Psych 1102 Exam 3 Study Guide, Ch. 3-6

Assent

- Additionally, the researcher, if possible, asks the participant to give __________, which is an active affirmation of a desire to participate from a person who does not have the ability to consent themselves; consent must also be sought from the legal guardian

Justice (Belmont Principle 2)

- Another ethical consideration concerns issues of __________, which involves fairness when deciding who to use as study participants and what role they will play in the study.

Altruistic Perspective

- Another person may take an ______________ ______________, which involves helping without personal benefit.

Beneficence (Belmont Principle 1)

- As scientist, we value _____________- acting with the purpose of benefiting others. Our research should have the potential to benefit society, the field, and/or the participants involved.

Cost-benefit analysis

- Because psychologists must rely on others' help to pursue knowledge, we are ethically obligated at the beginning of any research endeavor to conduct a __________-_______________ ____________ to ensure that our study's potential positive outcomes exceed potential negative experiences or risks to participants.

Belmont Principles- 3 of them

- Beneficence, Justice and Respect For Persons

Loss of Confidentiality

- Regardless of the topic under investigation, researchers must avoid the potential risk of the _________ ___ ________________, which involves the responses or behaviors of individual participants becoming public knowledge of the focus of public scrutiny.

Egoism

- Still another person may ascribe to ____________, which states that individuals should act in accordance with their own self-interests.

Utilitarian Perspective

- You may adopt the ______________ _____________ that your decision should do the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Loss of Confidentiality

- _____ __ ________________ - a researcher must protect the privacy of individuals; a potential risk to participants.

APA Style

- _____ _________ a format for writing a research report, addressing both content and formatting, that was established by the American Psychological Association and that psychology and many other social sciences use.

APA Publication Manual

- _____ ______________ ____________ is a publication of the American Psychological Association that details how to write research reports in APA style.

Inter-Observer Reliability/ Inter-rater reliability

- ______-____________ __________ the level of agreement between two observers coding the same phenomenon, also known as _________-_______ ______________

Ethics

- _______ is the application of moral principles to help guide one's decisions and behavior.

Cost of not doing the research

- ________ __ ____ ______ _____ __________- considering the potential beneficial application of study findings when doing a cost-benefit analysis.

Title Page- APA

- ________ ________ the first page of an APA-style report that identifies the title of the work as well as the authors and their institutional affiliations.

Cost-benefit analysis

- ________-____________ __________ is an ethical principle of research in which a researcher weighs all the potential and known benefits against all the potential and known risks before conducting a study.

Results- APA

- __________ is the portion of an APA-style research report that provides information about how the hypotheses were tested, explaining through statistical language, narrative, and reference to tables and graphs.

Abstract- APA

- ___________ is a short summary of an entire research report that addresses the research topic, methodology used, findings, and conclusions.

Anonymity

- ____________ - a guarantee in research studies that individual responses cannot be linked back to individual participants.

Respect For Persons (Belmont Principle 3) Autonomy

- ____________ ____ ____________ recognizes the right of individuals to self-determination, the ability to make decisions about their own behaviors and outcomes.

Method- APA

- ____________ is the portion of a APA-style research report in which the researcher provides details about the sample, materials, and procedure of collecting data.

Discussion- APA

- ____________ is the portion of an APA- style research report in which the researcher interprets, explains, and applies the results of the study.

Autonomy

- _____________, or has respect for persons

Anonymity

- ______________ involves the pledge that participants' individual responses cannot link back to their personal identity.

Introduction - APA

- ______________ is the portion of an APA-style research report that provides background literature on the topic under investigation, as well as a justification of importance for the work and the hypothesis.

Autonomy

- _______________ - participants must freely make an informed decision about their participation in research.

Physical Harm

- _______________ _______ - a researcher must consider the physical toll that study participation may have; a potential risk to participants.

Reference Page- APA

- _______________ _______ is part of an APA-style research report in which referenced literary works are given credit.

Representative Sample

- _______________ ___________ is a sample with specific features that characterizes the population of interest.

Beneficence (Belmont Principle 1)

- _______________- actively promoting the welfare of others; ethical obligation to maximize benefits in research studies.

Psychological Harm

- __________________ ______ - emotional suffering or mental distress such a concern, worry, and decreased self-esteem- is perhaps the most immediately relevant risk when conducting psychological research.

Nonconcealed observation

- __________________ ________________ a participant observation in which observes inform participants that they are under observation.

Ethics

-________ involves the application of moral principles concerning what an individual considers right and wrong to help guide one's decisions and behavior.

Egoism

-__________ - ethical decisions should be based on acting in accordance with one's own self-interest.

Justice (Belmont Principle 2)

-___________ - fairness in selecting study participants and in determining which participants receive the benefits of participation and which bear the burden of risk.

Confederate

-_______________ is an accomplice of the experimenter.

Nonmaleficence

-_______________ is to do no harm; an ethical obligation to mitigate or eliminate risks to study participation.

Altruistic Perspective

-_________________ ______________ - ethical decisions should be based on helping without personal benefit. - From this viewpoint the best action is the most selfless action, although that person may have to decide whether it is more selfless to take a zero on the midterm or to sacrifice the friendship for the good of the class.

Utilitarian Perspective

-_________________ _______________ is that ethical decisions should be based on doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Behavioral choice

A behavioral measure involving participants making a purposeful selection from several options

Behavioral Observation

A behavioral measure that relies on directly seeing or observing behavior

Behavioral Trace

A behavioral measure that relies on evidence left behind by a participant who is no longer present

Case Study

A comprehensive description, organization, group, or person that studied over a period of time that contains information from a variety of sources

Demand characteristics

A cue that makes participants potentially aware of what the experimenter expects

Interview

A data collection technique that can mimic a conversations where the researcher elicits self-repot data directly from the participant

Quantitative Research

A generic term for methods that seek to objectively examine associations between variables, predict outcomes, and make comparisons

Qualitative Research

A generic term representing a variety of methodologies that focus on obtaining an in-depth account participants' perspective of their own world and their experience of events

Behavioral Measures

A measure of participants' actions in a research design

Concealed Observation

A participant observation in which the observer never reveals to the participants that they are under observation

Nonresponse bias

A potential systematic difference between those who refused to participate in a study and those who participated

Simple Random Sampling

A probability sampling method in which a subset of individuals are randomly selected from population members

Probability sampling

A sampling approach in which everyone in a given population as an equal change of selection for participation

Grounded theory technique

An approach where the researcher does not have any explicit theories or hypotheses to test prior to the research, but instead uses information from participants to generate the categories and build a theory

Unstructured Interview

An interview style where the researcher may anticipate potential topics but does not plan specific questions or the order of topics so that the interview is conversational and allows participants to describe their own views, share stories, and determine the interview's structure; allows the interviewer to probe to promote elaboration

Structured Interview

An interview style where the researcher prepares specific questions prior to the interview and asks them in a standardized, fixed order with little or no probing

Self Report

Any measurement technique that directly asks the participant how they think or feel

Archival Data

Data that has already been collected in a naturally occurring setting, such as newspapers, health records, or Twitter Postings

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Designs within which random assignment cannot be used

Cluster Random Sampling

Dividing the total population into groups then using simple random sampling to select which clusters participate; all observations in a selected cluster are included in the sample

Bias; Systematic Error

Error that consistently pushes scores in a given direction

Chapter 3

Ethics

Nonprobability sampling

Everyone in the population does not have an equal change of being sampled, therefore creating a bias in your sample

Snowball Sampling

Existing study participants recruit future participants from among their acquaintances

Error

Extraneous influences that will cause the raw score to deviate from the true score

Quota Sampling

Freely choosing any participant as long as they meet an already established quota

Stratified Random Sampling

Includes dicing the population into strata or subpopulations and using simple random sampling to select participants from each strata in proportion to the population at large

Standardization

Keeping the experimental situation the same for everyone

Observer/Scorer Bias

Misinterpreting an observation based on the researcher's existing beliefs, previous experiences, or expectations

Convenience sampling

Nonrandom selections of participants who are readily available to the researcher to server as the sample

Floor effect

Occurs when the lower boundary of a measurement tool is set too high, leading most to select the lowest response.

Participant Reactivity

Participants act differently or unnaturally because they know someone is watching them.

Plagiarism

Representing the ideas or words of others as one's own, or without giving proper credit

True Experiments

Researcher manipulates all the independent variables

Unobtrusive Measures

Strategies that allow for observation and assessment without participants awareness

Raw score

The actual score, comprised of a true score and error

Validity

The degree to which a tool measures what it claims to measure

Sampling Plan

The explicit strategy used for recruiting participants from the population

External Validity

The extent to which study findings are applicable or generalize outside the data collection setting to other persons, in other places, at other times

Sensitivity

The range of data a researcher can gather from a particular instrument

Purposive Sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study; used when a limited number of people have expertise in the area under investigation

Reliability

The stability or consistency of a measure

Social Desirability

The tendency for respondents to give answers that make them look good

Quasi-Independent Variables

Variables treated as independent in the experimental design even though researchers do not manipulate them

Random error

Variation from the measure's true score due to unsystematic or change factors

True score

What your score would be if the test were a perfect measure of the attribute being tested and were uninfluenced by any extraneous factors.

Reactivity

When individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are under observation

Retrospective Bias

When participants view or interpret past events in an inaccurate way

b. determining whether to tell on your manager at work for stealing from the register

Your Turn 3.1 1. Which of the following would most likely represent an ethical dilemma for a person? a. obeying the speed limit b. determining whether to tell on your manager at work for stealing from the register c. deciding whether to adhere to your workplace's dress code d. cheating on your income taxes

c. Justice

Your Turn 3.1 2. Selecting only homeless individuals to participate in our study although we have no real theoretical reason to use the homeless violates which ethical principle? a. Beneficence b. Nonmaleficence c. Justice d. Autonomy

c. that the participant cannot quit after signing the informed consent

Your Turn 3.1 3. An informed consent should address all of the following except: a. any foreseeable risks or discomfort b. that the participant's participation is voluntary c. that the participant cannot quit after signing the informed consent d. that the responses will be confidential

c. the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

Your Turn 3.2 1. A marriage counselor wants to evaluate the efficacy of a new approach to help couples communicate better in public settings and among strangers. Before this study can be conducted, approval is needed from all of the following groups except a. the female participants in the study b. the Institutional Review Board c. the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee d. the male participants in the study

a. Offer research participation in your study as one of the options for fulfilling a course requirement.

Your Turn 3.2 2. Suppose that you are a psychology professor who wants to recruit research participants form your class. Which of the following strategies would be best for ensuring that you are preserving your students' autonomy while recruiting them for your research study? a. Offer research participation in your study as one of the options for fulfilling a course requirement. b. Require your students to participate in the study as part of their educational experience. c. Suggest to students that they may not do as well in your course if they fail to participate in your study d. Offer to exempt any students who participate in your study from the final exam

d. highlighting an individual's responses by name in a conference presentation

Your Turn 3.2 3. To ensure confidentiality during a study, the researcher would do all of the following except a. assign code numbers to the data b. keep the participants' informed consent separate from the participants' data. c. have participants submit completed surveys in a sealed envelope d. highlighting an individual's responses by name in a conference presentation

a. share only significant findings in the write-ups of their studies.

Your Turn 3.3 2. A researcher demonstrating scientific integrity would do all of the following except a. share only significant findings in the write-ups of their studies. b. determine criteria for terminating data collection prior to starting the study. c. properly label the y-axis on figures and charts in order to avoid exaggerating small differences. d. carefully describe findings such that correlational findings would not imply cause and effect.

c. authors are more likely to plagiarize from other statistically significant studies.

Your Turn 3.3 3. A journal editor decides to accept for publication only research studies in which the results are statistically significant. All of the following are potential ethical problems resulting from this decision except a. there is an increased potential for a file-drawer problem. b. researchers may be more likely to alter their data to ensure their results are statistically significant. c. authors are more likely to plagiarize from other statistically significant studies. d. authors may take more liberties in how they present the results to make them appear more impressive.

b. unethical treatment of the data.

Your Turn 3.3 1. A researcher notices that several participants do not appear to be carefully reading the questions on her survey. She decides not to include these participants' data in her study so that she has a "better" test of her research hypothesis. This behavior is problematic because of its a. unethical treatment of the participants. b. unethical treatment of the data. c. unethical treatment of the results. d. unethical presentation of the findings.

c. Quasi-experimental

Your Turn 4.1 1. Audrey, a senior thesis student, is interested in views on parenting. Specifically she is interested in whether moving homes a lot as a child influences trust as an adult. She has participants self-identify whether they moved as a child or not and then complete some questionnaires about trust. Later, she compares the responses of those who moved to those who did not. What type of design is she using? a. Nonexperimental b. True experimental c. Quasi-experimental d. Qualitative research

a. Behavioral traces

Your Turn 4.1 2. A researcher wants to conduct a study on college students' conscientiousness and study habits. To measure conscientiousness the researcher examines students' dorm rooms to see how organized the rooms are, how neat their desks appear, and how orderly they keep their closets. What type of measure is the researcher using for conscientiousness? a. Behavioral traces b. Self-reports c. Behavioral observations d. Behavioral choices

c. Demand characteristics

Your Turn 4.1 3. You notice that the participants in your study are agreeing with everything that you ask them on a questionnaire even if the answer they give is unflattering. Which of the following biases may be a potential problem in your study? a. Retrospective bias b. Participant reactivity c. Demand characteristics d. Social desirability

c. Bias

Your Turn 4.2 1. If the speedometer in your car consistently shows that you are going more slowly than you actually are, it has which type of error? a. Random error b. Nonstandardization error c. Bias d. Nonsystematic error

b. Ceiling effect

Your Turn 4.2 2. You ask 100 history majors how interesting they find World War I, and notice that almost everyone chose either a 6 or 7 on your 7-point measurement scale. Which of the following may be a problem with your measurement? a. Scorer bias b. Ceiling effect c. Systematic error d. Floor effect

c. Random error

Your Turn 4.2 3. Which of the following measurement problems is beyond your control? a. Measurement sensitivity b. Observer bias c. Random error d. Bias

d. reliability

Your Turn 4.3 3. Whenever you choose a measurement tool, you need to first determine if the instrument has acceptable a. reactivity b. validity c. nonbias d. reliability

c. validity

Your Turn 4.3 1. You are convinced that an exam was unfair because none of the questions even remotely resembled what was taught in the class. In this case, you are questioning the exam's a. reliability b. reactivity c. validity d. sensitivity

a. The reliability of the measure

Your Turn 4.3 2. A researcher asks participants to complete a personality measure. Two weeks later the researcher asks the same participants to complete the same personality measure. The researcher then compares the two scores for consistency. What is the researcher trying to evaluate? a. The reliability of the measure b. The validity of the research findings c. The validity of the measure d. The sensitivity of the measure

a. There may be a volunteer subject problem.

Your Turn 4.4 1. A researcher notices that mostly males have signed up for his study on changes to reaction times while skydiving. Which of the following may be a problem with the researcher's sample? a. There may be a volunteer subject problem. b. There may be a nonresponse bias. c. Random sampling has biased the study. d. College sophomores may be overrepresented in the sample.

b. Stratified random sampling

Your Turn 4.4 2. Drew wants a representative sample for his research study. He identifies the entire population and subdivides it. He then uses simple random assignment to see which members of each given subpopulation will be a part of the sample. Drew is using which sampling strategy? a. Convenience sampling b. Stratified random sampling c. Quota sampling d. Snowball sampling

b. The introduction section

Your Turn 4.4 3. For your research methods class you are writing an APA-style report. If you are currently discussing the rationale behind your research, you are likely writing which section of the paper? a. The abstract b. The introduction section c. The method section d. The discussion section

c. quantitative; qualitative

Your Turn 5.1 1. Jen and Angelina are roommates who are both planning a senior thesis. Jen wants to determine how students' general feelings about conservatism or liberalism influence their choice of major. Angelina wants to determine the characteristics of a successful college president. To best answer these research questions, Jen should take a ___________ approach, while Angelina should take a ______________ approach. a. situated analysis; holistic analysis b. holistic analysis; situated analysis c. quantitative; qualitative d. qualitative; quantitative

a. Bottom-up

Your Turn 5.1 2. Roger is an incoming first-year student who isn't sure what to pick for a major. Rather than just pick something to see if it is a good fit, Roger collects information on every major and uses what he learns to make a decision. What type of approach did Roger take? a. Bottom-up b. Top-down c. Quantitative d. Deductive

b. Unstructured

Your Turn 5.1 3. Juanita is applying for a job at a substance abuse treatment center. As part of the hiring process she has an interview that is more like a casual conversation that focuses on topics as they arise. What type of interview did Juanita most likely have? a. Structured b. Unstructured c. Semiregulated d. Semistructured

File drawer problem

a bias in the scientific community to only publish findings that confirm a researcher's hypothesis

Mixed Methods Research

a blend of qualitative and quantitative methods that capitalizes on the strengths of each to examine a research question from multiple perspectives

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

a board that reviews the ethical merit and research procedures for all animal research conducted within an institution and ensures research animals have proper living conditions

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

a board that reviews the ethical merit of all the human research conducted within an institution

Semi structured Interview

a combination of structured and unstructured interview approaches where some questions and portions of the order and preplanned, but the interviewer remains flexible to probe via additional questions that allow the participant to provide further information

Focus Group

a data collection format where several participants, typically strangers, gather together to discuss a topic

top-down approach

a deductive approach where the researcher tests preconceptions and previously established theories with the collected data

Observation Schedule

a paper-and-pencil electronic form where the observers note the particulars of the behavior or phenomenon they observe

Reflexivity

a practice through which the researcher monitors and records his or her role in the data collection on a continuous bases during the study, which allows for a more accurate assessment of the researcher's influence

Interval Recording

a procedural method for recording observation that involves breaking down an observational period into equal, smaller time periods and then indicating whether a target behavior occurred during each time period

Continuous Recording

a procedural method for recording observation that involves recording all the behavior of a target individual during a specified observation period

Descriptive Research

a research design that describes what is happening

Experimental Research

a research design that explores why a phenomenon occurs

Triangulation

a research strategy that involves using multiple techniques to assess the same information

Coding System

a set of rules to help guide how the researched classifies and records behaviors under observation

Cohen's Kappa Coefficient

a statistical measure of inter-observer agreement between two observers for categorical items

Frequency Distribution

a summary of how often the individual values or ranges of values for a variable occur

Naturalistic Observation

a technique of data collection in which a researcher observes events as they occur in a natural setting

Laboratory Observation

a technique of data collection in which researchers observer participants in a laboratory setting

Pilot Testing

a trial run used to test and refine the design, methods, and instruments for a study prior to carrying out the research

Interview Schedule

a type of protocol that includes the questions to ask and anticipated order I which the interviewer should ask them; also called an interview agenda

Central Tendency

a value that best represents all of the other values for a particular variable

Continuous Variable

a variable with an infinite number of different values between two given points

Categorical Variable

a way to classify data into distinct categories

Conversation Analysis

an analysis technique that involves the examination of the natural patterns of dialogue and focuses on features such as turn taking, gaze direction, and how speakers sequence speech

Phenomenological Approach

an approach that seeks to understand a human experience and the meaning of the experiences based on how those involved view the situation

Bottom-Up approach

an approach where the researcher develops a theory by exploring a topic using information provided from the participant's direct experiences

situated analysis

an approach where the researcher examines a topic while it is embedded within its naturally occurring context

Holistic Analysis

an approach where the researcher examines how numerous properties contribute to patterns within the larger and more complex system

Critical Incident Technique

an interview where the researcher purposefully has the interviewee focus on a key event or specific behavior

Participant Observation

an observational data collection technique in which the observer participates with those being observed

Interviewer Bias

any way that the interviewer influences the participant's responses (leading questions)

Contrived Observation

artificially introducing a variable of interest nd unobstrusively observing what happens

Scientific integrity

commitment to intellectual honesty and adherence to ethical principles in scientific research

Active Deception

deliberately misleading participants in a study

Deception

intentionally misleading participants in some fashion

ceiling effect

occurs when the upper boundary of a measurement tool is set too low, leading most to select the highest response.

Frequency- Count recording

recording each time a target behavior occurs

Duration Recording

recording the elapsed time during which a behavior occurs

Paraphrase

summarizing others' ideas in your own words while providing a proper citation

Ecological validity

the degree to which the research situation re-creates the psychological experiences that participants would have in real life

Intra-observer reliability

the extent to which an observer consistently codes a variable

Systematic Observational Research

the viewing and recording of a predetermined set of behaviors

Blind Observation

when observers are trained to look for particular behaviors but are uniformed about study expectations or the overall purpose of research investigations