Psych 102 Ch. 10

Emotional intelligence

- Ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions - Consists of 4 abilities 1. Perceiving emotions: recognizing them in faces, music and stories 2. Understanding emotions: predicting them and how they may change and blend 3. Managing emotions: knowing how to express them different situations 4. Using emotions: to enable adaptive or creative thinking - Emotionally intelligent people are socially aware AND self aware - Enjoy higher quality of interactions with friends, avoid being hijacked by overwhelming depression, anxiety or anger - They can read other peoples emotional cues and know what to say to soothe the grieving person and help manage a conflict - Appreciate long range reward rather than get caught up in immediate impulses - They are emotionally smart and often succeed in career, marriage, and parenting situations where academically (but emotionally less intelligent) people might fail --> Concern: emotional intelligence stretches the idea of intelligence too far

Sternberg's 3 intelligences

- Agrees with Gardner that there isomer to success than traditional intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences - Triarchic theory (proposes 3 intelligences rather than 9)

Normal curve

- Bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes - Most shoes fall near the average, and fewer lie on the extremes - On intelligence test: average score is 100 - For both Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests, a person's score indicates whether that person's performance fell above or below the average --> being above by about 2 percent gives you a score at about 130 --> Score lower than 98 percent of all scores earns a score of 70 - The tests are constantly restandardized every year

Savant syndrome

- Condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental abilities except they still have an exceptional specific skill, like in computation or drawing - 4/5 people with this syndrome are males and many will also have ASD Ex: rain man, could read and remember a page in 8s, memorized books, provided gps like directions but couldn't button his shirt. Little capacity for abstract concepts

Down syndrome

- Condition of mild to sever intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

Gardner and Sternberg

- Differ but also still agree - Agree: multiple abilities can contribute to life success, AND differing varieties of giftedness add spice to life and challenges for education

Ex: group differences and environmental impact

- Even if variation between members within a group reflects genetic differences, average difference between groups may be folly due to the environment - Seeds from same mixture are put into different soils - Although height differences within each window box of flowers will be genetic, the height between the two groups will be environmental - Variation within group is genetic - Variation between groups is environmental

Reliability

- Extent to which a test yields consistent results as assessed by the consistency of scores of two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test or on retesting - Consistency - If the two scores generally agree, or correlate, the test is reliable = Higher correlation between test-retest or split-half scores, the higher the test's reliability

Galton

- Fascinated in studying human traits - Cousin: Charles Darwin- proposed nature selects successful traits through survival of the fittest - Galton wondered if it might be possible to measure "natural ability" and to encourage those of high ability to mate with one another - Coined nature vs nurture Test for intellectual strengths: based on reaction time, sensory acuity, muscular power, body proportions didn't lead to any sort of conclusion about a simple intelligence measure - Persistent belief in the inheritance of genius - Eugenics- proposed that measuring huiman traits and usig the results to encourgae smart and fit people only to reproduce

Binet and Simon

- From France - People of France concerned that new comers would struggle and need special classes - But how could schools make fair judgements about children's learning potential? - They were put in charge to investigate this problem - First: New methods for Diagnosing the Idiot, the imbecile and the moron --> Assuming that all children follow same cores of intellectual development but that some develop more rapidly - "Dull" child: score like a typical younger child - "Bright" child: like a typical older child --> Goal became measuring each child's mental age - They didn't make assumptions about why a particular child was slow, average, or precocious --> Binet leaned towards environmental explanation - To raise low-scoring children, he suggested "mental orthopaedics" which would help with attention span and self-discipline - Believed that intelligence test didn't not measure inborn intelligence - Intelligence test had single purpose: identify French school children who needed extra attention thus improving their education, but he also feared it would be use to label children and limi their opportunities

Satoshi Kanazawa

- General intelligence evolved as form of intelligence that helps people solve novel (unfamiliar) problems Ex: how to stop fire from spreading, how to reunite with one's tribe after a flood - More typical problems like how to mate, read a stranger's face or how to find your way back to camp- require a different kind of intelligence - General intelligence score do correlate with the ability to solve various novel problems (like those in academic and vocational situations) but do NOT correlate much o individuals' skills in evolutionarily familiar situations like marrying, parenting, forming close friendships and navigating without a map

Review: what did Binet hope to achieve by establish a child's mental age?

- He hoped that the child's mental age (the age they typically corresponds to the child's level of performance)., would help identify appropriate school placements of children

Review: in prosperous country X,everyone eats all they want. In country Y, the rich are well fed, but the semi starved poor are very thin. In which country will the heritability of body weight be greater?

- Heritability (differences due to genes) of body weight will be in country X where environmental differences in available nutrition are minimal

Review: A check on your understanding of heritability: if environments become more equal, the heritability of intelligence would

- Heritability: variation explained by genetic influences- will increase as environmental variation decreases

Validity

- High reliability doesn't mean validity - It is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to Ex: miscalibrated tape measure for heigh. Results would be reliable, no matter how many time you remeasure, their results would be the same. BUT your results wouldn't be valid- it's not their real height --> Content validity: extent to which a test samples the behaviour that is of interest Ex; road test for drivers license has content validity because it samples tasks a driver routinely faces Ex: course exams have it too if they assess one's mastery of a representative sample of course material --> Predictive validity: success with which test predicts the behaviour it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behaviour (aka criterion-related validity)

Review: why do psychologists NOT diagnose an intellectual diabiltiy based solely on the person's intelligence test score?

- IQ score is only one measure of a person's ability to function - Other important functions to consider in an overall assessment include conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills

Gardner

- Identified 8 relatively independent intelligences, including verbal and mathematical aptitudes assessed by standard tests - Proposed a possible 9th intelligence: existential intelligence - the ability to ponder large questions about life, death, existence

Socioeconomic standing and differences in intelligence

- If we mainly inherit our mental abilities, and if success reflects those abilities, then people's socioeconomic standing will correspond to inborn differences --> leads us to believing their intellectual birthright justifies their social position - Children from disadvantaged environments can expect the same type of life - SO people's standings will result from heir unequal opportunities

William Stern

- Intelligence quotients/IQ = ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus IQ = ma/ca x100) - Now: it's define d as average performance for a given age assigned a score of 100 Ex: when mental age and chronological age are the same, they have a score of 100 but an 8 year old who has a typical 10 year old intelligence has an IQ of 125 - Original IQ formula worked well for kids but not adults Ex: should a 40 y old who does as well as a 20 year old get an IQ for 50? - Now: IQ test score represents "relative to the average performance of others the same age" - About 2/3 fall in the 85-115 range

There is no recipe to fast forward intelligence

- Just need normal exposure to sights, sounds and speech

Mental age

- Measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance - SO: child who does as well as an average 8 y old is said to have a mental age of 8 EX: children age 9 who are average will have a mental age of 9. If they are below average, they would be likely to perform at a level of age 7 How to measure: - Mental aptitude, is a general capacity that shows up in various ways

Intelligence test

- Method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

Success

- Mix of talent with grit - Those who become very successful tend also to be conscientious, well connected, and energetic Ericsson: 10 year rule: you need about 10 years of intense training in an activity or skill in order to be amazing with a minimum of 3000 hours to 11 000 really a combo of nature + nurture

David Wechsler

- Most widely used individual intelligence test: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) together with a version for school aged children (the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) and another for preschool kids WAIS consists of 15 subtests including - Similiarities- reasoning the commonality of two objects or concepts (ex: in what way are wool and cotton alike?) - Block design- visual abstract processing (ex: using the four blocks, make one just like this) - Vocab- Naming picture objects, or defining words (ex: what is a guitar?) - Letter-number sequencing- hearing a series of numbers and letters, repeat the numbers in ascending order and then the letters in alphabetical order (ex: R 2 C 1 M 3) - WAIS yields an overall intelligence score (like the Stanford-Binet) but ALSO scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory and processing speed --> Differences in scores can show cognitive strengths or weaknesses - These tests help with Binet's aim: identify opportunities for improvement and strengths that that teaches and others can build upon

Are general aptitude tests as predictive as they are reliable?

- No - Predictive power of aptitude tests is fairly strong in early school years but weakens later

Standardization

- Number of questions you answered right on an intelligence test would tell you pretty much nothing - To know how well you did, you'd need a basis of comparison - Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance elf a pretested group

Thurstone

- One of Spearman's greatest opponents - Gave people a test on word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning and memory - Identitfied 7 clusters or primary mental abilities - He didn't rank people on a single aptitude scale - They did discover that people who were good in one area of intelligence, were often really good in another = evidence of a g factor

Plato

- Pioneer of the individualist tradition - No two person are born exactly alike; but each differs from other in natural endowments, one being suited for one occupation and the other for another - Lead to thinking about how and why individuals differ in mental ability

Malnutrition

- Plays a role on cognitive development

Review: What are the three criteria that a psychological test must meet in order to be widely accepted?

- Psychological test must be standardized (pretested on a similar group of people), reliable (yielding consistent results), and valid (measuring what it is supposed to measure)

Racial and Ethnic similarities and differences in intelligence

- Racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores - High scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high level so education and income - Black white different has diminished sort of recently especially among children so group differences provide little basis for judging - Heredity contributes to individual differences in intelligence - Group differences in a heritable trait may be entirely environmental - Under the skin, races are remarkably alike aka looks can deceive - Race is not a neatly defined biological category: race is more so a social construction without well defined physical boundaries. Mixed ancestry makes neat racial categorization and self identity as multiracial - Schools and culture matter: countries whose economies create large wealth gaps between rich and poor tend to have large differences between rich and poor in intelligence - When blacks and whites have or receive the same knowledge, they exhibit similar info processing skills

Gender differences and similarities in intelligence

- Relatively minor differences - 1932: Testing all Scottish 11 y old girls' average intelligence score was 100.6 and boys' was 100.5 - As far a "g" (aka general intelligence) is concerned, men and women are the same BUT: - girls do better in spelling, verbal fluency, locating objects, detecting emotions, and sensitivity to touch, taste and colour - Boys: outperform when it comes to spatial ability and complex math problems (overall ability in math is about even though) -> males mental ability scores vary more than females - Boys worldwide outnumber the girls at both extremes - Most reliable male edge is in spatial ability tests like puzzles where the blocks are all different shapes - Solution involves quick rotation of 3D objects in the mind - They says that playing action video games increases spatial abilitie, making more men better at it than females - Steven Pinker: biology affects gender difference in life priorities (women: greater interest in people vs men who care more about money and things), risk taking (men), and in math and spatial abilities.

Genes or environment?

- Researchers compare the intelligence test scores of adopted children with those of: 1. Biological parents 2. Adoptive parents --> Over time, adopted children accumulate expiernece in their differing adoptive families - Turns out: mental similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families wane with age until the correlation reaches about 0 Results: Verbal ability scores - Children and their birth parent: increase significantly - Adopted children and their birth parents :increase significantly - Adopted children and their adoptive parents: decrease! (low correlation to start and decreases even more) --> Reality is that even if we were all raised in the same environment, we would have differing aptitudes and life experiences matter too

Zagorsky

- Scaterplot - Intelligence scores correlated +.30, a moderate positive correlation with their later income

School and intelligence

- School and intelligence interact and lead to income later on - Hunt: strong believer in ability of education to boost children's chances for success by developing their cognitive and social skills --> Lead to launching of Project Head Start in the US for 30 million children, most of whom come from families below poverty level -- Increases school readiness, and gives modest boost to later health and high school completion - BUT: aptitude benefits fade over time (reminding us that life experiences after Head Start matter too!) - Intensive, high quality preschool programs - Intelligence scores rise with nutritional supplements to pregnant moms and newborns - Interactive reading programs important too --> Genes and experience together weave the fabric of intelligences (Epigenetic: field that studies nature-nurture meeting place) - BUT: what we accomplish also depends on our own beliefs and motivation - Motivation can even impact intelligence test performance (ex: when telling them that money for doing well is involved, adolescents score higher) - Carol Dweck - Believes: intellences is changeable, not fixed, and can foster a "growth mind-set which focuses on learning dn growing - The brain is like a muscle; grows stronger with use as neon connections grow - Praise children's effort rather than ability encourages growth mind set and their attributing success to hard work - Growth mind set makes teens more resilient when others frustrate them

Ian Deary

- Scotland - His longitudinal studies set up the country to do something unheard of: - Essentially every child born in 1921: 87 498 children around age 11, took an intelligence test - Purpose: identify the working class children who would benefit from more education - Lead to tons of studies on stability and predictive capacity of the early test results - Studies confirm remarkable stability of intelligence, independent of life circumstances - High scoring 11 y olds were more likely to be living independently and without Alzheimer's disease - Majority of the highest 25% of female scorers, most were still alive at 76 than those who scored in the lowest 25% (note that many of the men died in WW1) 4 possible reasons why more intelligent people might live longer: 1. Intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and a healthier environment 2. Intelligence encourages healthy living: less smoking, better diet, more exercise 3. Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses might have influenced both intelligence and health 4. A "well- wired body" as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, perhaps fosters both intelligence and longevity "Whether you live to collect your old age pension depends in part on your IQ at 11"

Social expectations

- Social expectations, and divergent opportunities shape interests and abilities Russia: - teen girls outperformed boys in science exam while in NA and Britain, boys tend to out perform

Focus of societies

- Some focus on promoting on collective welfare of the family, community and society - Others emphasize individual opportunity

Lewis Terman

- Started using Binet's tests for numerical measure of inherited intelligence - Adapted some original items, adding others, and establishing new age norms - Gave his revision the name it still has today "Stanford-Binet" - Promoted widespread use of intelligence testing to "take account of inequalities of chidlren in original endowment" by assessing their vocational fitness - Believe that use of intelligence tests would lead to reproduction cut of feeble-mindedness and in the eleimination of a large amount of crime, and inefficiency - Helped create and apply intelligence tests to WW1 returnees

Stereotype threat

- Steven Spencer: gave a hard math test to equally capable men and women, but the women didn't do as well EXCEPT for when men were told that women usually do as well on the test - Stereotype threat: academic success can be hampered by self-doubt and self monitoring during exams, which may impair attention, memory and performance Ex: Black students were reminded of their race just before a verbal aptitude tests and performed worse - SO: negatively stereotyped minorities and women may have unrealized academic potential - So stop telling yourself that you may not do well for whatever reason. Tell yourself it's a warm up exercise rather than a test - Obama effect: finding that African American adults performed better if the took a verbal aptitude test immediate after watching Obama's steortype defying nomination acceptance speech or his presidential victory Steele: telling kids they won't do well functions as a steortype that can erode performance which may detach their self esteem from academics and look for recognition elsewhere

Iranian orphanage

- Studied by McVicker Hunt - Typical child couldn't sit up unassisted at age 2 or walk at age 4 - Care was not in response to their crying, cooing, or other behaviours so the children developed little sene of personal control over the environment - Extreme deprivation also severely impacted native intelligence (also confirmed by studies of orphanages in Romania) - Hunt started a training program of "tutored human enrichment" for the Iranian caregivers, teaching them to play language fostering games with 11 infants --> Babbled like the babies and eventually taught them the sounds of Persian language - Results: by 22 mo, the infants could name more than 50 objects and body parts and so visitors adopted the babies --> Strong believer in ability of education to boost children's chances for success by developing their cognitive and social skills

High extreme

- Terman studied many Californian schoolchildren with IQ over 135 - Healthy, well amused and unusually successful academically - Those who aced the math SAT at age 13 by scoring in the top quarter of 1 percent of their age group found them at age 33- twice as likely to have patents as those in the bottom quarter of the top 1% - Piaget: at 15 published scientific articles on mollusks and went on to become the most famous developmental psychologist - Children with great academics are sometimes more isolated, shy and in their own worlds but will still thrive - Gifted programs: belief that only 3-5% of children are gifted and that its important to identity and track them, put them in social classes that are more enriching but not available to their peers - Those who are labelled "ungifted" take on their role and do exact that - be ungifted - Denying lower ability students opportunities for enriched education can widen achievement gap between ability groups and increase their social isolation from one another - Minority and low income youth are more often placed in lower academic groups, tracking can promote segregation and prejudice thus preventing a multicultural society --> Children have differing gifts. Some exhibit exceptional potential or talent in a given domain. Educating codlin as if all were alike is naive as assuming gifted is something like blue eyes. one need not hang labels on children to affirm their special talents and to challenge them at all frontiers of their ability and understanding - Must provide appropriate placement suited to each kids talents - Allows us to promote both equity and excellence

Achievement tests

- Test designed to assess what a person has learned Ex: school exams

Aptitude test

- Test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn Ex: college entrance exam seeks to predict your ability to do college work

Review: what is the difference between a test that is biased culturally and one that is biased in terms of its validity?

- Test may be culturally biased if higher scores are achieved by those with certain cultural experiences - The same test may not be biased in terms of validity if it predicts what is is suppose to predict Ex: SAT may be culturally biased in favour of those with experience in the US school system, but it does still accurately predict US college success

Conclusions about aptitude tests and bias

- Tests are not biased in scientific sense of failing to make valid statistical predictions for different groups BUT - They are biased in sensitivity to performance differences caused by cultural experience --> The tests are both and not discriminatory.. - Yes: their purpose is to discriminate - No: their purpose is to reduce discrimination by decreasing reliance on subjective criteria for school and ob placement SO: - Realize benefits that intelligence testing (Binet) foresaw: to enable schools to recognize who might profit most from early intervention - Remain alert to Binet's fear that intelligence scores may be misinterpreted as liberal measures of a person's worth and potential - Remember that the competence that general intelligence tests sample is important: enables success in some life paths, but reflects only one part of personal competence, while missing irrational thought and other kinds of thinking (practical and emotional intelligence matter too) --> There are many ways to be successful - Human adaptability is key - ability is great but not the only thing - Motivation - Competence and diligence = accomplishment

Intelligence

- Typically known as "school smarts" - BUT: it's not a quality (like heigh or weight) which has the same meaning to everyone - Intelligence: qualities of that enable success in their own time and culture --> It is the mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Bias

- We can consider a test biased if it detects not only innate differences in intelligence but also performance differences case day cultural experiences - Ex: the cup goes with the saucer - Could this item bias the best against those who don't use them? Could this explain cultural differences in test performance? --> People have suggested making culture neutral questions like assessing people' stability o learn novel words, sayings and analogies to enable culture fair aptitude tests - Defenders of current aptitude tests note that racial group differences persist on non verbal items like counting digits backwards therefore adding blame to the group's lower scores is like blaming a messenger for bad news SO: out expectations and attitudes can influence our perceptions and behaviours

Stability over the life span

- What about stability of intelligence scores early in the life? --> Infants and toddlers' attention, processing speed, and learning give some clue to they intelligence score in later childhood and early adulthood - Causal observation and intelligence tests before age 3 only modestly predict their future aptitudes - Age 4: children's performance on the aptitude tests begins to predict they adolescent and adult scores - Consistency of scores over time increases with age

Stanford-Binet

- Widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford university) of Binet's original intelligence test

Review: How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?

- people with this syndrome have limited mental ability overall but possess one or more exceptional skills with according to Howard Gardener, suggests then our abilities come in separate packages rather than being fully expressed by one general intellect encompasses all of our talents

Poverty

--> Poor environmental conditions can depress cognitive development - many poverty level children often have less qualified teachers - Poverty related stresses also impede cognitive performance -- poverty can deplete cognitive capacity

Triarchic theory

1. Analytic (academic problem solving) intelligence- assessed by intelligence tests, which present well defined problems having single right answer - predicts school grades well 2. Creative intelligence- demonstrated by innovative smarts: ability to general novel ideas 3. Practical intelligence - needed for everyday tasks that aren't well defined and may have many solutions - Ex: depends less on academic problem solving - Sternberg and Wagner offer a test of practical managerial intelligence that measures skill at writing good memos, motivating people, delegating tasks and responsibilities, reading people and promoting one's own career - Business men who score high on this test will be high salaried

Environmental factors that impact intelligence

1. Environmental differences are more predictive of intelligences scores 2. Adoption enhances intelligence scores of mistreated or neglected children- so does adoption from poverty into middle class homes 3. Inelligence scores of virtual twins- same age, unrelated siblings adopted as infants and raised together - correlate +0.28 suggesting a modest influence of their shared environment

genetics influence intelligence (heritability)

1. Intelligence test scores of Identical twins raised together are nearly as similar as those of the same person making the test twice - Heritability: proportion of variation between individuals that an be attribute to genes. Heritabiliy of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied - Identical twins exhibit substantial similarity in specific talents like math, music, sports, with heeredity accounting for more than 50% of variation in national math and science exam scores - Fraternal twins who only share about half of their genes differ a lot more 2. Scans reveal that twins brains have similar grey and white matter volume - Their brains show similar activity while doing mental tasks 3. There are chromosomal regions important for intelligence - There are specific genes that seemingly influence variation in intelligence and learning disorders - Attempts to isolate one particular gene hasn't happened Results of identical twins test: - Identical twins raised together: high correlation - Identical twins raised apart: lower correlation (suggests the environment does sort of impact) - Fraternal twins raised together: lower corelation than identical (suggests genetic effects) - Siblings raised together and unrelated individuals raised together (lower than all of the above)

What happens to our intellectual muscles as we age?

1. Phase 1: cross sectional evidence for intellectual decline - Cross sectional studies: researchers test people at different ages - WAIS showed that older adults answer correctly less than younger adults. - "Everyone knows you can't each an old dog new tricks" 2. Phase 2: Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability - They retested the same cohort (same group of people) over a period of years - Until late in life, intelligence remained stable (on some tests, it even increased) - The myth that intelligence declines with age, was laid to rest - "Everyone knows, that given good health, you're never too old to learn" 3. Phase 3: It all Depends - Each study had its short comings - Maybe all the people who died younger and were removed from the study had declining intelligence - Intelligence is not a single trait but rather multiple abilities - Tests that assess speed of thinking may place older adults at a disadvantage because of their slower neural processing but this doesn't mean less intelligence -SO: answers to our age and intelligence questions depend on what we assess and how we assess it - Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocal and analogies tests (increase up to old age) - Fluid intelligence: ability o reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving novel logic problems, decreases bringing in the twenties and thirties, slowly up to age 75 then more rapidly especially after 85 --> With age, we lose and win - we lose recall memory and processing speed - We can vocal knowledge - Decisions become less distorted by negative emotions like anxiety, depression and anger - Despite lesser fluid intelligence, older people display greater wisdom in seeing multiple perspectives allowing for compromise and recognizing the limits of what they know

To be widely accepted, a psych test must meet 3 criteria

1. Standardized 2. Reliable 3. Valid (Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests meet the requirements)

If race differences in intelligence exists..

3 categories: 1. There are genetically disposed racial differences in intelligence 2. There are socially influenced racial differences in intelligence 3. There are racial differences in test scores, but the tests are inappropriate or biased

Review: What is the IQ of a 4 year old with a mental age of 5?

5/4 x 100 = 125

General intelligence

AKA g - General intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test - All of our intelligent behaviour

Intellectual disability (the low extreme)

AKA mental retardation - Apparent before age 18 - Sometimes with a known physical cause - Condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or blow and difficulty adapting to the normal demands of independent living - Unuslaly low scores, one end of the extreme - the 3 conditions of independent living: 1. Conceptual skills: language, literacy, money, time and number 2. Social skills: interpersonal skills, social responsibility, and the ability to follow basic rules and laws and avoid being victimized 3. Practical skills: daily personal care, occupational skill, travel and health care - Now: those who have a lower intelligence score can still thrive! They used to be institutionalized - As the intellectual disability boundary has shifted, more people have become eligible for special education and for social security payments --> IN the US: fewer people are eligible for the death penalty because execution of a person with intellectual disability is cruel and unusual punishment

Reality

Ability + opportunity + motivation = success - High school students' math proficiency and college students' grades reflect their aptitude but also their self discipline, belief in power of effort and curious hungry mind

Review: An employer with a pool of applicants for a single available position is interested in testing each applicant potential. To help her decide who she should hire, she should use an ________ (achievement/aptitude) test. That same employer wishing to test the effectiveness of a new, on the job training program would be wise to use an ____ (achievement/aptitude) test.

Aptitude Achievement

Flynn effect

Comparing aptitude tests from 1930s to 1960/70, score has dropped but intelligence has actually increased - Indicates that the average person's intelligence test cscore in 1920 was 76 - Why is there an increase in intelligence? - Nutrition? Education? Environment? Less childhood disease? Smaller families?

Review: correlation coefficients were used in this section. They do not indicate cause-effect, but the do tell us whether two things are associated in some way. A correlation of -1.0 represents a perfect _____ between two sets of scores: As one goes up, the other goes ____. A correlation of ___ represents no association. The highest correlation, 1.0 represents a perfect ___: as the first score goes up, the other score goes ____

Disagreement Down Positive Up

Why does predictive power of aptitude scores diminish as spenders move up the educational ladder?

Ex: weight of a linemen in football correlates with success - 300 pound player tends to overwhelm a 200 pound one - But within the 280-320 ange at pro level, the correlation between weight and success becomes negligible - The narrower the range of weight, the lower the predictive power of body weight becomes - If a uni only took players with high aptitude scores, and then gives them a restricted range of high grades, the scores can't predict much --> We validate a measure using a wide range of scores, but then use it with a restricted range of scores, it does much of its predictive validity

Charles Spearman

General intelligence - Said we all have outstanding abilities but those who score high in one area (ex: verbal intelligence) often score higher than others in another area - Work done in "factor analysis": statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items - Turns out that several distinct abilities ten to cluster together and correlate to define a general intelligence factor -> distinct brain networks enable distinct abilities with a g explained by their coordinated activity - Idea of representing intelligence with a single score was controversial during his time

Social intelligence

Know how involved in social situations and managing yourself successfully (Cantor and Kihlstrom) - Can read social situations --> Proposed by Edward Thorndike: "best mechanic in a factory may fail as a foreman for lack of social intelligence

Factors that slow brain development

Malnutrition, sensory deprivation (Iranian orphanages) and social isolation

Review: Researcher A is well-funded to learn about how intelligence changes over the life span. Researcher B wants to study the intelligence of people who are now at various life stages. Which researcher should use the cross sectional method and which should use the longitudinal

Researcher A should use the longitudinal method. Researcher B should use the cross sectional method

Review: What psychological principle helps explain why women tend to perform more poorly when they believe their online chess opponent is male?

Stereotype threat