Psych 111 Exam 2
Display rules
Societal guidelines for how and when to express emotions
Biological Bases for intelligence
- Brain structure/function: brain volume correlates positively with measured intelligence. Higher level of intelligence on tetris game correlated with less brain activity; efficiency of brain. - Reaction time: intelligence correlates negatively with reaction time, so people iwth higher intelligence reacted quicker . - Memory: memory tasks score moderately correlated with intelligence test scores. - Location: certain areas of the cortex, prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe.
Conflicting Drives:
-Approach Approach: choosing between equally desirable alternatives - Avoidance Avoidance: choosing between equally undesirable alternatives - Approach Avoidance: choosing from a single desire that is both desirable and undesirable - Double Approach Avoidance: Choosing between 2 desires that are both desirable and undesirable
Explanations for drug use/abuse
-Sociocultural influences: wet vs. dry cultures - Addictive personality: impulsivity ties to abuse, sociability and people that are likely to experience negative emotions. -Learning and expectations: alcohol is perceived as a stress releiver so people drink for that reason, "self medication" - genetic influences: tends to run in families. There is a key role in vulnerability to alcoholism. Whether you have a weak vs a strong negative response. (a strong response may be increased heart rate or asian flush as a result of drinking)
Drug abuse vs. dependence
-Substance abuse: recurrent problems associated with the drug. -Substance dependence: more serious pattern of use, leading to clinically significant impairment and distress. -Symptoms of dependence: tolerance, withdrawal, large amounts over a long period of time etc. -Physical dependence: dependence on a drug that occurs when people continue to take it to avoid withdrawal symptoms. -Psychological dependence: continued use is motivated by intense cravings
Major lessons of social psychology:
1. Gravitating towards each other but only until a certain point. 150 is the approximate size of most human groups. 2. The need to belong; forming groups is a biologically based need for interpersonal connections. There is an activation in the cingulate cortex after experiencing rejection. 3. Evolution and social behavior: conformity, obedience and many other forms of social influence become maladaptive only when only when they're blind or unquestioning. 4. Social comparison: where do i stand? we evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others. Upward social comparison: comparing to people who seem superior to us. downward social comparison: comparing ourselves to people who seem inferior. 5. Social facilitation: enhancement of performance brought about by the presence of others.
Hypnosis: Myths and Misconceptions
1. Hypnosis produces a "trance state" in which amazing this happen. 2. Hypnotic Phenomena are unique. People can experience hypnotic phenomena even without hypnosis. There is no clear biological distinction between hypnosis and wakefulness, and brain activity depends on the suggestions they receive. 3. Hypnosis is a sleep like state. There are no similar brain waves between sleep and hypnosis. 4. Hypnotized people are unaware of their surroundings. 5. Hypnotized people forget what happened during hypnosis 6. Hypnosis enhances memory. Hypnosis increased the amount of info we can recall but much of it is incorrect.
How much sleep do we need?
10 hrs. Newborns need 16 hours.
Stages of sleep: 3&4
10-30min light sleep that turns into slow wave sleep consisting of delta waves. There are 1-2 cycles per second and waves appear 20-50% of the time.
Persuasion; Dual Process Model:
2 alternative pathways to persuading others; central route: evaluate the merits of persuasive arguments, focus on the informational content of the arguments. Peripheral route: respond to persuasive arguments on a snap judgement, focus on surface aspects.
Stereotype
A belief, positive or negative, about a groups characteristics that we apply to most members of that group.
James-Lange Theory
A cognitive theory. Emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reaction to stimuli. ie. we see a bear, we're afraid because we run away.
Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response as a result of its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that elicits an automatic response
Canon Bard Theory
An emotion provoking event leads simultaneously to both an emotion and bodily reactions.
Stereotype Threat:
An environmental factor that may affect how individuals perform and achieve; the fear that we may conform to a negative group stereotype. People who worry about confirming a stereotype increase the chance of doing so. They impair their own performance.
Learning fads: learning styles:
An individuals preferred or optimal method of acquiring new information. Difficult to test because most people are most successful with several styles.
Reinforcement
Any outcome to any consequence that makes a behavior more likely to occur. - Positive reinforcement: when we administer a stimulus - Negative reinforcement: when we take away a stimulus.
Hock Reading 6: To sleep no doubt to dream
Aserinsky study of REM sleep. Study conducted to study REM sleep and what a deprivation of REM sleep causes. Result: after several nights of no REM sleep the amount of REM sleep increased dramatically.
Attitudes:
Attitudes that don't predict behavior: our behaviors are outcomes of many factors, only one being attitude. Attitudes that do predict behavior: attitudes that are highly accessible and firmly held and stable over time ten to predict behavior.
Social Cognition: Attribution:
Attribution: process of assigning causes to behavior. -Internal attribution: inside the person (ie. he did it because he is impulsive) -External attribution: outside the person (ie. he did it because he was broke)
Wrong theory of emotion
Belief that negative emotions are bad for us. They're actually good
Stages of sleep: 2
Brain slows down even more. -Sleep Spindles: sudden intense bursts of electrical activity, 12-14 cycles per second. Also characterized by k-complexes, sharp rising and falling waves, heart slowing down, boy temperature decrease, muscles relax. Makes up 65% of total time.
Environmental Effects on Helping:
Characteristics of the person needing help, when they cant easily escape the situation, being in a good mood, exposure to helpful role models.
Scape-goat hypothesis
Claim that prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes
Phobias
Classical and operant conditioning are both needed to explain anxiety disorders. Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning. ie. being afraid of a dog, seeing a dog on the sidewalk, one feels anxious and crossed the street to avoid the dog. This cognitively reinforces the fear because we are taking away the undesirable response of feeling anxious by crossing the street.
Hock Reading #39: To help or not to help
Darley and Latané theorized the more bystanders present at an emergency the less likely someone will intervene, or diffusion of responsibility. They tested students at NYU, they had students in two rooms communicating via intercom, they were told to discuss their adjustment to university life and any emotional problems they were having. The students in group one believed that they would be talking to only one other person, the students in group two believed the would be talking to two people on the intercom, and students in group three believed that they would be talking to five people on the intercom. There were recorded conversations to be played back to the participants and the emergency situation was when the recorded student spoke of having severe seizures then going into a seizure situation. Researchers measured the percentage of participants in each condition who helped the student in trouble and the amount to time it took for the student to respond. Results: as the number of other participants that were believed to be part of the study increased the percentage of participants who reported the seizure quickly decreased dramatically.
Alcohol:
Depressant, depresses the effects of the central nervous system. Alcohol acts as an emotional and physiological stimulant only at relatively low doses because it depresses an area of the brain that inhibits emotion and behavior. The short term effects are directly related to the BAC. Intoxication depend on the rate of absorption. The body metabolizes alcohol at a rate of 1/2 oz/ hour.
Two Factor Theory
Emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with an attribution (explanation) of that arousal. ie. you come upon a bear, first you become physiologically aroused, evolution assures that we do so so that we are ready for fight or flee. Then we try to figure out the source of that arousal, then we label the arousal as fear.
Biological importance of REM sleep
If one is deprived of REM sleep for a few nights we experience REM rebound, when the amount and intensity of REM sleep increase. REM sleep is also called paradoxical sleep because the brain is active but the body is paralyzed
Stanford prison study
Did the dehumanizing conditions of prisoners stem from the roles people were forced to play or from personalities? 2 week study of 24 male undergrads who were assigned randomly to either be prisoners or guards. They wore clothes fitting their role and the prisoners were only identified by number, not name. Soon guards made prisoners do cruel tasks. The prisoners mounted a rebellion and guards put it down. Prisoners began showing signs of emotional disturbance, depression, hopelessness and anger. Released two prisoners who were near an emotional break down. One went on a hunger strike. Ended the study after only 6 days. The guards were disapointed to end the study, prisoners were relieved. Result: once prisoners and guards had been assigned tole that de-emphasized their individuality they adopted their assigned roles more easily than imagined.
Prejudice
Drawing negative conclusions about a person, group of people or situation prior to evaluating the evidence
Dream Theories: Neurocognitive theory
Dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about. Complex dreams are the results of cognitive achievements and the parallel the development of visual imagination and other cognitive abilities.
Dream Theories: Freud's Dream Protection Theory
Dreams are the protectors of sleep according to Freud. During sleep the ego is less able then when awake to keep sexual and aggressive instincts at bay, if not for dreams we would be woken up by these instincts. - Wish-fulfillment: how we wish things could be. - Manifest content: dream itself - Latent content: the hidden meaning of our dreams
Dream Theories: Activation- Synthesis Theory
Dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the fore brain then attempts to weave into the story. Dreams are the net results of complex brain changes.
Two Factor Theory: Misattribution Effect
Duton and Aron bridge study: an attractive woman approached men on a sturdy and a wobbly bridge and asked them for help with a survey and giving them her number. 30% called her from the sturdy bridge, and 60% called her from the wobbly bridge.
Creativity
Easier to identify then to define. Creative accomplishments consists of two factors; novel and successful.
Jigsaw classroom
Educational approach designed to minimize prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project. Significant decreases in racial prejudice resulted.
Hock reading #22: I can see it all over your face.
Ekman and Friesen's study of the universality of certain facial features associated with an emotion. Tested a group of people who had never watched TV, had association with any westerner or been at all exposed to western culture. They were then read a situation and presented with pictures of various facial expressions and they chose which facial expression fit the story. Results: specific facial expressions are universally recognized.
Clinical relevance of hypnosis
Enhances effectiveness of psychodynamic and cognitive behavioral psychotherapies. Used for treating pain, medical conditions and habit disorders. Boosts the effectiveness of therapies for anxiety, obesity and other conditions
Sexual orientation: environmental influence
Environmental effects: exotic becomes erotic. Non conforming children feel estranged from their same sex peers and perceive their same sex peers as unfamiliar and exotic.
Theories of hypnosis: Dissociation theory:
Explains why hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated. -hidden observer: dissociated, un-hypnotized "part" of the mind that can be accessed on cue. - Revision: hypnosis bypasses the ordinary sense of control we exert over our behaviors.
Increasing happiness
Factors that cause happiness; marriage, friendship, college education, political affiliation, exercise, gratitude, giving and flow.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
Festinger. We alter our attitudes because we experience an unpleasant state of tension (cognitive dissonance) between two or more conflicting thoughts.
Hock reading 10: Little Emotional Albert.
First phase: tested 9 month old Albert to see if he was afraid of various white furry things, rat, bunny, mask etc. Albert showed no fear of these objects. Then the researcher tested Albert to see if he was afraid of a loud noise. Albert was afraid of the noise and the loud noise disturbed him. They then tested Albert to see how he reacted to being exposed to the loud noise and the rat at the same time. He showed fear. Next they again exposed Albert to only the rat, this time Albert was fearful of the rat. Albert was then also fearful of all of the furry objects because they were like the rat.
Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence Theory
Fluid intelligence is the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems (ie. the first time solving a puzzle). Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time. +: fluid abilities decline with age, fluid intelligence is more highly related to g. Horn and Cattell.
Sensory Capacity theory of intelligence
Galton. Knowledge comes through the senses especially vision and hearing. People with better hearing and vision had more knowledge. +: some forms of sensory capacity are only moderately related to intelligence. -: Having one exceptional sense doesn't bear relation to other exceptional senses. Sensory ability has not been correlated with intelligence assessments.
Hock reading 14: Just how are you intelligent
Gardner and Multiple Intelligences theory. Tested several types of intelligences on 8 different factors to determine if they were in fact an intelligence. 1. potential isolation of the intelligence by brain damage. 2. the existence of savants or prodigies. 3. A clear set of information processing (thinking) operations linked to the intelligence. 4. A distinctive developmental history of the intelligence and the potential to reach high levels of expertise. 5. Evidence that the intelligence has developed through evolutionary time. 6. ability to study the intelligence with psychological experiments. 7. ability to measure the intelligence with existing standardized tests. 8. aspects of intelligence may be represented by a system of symbols. Gardner then studied the 7 types of intelligence with regards to these 8 criteria. The 7 types of intelligence are: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal.
Sexual orientation: genetic influence
Genetic influence: 52% of identical twins and 22% of fraternal twins share homosexuality trait. Testosterone levels that the fetus is exposed to in the womb is though to affect sexual orientation. LeVay reported that a cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus were half as large in Gay vs. straight men. The corpus collosum is larger in homosexual men vs straight men
Heritability in families
IQ runs in families. .5 for brothers and sisters and .15 for cousins. Twin studies have confirmed that IQ is influenced by genetic factors, there is a higher correlation between identical twins then between fraternal twins. Adoption studies show that the IQ of adopted children is similar to that of their biological families.
Implicit vs. Explicit Stereotype
Implicit stereotype: the unconscious attribution of particular qualities to members of social groups. Explicit stereotype: the result of intentional conscious thought ie. considering evidence
Cognitive models of learning: Insight learning:
Insight learning: insight is the sudden understanding of the solution to a problem. Suddenly "getting" the answer. People argue
Insomnia
Insomnia: difficulty falling and staying asleep. 9-15% of people experience insomnia. Insomnia can be caused by stress, relationship problems, illness etc.
Primary emotions
Small number, around 7, of emotions believed by some to be cross culturally universal. Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise, and contempt. - secondary emotions: derived from primary emotions. ie. alarm comes from fear and surprise
Yerkes-Dobson Law
Inverted U shaped relation between arousal on the one hand and mood and performance on the other
Effects of sleep deprivation
Irritable, edgy the next day. A "sleep debt" begins after several nights of sleep deprivation. Depression, difficult learning, slow reaction time, difficulty paying attention can result. After 4 days of sleep deprivation hallucinations may begin, weight gain, high blood pressure, diabetes and heart problems.
Groupthink
Irving James. Emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking.
Cognitive models of learning: Latent learning:
Latent learning: learning that's not directly observable. Tolman. ie. Rats in a maze are divided into 3 groups, 1 group with reinforcement only after first 10 days had a large drop in the number of errors once given reinforcement.
Enlightenment Effect:
Learning about psychological research can change real world behavior for the better
Bystander Effect
Less a consequence of apathy than of psychological paralysis. There is danger rather than safety in numbers.
Sexual desire and its causes
Libido is the term for sexual desire, and is a craving for sexual activity and pleasure. Testosterone and DRD4 a protein related to dopamine transmission are though to affect libido.
Stages of Sleep: 1.
Light stage of sleep. 5-10 min long. Brain activity powers down by 50% producing theta waves. -Hypnagogic imagery: scrambled and bizarre and dream like images, sudden jerks experienced, a confused stage.
Chaining
Linking a number of inter related behaviors to form a longer series. Used in animal training.
De individualization
Loosing self awareness in groups
Persuasion Techniques: Foot in the door
Making a small request before making a bigger one
Heritability and group differences
Men are more numerous at both the low and high end of the IQ bell curve, but they do not have a higher average IQ. Amongst races: Asians have a higher IQ than Caucasians, and Caucasians have a higher IQ than African Americans and Latinos.
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
Model proposing that we must satisfy physiological needs and need for safety and security before progressing to more complex needs.
Characteristics of the Messenger
More likely to follow a persuasive message if famous or attractive people deliver it. A messenger that seems familiar to us is especially persuasive.
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Multiple intelligences theory is the idea that people vary in their ability levels across domains of intellectual skill. It takes into account that their are many ways to be smart. +: autistic savants are strong in one area. -: hard to test, why certain traits count over other test areas aren't independent.
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy: disorder characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep. - cataplexy is the complete loss of muscle tone. Orexin triggers the onset of narcolepsy
Discrimination
Negative behavior toward members of out groups
Night Terrors:
Night terrors: sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to deep sleep. It is harmless and particularly present in children.
Norms vs Roles
Norms: rules that regulate human life, including social conventions, explicit laws and implicit cultural standards. Role: a given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behavior.
Cognitive models of learning: Observational learning:
Observation learning: learning by watching other. - aggression: kids watched parents play aggressively with a doll, they found that previous exposure to aggressive actions triggered a significantly more aggression.
Schedule of reinforcement
Pattern of reinforcing behavior. The principal reinforcement schedules vary along two dimensions, 1. consistency of administering reinforcement 2. basis of administering reinforcement
Classical Conditioning Pavlovian Dog Test:
Pavlov introduced a dog to the sound of a metronome, the sound elicited no response. The metronome was the neutral stimulus. Pavlov then introduced the dog to meat. The meat caused the dog to salivate. The meat was the unconditioned stimulus, and the salvation was the unconditioned response. Pavlov then presented the dog with the metronome, the NS, and meat, the UCS, at the same time. This elicited the UCR of salvation. Pavlov then presented the dog with only the metronome, the NS, and the dog salivated. Thus the meat is now the conditioned stimulus and the salivation is the conditioned response. Also Hock reading number 9: Its not just about salivating dogs
Classical Conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning. Form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response.
Theories of hypnosis: Sociocognitive theory:
People attitudes, beliefs, motivation and expectations about hypnosis as well as their ability to respond to waking imaginative suggestions shape their response to hypnosis. This explains why some people are more responsive than others to hypnosis.
Principles of classical conditioning, 3 phases:
Phase 1: Acquisition: gradually learning or acquiring the conditional response. Phase 2: Extinction: the condition response decreases in magnitude and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone. ie. after many times of presenting just the music without the meat to the dogs the salivation stopped. 3. Spontaneous recovery: a seemingly extinct CR reappears (often in a weaker form) if we present the CS again.
Primary reinforcer and secondary reinforcers
Primary: a favorite food or drunk that naturally increase the target behavior. Secondary: neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer. ie. good behavior is rewarded with tokens which can be spent of favorite food etc.
Pro-social behavior
Pro-social behavior: behavior intended to help others. altruism: helping others for selfless reasons.
Schedule of Reinforcement: Fixed Ratio schedule (FR)
Provide reinforcement after a regular number of responses. ie. Push a lever 5 times and you receive a treat, with an FR schedule you receive a treat every 5th time you push the lever.
Schedule of Reinforcement: Variable interval schedule (VI)
Provide reinforcement for producing the response after as average time interval with actual interval varying randomly. ie. a dog on a VI schedules with and interval of 8 min; the dog performs a trick during a 7min interval, then a 1 min interval then a 20min interval, then a 4min interval, because the average of these time intervals is 8 min.
Schedule of reinforcement: Fixed interval schedule (FI)
Provide reinforcement for producing the response at least once after a specific amount of time has passed.
Dreams: Slow wave vs. REM
REM dreams are vivid. NREM dreams are less vivid
Stages of sleep: 5
REM sleep: stage of sleep during which the brain is the most active and during which vivid dreaming most often occurs. High frequency, low amplitude waves resembling wakefulness. There is an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Makes up 20-25% of the total nights sleep. After 10-20 REM minutes, the cycle starts from stage 1 again.
Stages of sleep: Aserinsky and rapid eye movement studies
Rapid eye movement (REM): darting of the eyes underneath closed eyelids during sleep. This is the time of vivid dreams. Non-REM sleep (NREM): stages 1-4 of sleep cycle, rapid eye movements don't occur and dreaming is less frequents and vivid.
Results of reinforcement schedules
Ratio schedules has higher rates of responding then interval schedules. Variable schedules had higher consistent rate of responding then fixed schedules.
Culture and emotion
Same emotion expressions across cultures
Low Ball Technique
Seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price and then mentions add on costs one the customer has agreed to but the product.
Hypnosis
Set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perception, thoughts, feelings and behaviors.
Obedience and Milgram's Paradigm
Setup: deliver electric shocks to the learner with each wrong answer. The "teacher" participants deliver the shock and the "learner" participants are really confederates. Outcome: all participants administered "some" shock, 62% displayed total compliance, fundamental attribution error is assuming that most participants would stop the obviously cruel practice.
Conformity and Asch's Paradigm:
Setup: studying a line and 3 comparison lines. The other participants are confederates. You say which line is the best comparison aloud, but you are 5th to go. 1st trial: #1 is the clear best answer, all agree. 2nd Trial: #2 is the clear best answer but everyone else says #3. Result: 75% of people conformed to the others response. - Social influences on conformity: unanimity: is all confederates gave the same response, the participant was most likely to conform, but it 1 other person gave the correct answer the level of conformity went down by 75%. Difference in the wrong answer: knowing someone else differed from the majority made the participant less likely to conform. Size: the size of the majority up to 5-6 people.
Shaping
Shaping by successive approximations; reinforce behaviors that aren't exactly the target behavior but that are progressively closer versions of it. Used in animal training.
Sleep Apnea
Sleep Apnea: disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in day time fatigue. The lack of oxygen and the carbon dioxide buildup can lead to night sweats, weight gain, fatigue, irregular heart beat, hearing loss. For men 40-70 years old there is a 46% increase in the chance of death
Learning fads: Sleep assisted learning
Sleep assisted learning: learning new things while asleep. +: sailors learned morose code three weeks earlier than those without sleep assisted learning. -: some people may have been woken up by the recordings.
Sleep walking
Sleepwalking: walking while fully asleep. 15-30% of kids experience sleep walking and 4-5% of adults. People who are deprived of sleep are more likely to sleep walk.
Defensive pessimism
Strategy of anticipating failure and compensating for this expectation by mentally over preparing for negative outcomes
Dream Theories: Dreaming and the forebrain
Studied patients with brain damage and found that 1. damage to the deep frontal white matter (connects different parts of the cortex) 2. parietal lobes, can lead to complete loss of dreaming.
Learning fads: accelerated learning (SALTT)
Suggested acccelerated learning and teaching technique: generating expectations, visualizing information, classical music, breathing in regular rhythms.
Token economies
Systems, often set up by psychiatric hospitals, for reinforcing appropriate behaviors and extinguishing inappropriate ones.
Hedonic Treadmill
Tendency for our moods to adapt to external circumstances. Begin with genetically influenced "set point" happiness from which we bounce up and down.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Test designed to test mental abilities like vocab, arithmetic, spatial ability, proverbs and general knowledge about the world. Five major scores: 1. overall IQ 2. Verbal Comprehension 3. Perceptual reasoning 4. Working memory 5. Processing speed. Interpreting scores;verbal comprehension= crystallized intelligence. perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing speed= fluid intelligence.
Just-World hypothesis
The bias to believe the world is fair
Self-serving bias
The bias to choose the most flattering and forgiving attributions to our own lapses
Pluralistic ignorance
The error of assuming that no one in the group percieves things as we do. This is relevant when deciding if something is really an emergency
Implicit Egotism Effect
The finding that were more positively disposed toward people, places or things that resemble us.
Obedience and Milgram's Paradigm: factors that influenced the outcome
The greater psychological distance between teacher and experimenter resulted in less obedience. The greater the psychological distance between teacher and learner resulted in more obedience. 93% increase in compliance when the teacher directed someone else to deliver the shocks.
Sherif and the Autokinetic Effect
The illusion that a stationary spot of light is moving when viewed in a darkened room. In groups, norms formed.
Emotion
The mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences
Ultimate Attribution Error
The mistake of attributing entire groups to their dispositions, underestimate the impact of situational forces on peoples behavior
Stimulus generalization
The process by which CSs that are similar but not identical elicit a CR. is. dogs salivated to music similar to the music of the original metronome.
Higher order conditioning
The process by which organisms develop classically conditioned responses to CSs that later become associated with the original CS. ie. dog is presented with the conditioned stimulus music and a picture, the dog will eventually salivate to the picture.
Social Psychology
The study of how people influence others behavior, beliefs and attitudes.
Group polarization
The tendency for people to make decisions that are more extreme when they are in a group as opposed to decisions made when they are alone.
Fundamental Attribution Error:
The tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences (characteristics, ie. personality traits, attitudes etc.) on other peoples behavior. Also attribute too little of their behavior to whats going on around them.
Triarchic Model Theory
The triarchic model refers to their being 3 distinct types of intelligence; analytical, practical and creative. Analytical is the ability to reason logically. Practical is the ability to solve real world problems especially with other people. Creative is the ability to come up with novel and effective answers to questions. -: practical intelligence is not independent of g. not all types are independent of each other.
Cognitive Theory of Emotion
Theories proposing that emotions are products of thinking
Drive Reduction Theory
Theory proposing that certain drives like hunger, thirst and sexual frustration motivate us to act in ways that minimized aversive states. All drives are unpleasant but satisfying them results in pleasure.
Somatic Marker Theory
Theory proposing that we use our gut reactions to help us determine how we should act. is. using automatic responses like an increase in heart rate.
Facial feedback hypothesis
Theory that blood vessels in the face feed back temperature information to the brain, altering our experience of emotions
Discrete emotions theory
Theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in our biology. Emotional reactions to situations precede our thought about them. ie. scared, eyes open wide, evolutionarily to spot predators
Law of Effect.
Thorndike. If a stimulus followed by a behavior that results in a reward , that stimulus is more likely to give rise to the behavior in the future.
Implicit Prejudice
Unfounded negative belief of which we're aware regarding the characteristics of an out-group
Explicit Prejudice
Unfounded negative belief of which were unaware regarding the characteristics of an out group.
Persuasion Techniques: door in the face
Unreasonably large request before making the small request that we want to be granted.
Unconscious influence on emotion
Variables outside our awareness that can affect our feelings
Conditioned Response
a response previously associated with a non neutral stimulus that comes to be elicited by a neutral stimulus.
Punishment
any outcome that weakens the probability of a response. - negative punishment: removal of a stimulus that the organisim wishes to experience. - Positive punishment: administering a stimulus that the organism wishes to avoid.
Emotional intelligence:
ability to understand our own emotions and those of others and to apply this into our everyday life
Wisdom
application of intelligence toward a common good. Wisdom is a balance between three competing intelligences; 1. concerns about oneself 2. concerns about others 3. concerns about broader society
Flynn Effect:
average IQ score have been rising at about 3 points per decade. Four possible environmental influences on the IQ score rise: 1. increased test sophistication, experience with tests has increased. 2. Increased complexity of the modern world, forced to process more information. 3. better nutrition 4. changes at home/school; families becoming smaller.
Divergent thinking:
capacity to generate many different solutions to a problem. Thinking "outside the box"
convergent thinking
capacity to generate the single best solution to a problem.
Just World Hypothesis
claim that our attributions and behavior are shaped by a deep-seated assumption that the world is fair and all things happen for a reason
Conditioned taste aversion
classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food. Cancer patient have particular problems with taste aversion.
Circadian Rhythm
cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24 hour basis in many biological processes. ie. your biological clock - Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): in hypothalamus and makes us feel drowsy at different times of the day. May be disrupted by jetlagg, late shifts.
Motivation
psychological drives that propel us in a specific direction
Learning fads: discover learning
discovery learning: giving students experimental material and asking them to figure out the scientific principles on their own.
Preparedness
evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over other wing to their own survival. is. No phobias are to common place fears like razors, more phobias of height etc. because certain stimuli like heights posed a threat to our early human ancestors.
Adaptive Conservatism:
evolutionary principle that creates a predisposition toward distrusting anything or anything unfamiliar or different.
Between-group heritability:
extent to which differences in a trait between groups is genetically influenced.
Within-group heritability:
extent to which the variability of a trait within a group is genetically influenced.
General Intelligence Theory
g is a hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people, g corresponds with the strength of our mental energy, more powerful brains also have more g. s refers to specific abilities and ability level in a narrow domain. -: elitism. +:intelligence test items positively correlate with each other regardless of content. Spearman.
stimulus discrimination
it occurs when we exhibit a less pronounced CR to CSs that differ from the original CS
Mere exposure effect
phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus make us more likely to feel favorably toward it.
Schedule of reinforcement: Variable Ratios schedule (VR)
provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses on average, but the precise number of responses required during any given time period varies randomly. ie. a bird on a VR schedule with ratio of 10 might receive a treate after 6, 12 then 21 pecks because the average of those numbers is the ratio 10.
In Group Bias
tendency to favor individuals with in our group over those from outside the group. Used imagery techniques on the brains of liberal college students and found that the pre-frontal cortex becomes more active when listening to descriptions of other liberal people then when listening to descriptions of conservative people.
Out Group Homogeneity
tendency to view all people outside our group as highly similar
Affective forecasting
the ability to predict our own and others happiness. We over estimate the long term impact of events on our mood.
Diffusion of Responsibility:
the presence of others makes each person feel less responsible for the outcome
Unconditioned response
the reflexive response the unconditioned stimulus elicits.
Broaden and Build theory
theory proposing that happiness predisposes us to think more openly
Durability bias
we believe that both our good and bad moods will last longer than they do. We under estimate how rapidly we adjust to our baseline level of happiness from which we bounce up and down
