for what they don't believe if it increases their public opinion

projection

attributing our own threatening impulses to others

________ behaviors in situation can be predictable.

average ex. extraverts tend to talk more throughout the day, but might not in specific situations

manic phase of bipolar disorder

behavior becomes disorganized and chaotic which renders the client unable to focus on detail; person requires little sleep, they have lowered inhibitions, risk-taking increases

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid ex. peter was afraid a rabbits so each day while he was eating she would move the cage closer and closer until he eventually felt comfortable with the rabbit

Phillippe Pinel

beleived that mental patients were ill and needed to be treated as such - with kindness and caring of moral treatment

frued's theory of the unconscious

believed that neurological disorders could have psychological causes, such as unexplained blindness caused by wanting to avoid seeing something that aroused intense anxiety

own-age bias

better recognition memory for faces of one's own age group

aggressive behavior emerges from the interaction of ________ and ________.

biology; experience

anterior cingulate cortex

brain region that monitors our actions and checks for errors; hyperactive in OCD patients

insight therapies

characterizes psychodynamic and humanistic therapies

evidence-based practice

clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences

high road

complex emotional stimuli travel to the cortex via the thalamus where they are analyzed an labeled before the response command is sent out via the amygdala (emotion control center)

positive support

compliments, sympathy, smiles - key to finding enduring love

rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes; part of the reason women are more likely to develop depression

what contributes to the feelings and thoughts that characterize anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD?

conditioning cognition biology

social-cognitive theorists believe that we learn many of our behaviors either through _________ or ________________________.

conditioning; observing and imitating others

Big Five Personality Traits (CANOE)

conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion

Obsessive thoughts

contamination fears, fears of harming oneself or others, pathological doubt; unwanted and repetitive thoughts

Zajonc; LeDoux

contended that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our interpretation of a situation; some embodied responses happen instantly without conscious appraisal ex. when a stimulus is flashed too briefly for the mind to interpret, test subjects preferred those stimuli even though they were unaware of having previously seen them ex. we automatically feel threatened by a sound i the forest before we label it as a threat

criticisms of dissociative identity disorder

critics believe that it is a fad constructive by therapist-patient interaction that was legitimized because it was included in the DSM; DID is virtually only present in north america and after the DSM included it diagnoses rose from 2 to 20,000

behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression

depressed people become inactive or feel alone, empty, hopeless; they more often avoid positive information and selectively attend to negative information and expect negative outcomes

genetic influences on depression

depression and bipolar run in families; the risk of diagnosis increases if a parent or sibling has it there is no "depression gene" identified yet, but linkage analysis points to the fact that many genes work together to result in depression depression has 40% heritability

depression over time

depression strikes earlier now than in past generations (typically adolescents)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

details the diagnostic criteria and codes used to guide medical treatment and diagnoses

lie scale

detects attempts made by patients to present themselves favorably and rejecting any shortcomings

Humanistic vs. Psychodynamic Therapy

humanistic therapy: -aims to boost self-fulfillment and self-esteem by growing in self-awareness and acceptance -promotes growth rather than curing illness -path to growth is taking immediate responsibility for ones feelings and actions rather than unconscious processes -conscious thoughts are more important than unconscious thoughts -the present and the future are more important than the past

dissociative disorders

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

what does natural mimicry allow us to do?

empathize and experience other people's moods

What brain abnormalities are associated with schizophrenia?

dopamine overactivity abnormal brain activity and anatomy

anti-anxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation by depressing central nervous system activity can often treat symptoms but not the problem

antidepressant drugs

drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters

We overestimate the _______ of our emotions and underestimate our ______ ___ ________.

duration; capacity to adapt moods are not permanent and trauma does not cause permanent downs

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

self-termination of depression

even without therapy most people recover from depression and return to normal

significant life changes

events such as moving, leaving home, losing a job

daily hassles

everyday irritations that cause small disruptions, the effects of which can add up to a large impact on health

subjectivity of diagnostic labels

ex. 8 test subjects went to different emergency rooms complaining of hearing voices and all of them were diagnosed with schizophrenia; even though they were healthy the psychiatrists found things in their lives/histories that 'explained' the cause of their 'mental illness' shows the power that the label of a mental disorder has on diagnosis and treatment; the medical professionals' judgements were colored by the initial diagnosis

what happens if we cannot alleviate our stress by coping?

ex. in an experiment 2 rats were exposed to simultaneous shocks and one was able to turn a wheel to stop the shocks; the one that could not alleviate the stressor became more susceptible to ulcers, lowered immunity and disease uncontrollable threats evoke the strongest responses because they are out of our personal control

trait theories

examine characteristic patterns of behavior

alcohol and depression

excessive alcohol correlates with depression because depression can increase alcohol use and alcohol misuse leads to depression

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

emotions are a mix of

expressive behaviors bodily arousal conscious experience

behavior emerges from the interplay of ______ and ______ influences

external; internal

Biology of extraversion

extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low; the frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition is less active in extraverts than introverts -dopamine neural activity is higher in extraverts

delusions

false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

mimicry and emotion

feedback effects involving mimicry of other people's facial expressions increase empathy by allowing us to feel how they feel

attitudes

feelings that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events; often influenced by our beliefs ex. if we believe someone is threatening us, we will feel anger towards them and act defensively

stress response system

fight or flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands, increasing heart and respiration rates, mobilizing sugar and fat, and dulling pain

alarm phase

first phase of the GAS, during which body resources are mobilized to cope with the stressor via sympathetic nervous system

positive character

focuses on exploring and enhancing creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality

in communities without protections against LGBTQ hate crime and discrimination,

gay and lesbian people experience substantially higher rates of depression, mental illness and suicide

creativity & bipolar disorder

genes associated with creativity increase likelihood of having bipolar disorder; people who rely on logic and precision typically are at lower risk for bipolar disorder

survivor resiliency/post-traumatic growth

greater appreciation for life, bounce back from traumatic experience

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing; was a way to retrieve, review and release childhood memories in the unconscious

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

jerry macguire effect

hearing a stranger say hello is enough for us to draw conclusions about a person's personality

2 neural pathways of emotions

high road low road

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

transferring

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

is taste aversion effective for treating alcoholism?

in the short run, 63% of people were not drinking alcohol but after 3 years post-aversion therapy they were cognition influences conditioning; people know they can drink without nausea outside the doctors office which can limit aversive conditioning

_______ amplifies victim blaming.

hindsight bias

Freud's theory of gender identity

identification with the same-sex parent provide our gender identity

benefits of short term stress

immense system strength motivation resilience

immigrant paradox

immigrants to the US generally have better mental health than their American-born counterparts

Alfred Alder

importance of childhood tension - growth motivation, deficiency motivation - "inferiority complex"

Preconscious

in Freud's theory, the level of consciousness in which thoughts and feelings are not conscious but are readily retrieveable to consciousness

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

social anxiety disorder

intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such; even though this behavior reduces their anxiety, it is maladaptive

self-defeating beliefs

intensely negative assumptions about themselves, their situations, and their futures lead them to magnify bad experience and minimized good ones; common in depressed people

Dysfunctional/Maladaptive Behavior

interferes with everyday life; characterizes psychological disorders

voluntary control over expressiveness

introverts attempting to be act extroverted are less expressive than actually extroverted people; it is difficult to voluntarily control our expressiveness

classification is important in psychology and psychiatry because

it characterizes a person's disordered thoughts, feelings and behaviors and it aims to predict a disorder's future course, suggest an appropriate treatment and prompt research into its causes

what is the most serious problem with Freud's theory?

it does not predict behaviors or traits, it only offers after-the-fact explanations ex. if you are angry at your mothers death, Freud offers says that you have unresolved childhood dependency and if you are not angry it is because you are repressing your anger Freud never claimed that psychoanalysis was a predictive science, he claimed that psychoanalysts could find meaning in our state of mind

how effective is behavior modification?

it is if the patients are weaned off of the operant conditioning system effectively; the rewarded behaviors are generally rewarding in themselves so this promotes patients doing them on their own volition

normal depression is a form of ________ __________.

psychic hibernation; it slows us down, prompting us to conserve energy when we experience a sad/discouraging event so we can redirect our energy in more promising ways ex. mild sadness helps people pay more attention details and to think more critically to make better decisions

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety some anxieties are free-floating and are not linked to a specific stressor or threat

secure self-esteem

less fragile, less contingent on external evaluations, and more likely to achieve a greater quality of life

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings. ex. people who are secretly gay but identify outwardly as straight express more anti-gay sentiments

unconscious mind

level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness

much of our emotional life operates via the automatic, speedy ___________.

low road; some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking

eclectic

made up of a variety of sources or styles

Who do we compare ourselves to?

mainly the people in our peer/status group ex. a person below the poverty line is more likely to compare themselves relative to their own group rather than jeff bezos

antipsychotic drugs

medications that are used to treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders; work by blocking dopamine receptor sites to prevent overactive dopamine systems

gendered stress responses

men are more likely to withdraw socially after experiencing stress and women are more likely to tend-and-befriend and nurture (oxytocin)

freud believed that psychological troubles resulted from

men's and women's unresolved conflict with their expected roles (male dominance and female submission, sexual repression, etc.)

personality disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

Does catharsis work?

no engaging in aggressive behavior increases the likelihood of later aggression

Does money make people happy?

no, money tends to lead to greedy people and greedy people aren't happy because they can never be satisfied economic growth in affluent countries does not boost social or moral well-being money provides a sense of security and control over life, but excessive wealth does not increase happiness

do disorders increase risk of violence and can clinicians predict who is likely to do harm?

no; most violent criminals are not mentally ill and most clinical prediction of violence is unreliable; the mentally ill are more likely to be the victims of crimes than the perpetrators

when do people tend to commit suicide?

not when they are in the depths of depression (energy and initiative are lacking), but when they have rebounded and are capable of following through

major depressive disorder

occurs when at least 5 symptoms of depression last 2 or more weeks

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts; this persuasion requires more thought and is more durable ex. arguments of climate change's existence

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness ex. celebrity endorsements

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

our experience of emotion depends on physical arousal and conscious cognitive labelling; spillover effect ***argues that an emotional experiences requires a conscious interpretation of arousal

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience ex. we can be given our ideal utopia but we will eventually become accustomed to it and require new stimuli to give us the same level of satisfaction

introverts and emotion detection

overall better at detecting other's emotions based off emotional facial and body expressions

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us) we stand out less than we imagine

postive symptoms of schizophrenia

presence of inappropriate behaviors; may experience hallucinations, talk in disorganized and deluded ways, and exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage

depression is a response to _____ and ______ stress and anxiety is a response to ___________________.

present; current; threat of a future loss trauma, abuse or loss can result in depression

Transcranial electrical stimulation (tDCS)

produces brain seizures with 800mA of electricity to treat depression

social cognitive theory

referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world

possible selves

representations of what we could become, what we would like to become, and what we are afraid of becoming Possible selves motivate us to lay out specific goals that direct our energy efficiently and effectively; we are more likely to succeed if we have a clear vision of ourselves succeeding

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others; breeds liking

Why is depression so common among young Westerners?

rise of individualism and the decline in commitment to religion and family

what happens during prolonged stress?

risky-decisions making unhealthy behaviors substance abuse pregnant women gave shorter pregnancies

positive well-being

satisfaction with the past, happiness with the present, and optimism about the future

preventative mental health

seeks to prevent psychological casualties by identifying and alleviating the conditions that cause them achieved by making life more fulfilling and meaningful

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

prosocial behavior

socially desirable behavior that benefits others

diminished and inappropriate emotions in schizophrenia

some people might laugh or be happy at inappropriate times, like when talking about a family death; other might lapse into an emotionless flat affect state of no apparent feeling due to lack of normal brain reward center activation most have impaired theory of mind

social roles

shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave; when you adopt a new role you strive to follow the social prescription of that role ex. stanford prison experiment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

satisfaction and disappointment have ______ _______.

short half-lives

Psychopathology

sickness or disorder of the mind

binge eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

similarity

similarity breeds content; opposites retract

low road

simple emotions like fears, likes, dislikes bypass the cortex; stimuli traveling from the eye or the ear directly to the amygdala, via the thalamus **enables quick, instinctual emotional responses, like detecting danger from fear

gene-environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed ex. people genetically predisposed to aggression are most likely to exhibit antisocial behavior is they are raised in a difficult home environment

emotion is not only a biological phenomenon, it is a ____________ _____________.

social-cultural phenomenon ex. cultures that encourage assimilation like japan have lower levels of expressivity and how they express emotions ex. irish americans and irish people have similar levels of expressivity

rejection and depression feed each other

spouses may threaten to leave, bosses question competence of depressed people; people predisposed to depression often experience depressing events

social facilitation

strengthened performance in simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others ex. teams perform better when they have the home-field advantage

acculturative stress

stress resulting from the need to change and adapt a person's ways to the majority culture or a new environment

compulsive behavior

strong, usually irresistible, impulse to perform an act against a person's usual behavior (behavioral response to obsessive thoughts)

Do violent video games teach social scripts for violence?

studies of young adults reveal that those who play violent video games regularly become more aggressive and see the world as more hostile; the active participation and rewarded violence of these games have greater affects than violent TV and movies

stress inoculation training

teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations by 'talking back' to negative thoughts with positive responses ex. "this exam is going to be impossible and i will fail" --> "the exam will be difficult for everyone and you studied as much as you could"

biology and personality traits

temperament and traits are influences by nature ex. those with a reactive autonomic nervous system respond to stress with greater anxiety and inhibition

pleasure principle

tendency of the id to strive for immediate gratification ex. a newborn infant cries out for satisfaction of needs and cares nothing for the outside worlds conditions

in-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards; essential to reducing stress

conscious awareness

the ability to perceive one's experiences; typically inferred from the ability to verbally describe them

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

the absence of appropriate behaviors (expressionless faces, rigid bodies)

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

medical model

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

what was the medical breakthrough that prompted mental health reforms?

the discovery that syphilis infects the brain and distorts the mind

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity; ex. cyberbullying **being in a group causes people to be both aroused and anonymous

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group; occurs when like-minded people segregate ex. low prejudice students become even more accepting when discussing racial issues, vice versa; terrorist ideology

we define our social identity based on ___________.

the groups to which we belong, thus our natural tendency is to "otherize"

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

two-factor theory of emotion

the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive focuses on the study of positive emotions rather than negative traits

mood contagion

the spillover of one's positive or negative moods onto others

Pyschoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition ex. someone in class might be quiet but they are loud at parties

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable ex. people cheer quieter in crowds than they would if they are alone

exhaustion phase

third phase of the GAS, during which the body's resources become depleted

is therapy effective?

those not undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve quicker and with less risk of relapse

catastrophes

unpredictable, large-scale disasters that threaten us

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

what are better predictors of violence?

use of alcohol/drugs, pervious violence, gun availability

mood stabilizing drugs

used to treat mood instability and bipolar disorders; an example is lithium

psychodynamic theories

view human behavior as a dynamic interactions between the conscious mind and unconscious mind, including associated motives and conflicts descend from psychoanalysis

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

blatant interracial prejudice _______, subtle prejudice ______.

wanes; lingers

natural selection and anxiety disorders

we are biologically prepared to fear the threats faced by our ancestors; evolutionarily relevant fears are easy to condition and difficult to extinguish ex. snakes, spiders, storms

Does repression exist?

we sometimes preserve our self-esteem by neglecting threatening information, but repression is a rare/nonexistent response to trauma extreme, prolonged stress of chronic abuse can disrupt memory by damaging the hippocampus

gender and emotion

women surpass men when it comes to reading peoples emotions; females have nonverbal sensitivity that allows them greater emotional literacy, responsiveness, and expressiveness ex. because women are considered more emotionally perceptive, their expressions of emotion are more attributed to their "emotional disposition" rather than circumstances ex. she is emotional vs. he is just in a bad mood women are more likely to express empathy, but there is not difference in physiological response amongst the genders women experience emotional events more deeply and with more brain activation in brain areas sensitive to emotion; they also remember emotional scene more in-depth

Are Type A personalities at a higher risk of developing heart disease than Type B personalities?

yes; the core risk factor for Type As is negative emotions and especially the anger associated with an aggressively reacting temperament

benefits of relaxation

• You'll improve the way your body responds to stress physiologically and psychologically. • You'll get sick less often, have fewer headaches, experience less muscle soreness, and other stress related maladies, have fewer emotional outbursts, more energy, improved concentration, a greater ability to handle problems, and exhibit more efficiency in daily activities. ex. relaxation reduces risk of repeat heart attacks in type A heart attack survivors by 50%; also improves would healing