PSYCH 209 - INQUISITIVE NOTES

In a frequency claim, using 1._________ can help improve 2.__________ validity. In a causal claim, using 3.__________ can help improve 4.____________ validity. In any claim, using 5.____________ can help improve 6._____________ validity.

=1. a margin of error2. statistical3. random assignment4. internal5. a representative sample6. external

A researcher had two separate groups of participants drink either one glass of red wine or no red wine in order to see if drinking red wine could reduce stress on a self-reported stress measure. Which choice best defines the independent variable in this example?

=Amount of red wine (Based on what group they were in, participants in the study drank red wine or did not.)

A recent newspaper headline reads that 1 in 25 teens in the United States attempt suicide. You read further about the study and find that researchers randomly surveyed a sample of teens from the Midwest via phone, and the study operationalized attempted suicide as "made a physical attempt to end one's life."

=external validity (

The _________ set similar ethical principles (tailored to psychology) as the earlier __________. However, two additional principles were added. The first is the principle of _________, which has to do with relationships between psychologists and others, and the second is the principle of ________, which emphasizes true and up-to-date practices.

APA Ethical Principles, Belmont Report, fidelity and responsibility, integrity

Determine whether or not the validity types are appropriate to interrogate for this study. A recent study investigated if watching Internet cat videos causes online viewers to have less stress. The study recruited a diverse sample of online participants and had them watch a video with kittens. The participants were then given a measure of stress. A valid statistical test showed that after watching the video participants had less stress.

Appropriate: 1.internal (Because this study did not have a comparison group, its internal validity can be questioned.) Not Appropriate: 1. Statistical (Based on the information present, we cannot evaluate the study's statistical validity.) 2. external (The study was interested in online viewers, so recruiting participants online would seem appropriate.) 3. Construct (The measure of stress, or how long the task took, seems to be reasonable.)

Type the phrase that best answers the question.Which measurement of internal reliability is computed from inter-item correlations?

Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach's alpha is the standard statistic for internal reliability within a measure.)

Read the example and determine which characteristics best describe the variable in this study. Rebecca is conducting a study in which she is measuring the level of cortisol (a hormone that denotes a stress response in the body) in participants after they complete a difficult task. In this case, a reading of zero would mean no cortisol.

Does describe: -ratio -physiological -quantitative -operational Doesn't describe: -ordinal -self-report -categorical ----------------------------- The participants are not reporting the amount of cortisol themselves. Every variable is multifaceted, and identifying these aspects provides an understanding of a variable's limitations.

Two frequency claims are presented together: "Ice cream sales are at a record high" and "Summer heat breaks numerous records." What claim can be safely made?

Each claim by itself is true, nothing else can be said (Even when two claims seem related, they cannot be taken to be connected without proper investigation.)

JoAnn is interested in the availability of mental health care for patients admitted to the emergency room. She is limited in how much time she is allowed to spend with each patient, as many emergency room patients move in and out rapidly. She decides to use a shorter, less reliable measure of mental health care availability in favor of getting as many patients as possible, in order to represent people of many different backgrounds, illnesses, and injuries.

In this example, JoAnn is sacrificing _______ validity to strengthen her _____ validity. construct, external (The validity that is prioritized can often be determined by the desires of the researcher.)

Read the examples and determine whether or not they constitute plagiarism.

Plagiarism: 1. Claire uses an idea from a friend in her class to create her final project, but she does all the work herself. 2. Haruto uses a line from another paper but changes two words and provides a citation. Not plagiarism: 1. Beatriz uses a quote from a famous author with a citation and quotation marks. 2. Jonathan writes an opinion paper about several studies that occurred over the last few years, referencing each as he mentions it.

Jeremy is testing if certain levels of a new experimental drug he designed can improve immune functioning. He recruits participants for a clinical trial and randomly assigns them to either a treatment group, in which they receive the drug, or a control where they receive a placebo. After several weeks, he measures the differences between the groups' immune functioning via blood test. Jeremy announces that the drug group had better immune functioning after the trial and claims that his drug was effective. Though the immune functioning between groups was different, that difference was not statistically significant. Assuming that Jeremy's drug is effective, which type of validity might be insufficient for this study?

Statistical Validity (Because the difference was not statistically significant, that difference between the groups may have occurred by chance, raising a serious issue with the study.)

Sort the statements as either true or false. irb, consent, etc

True: 1. All research on human participants must be approved by an institutional review board. False: 1. Most IRBs will not approve controversial research on human participants even if participants are not at risk. 2. Participants must always sign an informed consent form. 3. A researcher is never permitted to deceive his or her participants.

Sort the statements as either true or false.

True: 1. Not all claims presented in the media are based on research .2. A frequency claim does not have to have an actual number. False: 1. Causal claims that use tentative language are actually association claims .2.Two frequency claims in the same data set can be combined into an association claim.

Sort the following as either Type I or Type II errors.

Type 1 Error: 1. Two variables are improperly claimed to be related. (This error is especially dangerous in psychology, as people may draw broad conclusions or even implement policy based on an error.) 2. False Positive (A design with high internal validity helps minimize false positives.) 3. MMR shots are said to cause autism, which is later disproven. (This is an example of a false positive that caused significant controversy in scientific literature.) Type 2 Error: 1. Climate change initially thought to be normal is shown to be caused by humans. (This is an example of two things, thought to be unrelated to one another, that were later shown to have a very important relationship.) 2.Two variables are improperly said to not be related. (This error can hide important relationships and cause scientists to stop pursuing certain possibilities.) 3. miss (Sensitive and appropriate measurement helps avoid a "miss.")

Place the parts of a typical journal article in order of appearance.

abstract: The abstract works as a short summary to inform the reader. introduction: The introduction puts forward theoretical information and the rationale behind the experiment. method: The method explains in detail how the researcher conducted the study. results: The results show how the researcher analyzed the data and present all important outcomes. discussion: The discussion summarizes important findings while identifying limitations and potential future directions. ----------------------------------- All of these parts work together to help readers read with a purpose and understand where to find the information they are looking for.

Even though Janice is a trained psychologist, her diagnosis is not purely based on her client's symptoms but is partially influenced by the ____________________. Because Janice should be aware of her susceptibility to faulty thinking, her mistake is an example of the _______________. bias blind spot, confirmation bias, availability heuristic, present/present bias

availability heuristic, bias blind spot ------------------------------------ Even trained psychologists can fall victim to cognitive bias, as the bias blind spot often prevents us from recognizing our own biases.

Hewlett is attempting to measure spatial intelligence. He creates a special task to measure spatial intelligence and uses it along with other measures of intelligence. His data show that the results from his new task are highly correlated with other measures of intelligence, like memory and language intelligence .Hewlett may have an issue with what type of validity?

discriminant validity (Hewlett's measure is attempting to investigate a specific factor, so the fact that it is highly related to other measures represents a problem in differentiating them.)

Read the example and determine which characteristics best describe the variable in this survey. Farah is surveying people by phone from many different areas throughout the United States. She records their zip codes in order to keep track of what areas the participants are from.

does describe: -self-report -categorical -operational doesn't describe: -ordinal -quantitative -observational -conceptual

Charles is designing a study in which he combines the findings of _________ and calculates the magnitude of all the combined results, otherwise known as a __________. Research like this can combine the statistical findings of individual studies to identify a(n) __________.

empirical articles; meta-analysis; effect size

Teresa is creating a measure on hyperactivity in children. She believes that diet and exercise can directly contribute to hyperactivity. Her measure contains over 30 items, including energy level, ability to focus, diet, and exercise. Teresa may have an issue with what type of validity?

face validity (Since Teresa is including diet/exercise and hyperactivity in the same measure, it may not be measuring the things she intends to measure.)

Match each example to the correct type of scale.

interval Scale: -sea level -the current date Ordinal Scale: -sorting your choice of majors by which you would like most -sports team rankings Ratio Scale: -score on an exam -amount of fuel in a gas tank

Imagine you are looking for reliable scientific sources about self-esteem. Rank the options according to their likelihood of helping you find a reliable scientific source, starting with the most helpful option.

library reference staff: Most university libraries hold subscriptions to journals and many scientific books and have qualified staff to help point you to validated sources. PsychInfo: PsycINFO includes only reliable sources and is simple to search.. Google Scholar: Google Scholar can be an excellent source, though it can be difficult to search through many different disciplines. Wikipedia: While there is valuable information on Wikipedia, it should only be used as a last resort, and the sources should be rigorously scrutinized. ------------------------------ It is important to seek sources in an orderly fashion so you know you are always reading reliable information.

A theory that offers the simplest explanation is _______.

parsimonious =A theory that is parsimonious is preferred over a more complex explanation of the same phenomenon.

Match each example to the concept it represents.

plagiarism:Trevor uses a famous quote from Freud in his paper but does not cite it, as he assumes everyone recognizes the quote. (What has been said by others should always be cited, since you cannot assume it is common knowledge.) deception:Researchers tell participants a study is about their ability to work in groups, when it is really about attitudes toward minority group members. (Deception is not always negative, and certain research, like that about racial attitudes, would be difficult to carry out without it.) data fabrication:Derrick's study is two participants short of what is needed, but the semester has ended. Derrick adds two made-up participants that are the mean of every other participant in order to ensure a sufficient sample size. (Regardless of his intentions, Derrick is fabricating data, which is a serious offense no matter how minor the impact may seem.) data falsification:Sarah realizes halfway through her study that 10 of her 200 participants took the wrong measure. In her final report, she omits those 10 without mention. Omitting data that may be incorrect can be allowed, but you must fully disclose the reasons for leaving out certain subjects. -------------------------------- Cases of research misconduct are not always clear. Extra care should be taken if you feel anything in your study may be unethical.

Type the name of the concept that refers to how consistent a measurement will remain when used in different situations.

reliability (Making a measure that is consistent across many domains is essential for the results to be counted on.)

A measure's ability to remain consistent is referred to as ________. But this concept can be broken down in nuanced ways. For example, ____________ refers to how uniform results will be after repeated use of a measure. In addition, _______refers to how stable results from a measure will be when the measure is used by multiple administrators. Finally, a question with __________ will generate similar answers regardless of how it is worded.

reliability, test-retest reliability, interrater reliability, internal reliability (Problems with any of these types of reliability reflect a problem in general reliability.)

research producer vs research consumer

research producer: is to conduct new research and create new knowledge research consumer: the main focus of the consumer is to take in this knowledge.

Match each example to the correct type of measure. (observational, selfreport, physiological)

self-report measure: -how depressed someone says he or she feels -how outgoing someone claims to be physiological measure: -someone's blood pressure -someone's electroencephalogram reading observational measure: -time someone spends smiling -number of times someone checks his or her phone in a waiting room

In measurement,_____ refers to a measure's ability to accurately represent the variable the researcher is investigating. But this concept is made up of many different facets.____ is the extent to which a given measure appears to be measuring the variable in question. ____ evaluates how well a measure taps into all aspects of particular variable.______ represents how well a measure relates to actual behavior.

validity; face validity; content validity; criterion validity

Place the steps of a study in the order that they should occur for the study to be ethical.

1. IRB approval =Before any work is done, a study should always be first approved by the IRB.) 2. participant gives informed consent =Once an experiment is approved, the experimenter can recruit participants and inform them of the nature of the study. 3. experiment occurs =An experiment should not take place unless participants have given some kind of consent. 4. participant is debriefed =This is usually done after any deception that may have happened in the experiment. -------------------------------- Understanding how this process occurs will allow you to better grasp the steps that need to be taken before an experiment can begin.

Match each provision to its corresponding principle from the Belmont Report.

1. JUSTICE =There should be a balance between those who participate and those who benefit. (This principle ensures that one population will not have to bear the burden of research while another population benefits.) 2. RESPECT FOR PERSONS =-Participants should be treated as autonomous agents. (Informed consent helps people make an autonomous decision to participate in a study.) -=Participants with less autonomy should receive special protection. (Certain groups, like children or prisoners, require special protection because they have less autonomy.) 3. BENEFICENCE =-Participants should be protected from harm and their well-being ensured. (This principle guarantees that all participants receive any benefits and are not worse off than they were before entering the study.)

Match each example to the correct type of measure.

1. OBSERVATIONAL =records behavior or traces of behavior ( 2. PHYSIOLOGICAL =records biological information from a living thing ( 3. SELF-REPORT =records how participants feel about themselves ------------------------------ All three types of measurement can be used to measure the same concept.

Determine whether or not the following are considered reliable scientific sources.

1. RELIABLE SOURCES INCLUDE: -JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: This is what is considered a peer-reviewed journal and is a very reliable source. -handbook of social cognition: Textbooks found in university libraries or on PsycINFO are reliable stores of information. 2. UNRELIABLE SOURCES INCLUDE -uncle bob who was once in ur psych study: While Uncle Bob's experience can be valuable to consider, we cannot make scientific claims on one person's experience. -a scientific study reported by the bbc: While the original study may have been published in a peer-reviewed journal, the news article is based on the interpretation of a nonscientific journalist. -scientific evidence found on wiki: Though it is possible that this information could have been drawn from a reliable source, further verification is needed.

Determine whether or not the following qualities are required to make a causal claim.

1. REQUIRED a. Two variables must be correlated. (This is also an aspect of an association claim, but a causal claim cannot exist without it.) b. One variable must occur before the other. (The causal variable must occur before the outcome, or else it is an association.) c. No other explanations exist. (Outside explanations of relationships diminish causality.) 2. NOT REQUIRED a. two variables are measured. (Though there can be some exceptions, two measured variables often result in an association claim.) b. The claim describes one variable. (This is typically reflective of a frequency claim.)

Match each profession to the type of research user someone in that profession is most likely to be.

1. RESEARCH CONSUMER -SCHOOL teacher: A schoolteacher reviews the latest research on improving the classroom. -lawyer: A lawyer may review research describing the best way to convince a jury. -fbi agent: An FBI agent will apply techniques in the field based on research done by others. -investor: An investor should keep her eyes on many disciplines in order to understand which businesses have promise. 2. RESEARCH PRODUCER -research psychologist: A psychologist who runs experiments and collects and analyzes data produces research. -field data collector: Even though field data collectors are simply collecting data, they add to the production process. -statistician: A statistician is essential in understanding and disseminating research findings. ---------------------------------- Both research producers and consumers are important to the creation of research, and understanding both roles gives you a better perspective on how to do either.

A study was conducted on whether or not coffee can reduce the frequency of headaches. Scientists gave some participants coffee and other participants water and measured whether patients had headaches or not.Match each possible outcome to the appropriate set of results.

1. THE TREATMENT HAD NO EFFECT answer: refer to pic explanation: 2. THE TREATMENT OF COFFEE HAD A POSITIVE EFFECT answer: refer to pic explanation: In this case, those who drank coffee had a lower percentage of headaches than those who drank water. 3. THE TREATMENT OF COFFEE HAD A NEGATIVE EFFECT answer: refer to pic explanation: In this case, those who drank coffee had a higher percentage of headaches than those who drank water. ---------------------------------- Recognizing patterns in data will allow you to make better decisions about the results. Note that slightly different numbers lead to vastly different conclusions.

Doctor Hart implies that if his patient does not participate in his medical experiment, she may be removed from the hospital to make room for someone who will. This is an example of 1.______. Professor Gable offers low-income families $250 to participate in a short survey about drug use. This is an example of 2._________. Both of these concepts are addressed by the principle of 3._________. The precaution of 4.__________can help avoid both of these problems.

1. coercion 2. undue influence 3. respect for persons 4. informed consent

While giving a lecture on language, Giancarlo's professor, Dr. Franklyn, says something that seems to Giancarlo to contradict the textbook. Giancarlo decides not to ask a clarifying question because he assumes that Dr. Franklyn knows more than he does, so he must have misunderstood what the textbook said. What source of information is Giancarlo relying on?

AUTHORITY Giancarlo views his professor as an authority and therefore assumes that the professor is correct.

City libraries were interested in the effectiveness of summer reading programs in improving the reading ability of elementary school students. The libraries near the city center were all selected to implement the 2-week camp. Those in more outlying areas of the city were all selected to implement the longer program. One year later, city officials compared reading abilities via standardized tests of all the elementary schools in the city. They found that elementary schools whose students had attended the longer summer reading programs boasted higher reading comprehension.

1. confound variables -the long program read more books: This is a result of the treatment and would not be considered an alternative explanation. -the libraries were in different locations: If the libraries of one program type were all located in communities with lower socioeconomic status, children in those areas may have poorer education overall. -the elementary schools may have been of different qualities: If better-quality schools were closer to all the libraries using a particular program type, it may have caused that program to get higher scores. 2. not a confound -completion of each program resulted in a free book: If the rewards for both programs were the same, then this would not have affected one group differently from the other. -the standardized tests were graded incorrectly: Even though this may have affected results, it would have affected both groups in the same way. ----------------------------------- Identifying confounds helps us to better understand a study's greatest weakness. It is important to note whether researchers have attempted to account for confounds.

validity

1. internal validity: =The relationship between two variables is genuine. (Good internal validity means there are no alternative explanations for the relationship between two variables.) 2. statistical validity =Results are accurate and reasonable. (Good statistical validity means the numbers and calculations reported by the research are reliable.) 3. external validity =Result generalize to the population discussed. (Good external validity means the results of the study should apply to the population discussed.) 4. construct validity =A variable is operationalized well. (Good construct validity means that the variables were measured well.) ---------------------------------------- Each type of validity plays a role in evaluating the strength of a claim.

Identify each activity as either producing or consuming research.

1. producing research -creating and testing a hypothesis on sexuality in teenagers:This is part of the research process in which new data will be produced. -creating and testing a hypothesis on sexuality in teenagers: Even though previous work is being reviewed, in this case new findings are being generated. 2. consuming research -reporting current trends in biology research to the public: Synthesizing information for the public is often how journalists consume research. -using research findings to update patients' treatment plans:Previous work is being consumed to get patients the best care.

Place the parts of the theory-data cycle in the order that they usually take place.

1. theory In order to generate anything else, a researcher should have a formal set of ideas that describe how variables will relate to each other. 2. research question Once a theory is created, researchers can begin asking questions about the nature of these relationships. 3. research design A design is a concrete plan to answer these research questions. 4. hypothesis Hypotheses are predictions of how the research design will turn out. 5. data Data collected through this process can either support the theory or lead to revisions in the theory or research designs. ----------------------------------- DISCLAIMER: There may be examples of these stages appearing out of order; however, following the cycle in this order leads to the highest-quality research.

Tara would like to measure how social college students are with friends at lunch compared to at dinner. She times how long students make eye contact in the dining hall with one another as a measure of their sociability. Tara finds that students at dinner are significantly more sociable based on this measure. What type of validity may be insufficient in this study?

=construct validity (It could be argued that eye contact is not a great measure of sociability when someone is eating.)

Terrance creates a study analyzing how broccoli consumption is related to long-term health outcomes. However, in his study, Terrance finds a zero association between eating broccoli and long-term health outcomes. When asked to predict the health outcomes of those who dislike broccoli, what should Terrance say?

=terrance should not make a prediction (Because there is no association, Terrance cannot make a prediction about the relationship between these variables.)

After conducting an experiment, Dennis concluded that eating chocolate each day leads people to feel guiltier about other things in their life. He used a random sample of adults from all over the country. Dennis measured guilt via a self-report questionnaire that had been previously validated by other researchers. Dennis's results showed that daily chocolate eaters do feel more guilty. However, because Dennis used a statistical test that was inappropriate for his data, the relationship between chocolate and guilt does not actually exist. What problem did Dennis have with his research?

=type 1 error (Dennis found a false positive, or a relationship between two variables when they actually have no relationship.)

Listed are several parts of a scientific study. Match each part to its corresponding step of the theory-data cycle.

Theory: Based on previous data, Junto believes that most people do not interact in an elevator because it is a confined space and they feel awkward. (When a scientist uses previous data to generate an idea, this can be referred to as theorizing.) Research Question: Junto wonders if a differently sized elevator would change how awkward people feel in an elevator (A nonspecific question about a possible research outcome is referred to as a research question.) .Data: Junto records awkwardness ratings and analyzes them to see if there is a difference. (The information collected will help scientists continue to shape their theory.) Hypothesis: Junto believes that a participant placed in a larger elevator will feel less awkward than a participant placed in a smaller elevator. (Hypotheses are predictions of how the research design will turn out.) Research Design: Junto creates a plan to test participants in differently sized elevators to understand what effect elevator size may have on awkwardness. (A design is a concrete plan to answer a research question.) ----------------------------------- Each step has very important consequences to the quality and implications of future theories.

Read the example and determine whether or not the study violates each of the three principles of the Belmont Report. Meredith is conducting a study about the effects of intoxication on decision making, to expand the literature on how people who are drunk can make dangerous decisions. She goes to several bars late at night and seeks out people who appear intoxicated. In exchange for $20, Meredith asks them to make a series of judgments and then measures their BAC. She reads the participants a full informed-consent agreement and has them sign. Following the study, she reads the participants a full debriefing.

Violates: 1. respect for persons (An intoxicated person cannot give fully informed consent, so even though consent is given, the participant's state of mind may interfere with his or her autonomy.) Does not violate: 1. beneficence (There appears to be little harm caused by the study, and there is some benefit to reducing intoxicated people's poor decision making.) 2. Justice (Meredith is not targeting any particular group, so the concept of justice does not apply.) -------------------------------- Though Meredith is not targeting a special population, there are many ways a researcher can take away a participant's autonomy.

True or False:

a) If a researcher tests his hypothesis and the results are as predicted, this proves his theory. =FALSE A scientist should never use words like prove and should instead say that the results "support" or "are consistent with" his theory. b) Every theory should be falsifiable. =TRUE A theory that is not falsifiable cannot truly be tested. c) If a result does not support a theory, that theory should be discarded. =FALSE It is often the case that a theory just needs to be modified, as depicted by the theory-data cycle. d) The simplest theory that explains all of the data is the best theory. =TRUE The idea of parsimony in research is often used when there are competing ideas to explain the same phenomenon. ---------------------------------- These points about theories are important to keep in mind when evaluating a theory you were previously unfamiliar with.

Match each description to the correct type of article (meta-analysis article, review article, empirical article): a) articles that quantitatively analyzes thirty previously conducted studies on gender discrimination b) article that discusses all the current work on eye-tracking technology c) article about a 3-year field study on risky decision making in at-risk youths d) report of an experiment that tested the effects of different types of grammar on decision making e)combination of various studies on imagination that is examined as one large study f) summary of the current literature on psychopathy and criminal behavior

a) articles that quantitatively analyzes thirty previously conducted studies on gender discrimination -META-ANALYSIS: This article combines multiple studies and uses all of the combined data to draw new conclusions. b) article that discusses all the current work on eye-tracking technology -REVIEW ARTICLE: This article reviews the current state of literature in a certain area but does not combine studies for analysis. c) article about a 3-year field study on risky decision making in at-risk youths -EMPIRICAL ARTICLE: This article describes one study in detail. d) report of an experiment that tested the effects of different types of grammar on decision making -EMPIRICAL ARTICLE: This article describes one study in detail. e)combination of various studies on imagination that is examined as one large study -META-ANALYSIS: This article combines multiple studies and uses all of the combined data to draw new conclusions. f) summary of the current literature on psychopathy and criminal behavior -REVIEW ARTICLE: This article reviews the current state of literature in a certain area but does not combine studies for analysis. ---------------------------------- Different study types provide different and valuable contributions and should be evaluated differently.

Match each research question to the type of research it describes.(basic research, translational research, applied research) a) how quickly can the eye switch between targets? b) do tablet computers increase the productivity of nurses in an emergency room? c) what are the effects of cocaine on the sociability of rats? d) can historically effective interventions for depression be used in schools on children? e) do farm safety days decrease accidents with rural children? f) can the previously documented persuasive effects of scarcity be used to increase recycling?

a) how quickly can the eye switch between targets? -BASIC RESEARCH: The answer to this research question adds to a body of knowledge with no direct application. b) do tablet computers increase the productivity of nurses in an emergency room? -APPLIED RESEARCH: This finding tackles a practical problem of nurse productivity in a hospital. c) what are the effects of cocaine on the sociability of rats? -BASIC RESEARCH: Animal testing adds to the knowledge that already exists, but the problem is not a practical one. d) can historically effective interventions for depression be used in schools on children? -TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH: Previous laboratory work on depression is tested to see if it applies to a real-world setting. e) do farm safety days decrease accidents with rural children? -APPLIED RESEARCH: Researchers in the real world are seeing if their efforts cause change. f) can the previously documented persuasive effects of scarcity be used to increase recycling? -TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH: Here researchers take what has been learned about scarcity in basic research and apply it to a public problem. ---------------------------------- Each type of research is valuable in addressing different kinds of problems.

True or False: a) personal experience can be just as valuable as research if you document your experiences properly. b) a comparison group allows experimenters to show that a treatment is effective .c) if a research study finds an effect that majority of the time, there is no guarantee it will happen to you .d) using multiple groups allows researchers to isolate potential confounds.e) if the results from a research study do not apply to every case, that research should not be taken seriously.

a) personal experience can be just as valuable as research if you document your experiences properly. -FALSE: Because your experience only affects you, whereas research involves many subjects, research is almost always more valuable than personal experience. b) a comparison group allows experimenters to show that a treatment is effective -TRUE: This is the concept of systematic comparison, which makes research a stronger source of information than personal experience. .c) if a research study finds an effect that majority of the time, there is no guarantee it will happen to you -TRUE: Someone's personal experience may be an outlier or fall in the minority of what happens most of the time. .d) using multiple groups allows researchers to isolate potential confounds. -TRUE: If a treatment is effective in multiple groups, it can strengthen the argument of the researcher. e) if the results from a research study do not apply to every case, that research should not be taken seriously. -FALSE: Research in psychology almost never explains all cases and is designed to be probabilistic, or to explain most cases. ---------------------------------- It is critical to understand how different conclusions can be drawn from personal experience as opposed to research.

Mike is told by his psychology professor that people are likely to be swayed by a story that sounds good or "makes sense." Later that week, Mike begins experiencing stomach pain and thinks he may have a stomach ulcer. He asks his roommate what he should do, and the roommate suggests that the pain must be from all the spicy food Mike likes to eat. Mike agrees with his roommate, and without doing any research, he avoids spicy food to try to help his stomach pain.What type of faulty thinking is this an example of? present/present bias confirmation bias bias blind spot or availability heuristic

bias blind spot Mike has been told that people are often convinced by information that "makes sense." Despite that, he is still convinced by his roommate that eating spicy food makes his stomach hurt, because it seems reasonable.

Heather is looking for a new album to listen to and searches all throughout the music store, comparing several different albums. She finds one album that two of her friends have said they really liked. Heather thinks that because two of her friends liked it, she should like it; however, she does not account for the fact that she has many other friends who have not told her their opinions on the album.What type of faulty thinking is this an example of?

present/present bias: (Heather chooses to value information that is present, but ignores the fact that other information may not be present but may still be important.)

Researchers want to know if the age at which one begins using a cell phone changes how extroverted one is. In this context, determine whether or not the terms apply to the concept of "extroverted."

•Applies: 1. measured (While cell phone use may affect extroversion, the researchers are not manipulating extroversion directly.) 2. Variable (There are different possible levels of extroversion, so in this context, this concept varies.) 3. Conceptual (This variable is not an operational definition of extroversion (i.e., how many friends one has); therefore, it would best be described as conceptual.) • Does not apply: 1. Constant A research concept can be described in multiple ways, and certain descriptions are not mutually exclusive. 2. operational A research concept can be described in multiple ways, and certain descriptions are not mutually exclusive. 3. Manipulated A research concept can be described in multiple ways, and certain descriptions are not mutually exclusive.

Researchers are investigating whether middle school children differ significantly in their critical-thinking ability by measuring the differences between sixth, seventh, and eighth graders. Each student at Tannenbaum Middle School receives the same intelligence test, and then the students' scores are compared. Researchers also record the age of the students to see if age affects performance on the test. Only participants whose first language is English are used. Identify whether each item should be either a constant or a variable in this particular study.

•Variable: 1. intelligence test scores; (Students will likely get a wide variety of scores on this test, making it highly variable.) 2.student age; (While ages are similar, there is still some variation between students.) 3. student grade level (The researchers are comparing students from three different grades, giving this variable three levels.) •Constant: 1. Middle School Location; (The research is only taking place at one middle school, so there is no variance.) 2. primary language; (Only English-speaking students are used; therefore, language is the same.) 3. type of intelligence test While students will get different scores, they all take the same test. ------------------------------------------------ In each case above, the variable has more than one level, while the constant remains the same. These definitions depend on the study and can change from study to study.

match association, causal, and frequency claims

•association claim 1. Those with ADHD do one month less work a year. (While this claim discusses two variables, both variables are measured, likely making it an association claim.) 2. Shy people are better at reading facial expressions. (Just because shy people are better at reading facial expressions does not mean their shyness is what causes them to have this skill.) •causal claim 1. Aggressive video games lead to aggressive thoughts in players. (This claim suggests that one variable is causing the other using the causal claim verb lead.) 2. MMR shot does not cause autism, large study says. (This claim suggesting that something is not caused by something else is still a causal claim.) •frequency claim 1. Sixteen percent of teens have considered suicide. (This claim only mentions one variable, a key hint that it is a frequency claim.) 2. Fourty-four percent of Americans struggle to stay happy. (This claim only mentions one variable, a key hint that it is a frequency claim.) ---------------------------------------------- Identifying these different types of claims allows you to draw proper conclusions from the information being presented.