Psych 265 FINAL

parasympathetic nervous system

(autonomic nervous system) dominant during relaxed states, including decreases in heartbeat, stimulation of digestion, and the closing of airways

resting potential

negatively charged local potential that precedes an action potential. The resting potential exists because of negatively charged proteins within the neuron and to closed ions channels that prevent the influx of positively charged sodium (Na+) ions. We do find some channels open for the positively charged ion potassium (K+) during the resting potential. The negative charge within the neuron attracts positively charged K+ ions into the neuron, a property called electrostatic attraction

sensory neuron

neuron that conveys sensory information via axons to the central nervous system. Convey sensory information to the CNS, afferent neurons

interneuron

neuron with the soma and axon found within the same structure

motor neuron

neurons that conveys motor information via axons from the CNS. Convey movement information to muscles in the body, afferent neurons

pharmacogenetics

the study of how genetic differences influence a drug's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects. This field provides the basis for differences in drug response between individuals.

sympathetic nervous system

(autonomic nervous sytems 1) system that prepares the body for rigorous activity by increasing heartbeat, inhibiting digestion, and opening airways, among many other involuntary functions

vesicular transporter

- a process in which materials move into or out of the cell enclosed as vesicles

ligand

- anything that binds to a receptor site (affinity - ability of the ligand to bind to the receptor. Efficacy - ability of the ligand to activate the receptor)

synapse

- at the end of a neuron where they communicate chemically - that communication is called neurochemical transmission - 3 types: axo-dendritic, axo-somatic, axo-axonal

determinants of the drug experience

- chemical properties and effects of the drug - drug dose - route of administration - biological makeup - psychological set - setting in which the drug is used

resting neuron

- contain storage or synaptic vesicles that are filled with molecule of neurochemical transmitter - even in resting neurons, there is a low level spontaneous release of neurotransmitter that is too low to evoke a measurable response

cerebral cortex

- contains a motor and speech center, visual, olfactory, and auditory parts along with areas concerned with higher mental activity such as judgement, memory, reasoning, and thought

cerebellum

- controls ballance and coordination of various body movements - recieves incoming messages from the cortex, spinal sensory nerves, and balance system in the ear and from the auditory and visual system

catabolism

- enzymatic breakdown of neurotransmitters

neuron

- functional unit of the nervous system - control behavior, senses, and movement. - communicate by receiving and transmitting information to other neurons through singlas from one end to the other by means of electrical impulses (86 billion neurons. Components include soma, axon, dendrites, and axon terminal)

dual innervation

- homestatic ability of the body which involves the internal balance of the human system - without this the body will not function properly

medulla oblongata

- in the brain stem and is the center for respiration, coughing, vomiting, and cardiac and vasomotor control

limbic system

- includes the thalamus, hypothalamus and other structures - are involved in many of our emotions and motivations, particularly those that are related to survival - such emotions include fear, anger, and emotions related to sexual behavior

hypothalamus

- lies below the thalamus and is directly connected to it - contains centers that regulate the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, fat and carb metabolism, water balance, hunger and satiety, and pleasure and pain

depolarization

- neuronal excitation - positive ion influx - the entry of the nerve impulse into the nerve terminal triggers series of ion influxes (sodium ion Na+ influx, potassium K+ efflux, Calcium Ca2+ influx) - a reduced difference between the positive and negative charges on each side of a membrane.

hyperpolarization

- neuronal inhibition - negative ion influx - an increased difference between the positive and negative charges on each side of a membrane

clinical trial

- phase 1 - drug safety in normal healthy volunteers - phase 2 - short term treatment of patients with target disorder - phase 3 - longer term treatment of patients with target disorder (about 15 years to complete and $2.6 billion to develop)

thalamus

- relay center of the brain - all incoming and outgoing signals pass through this area. - it can relay signals from the brainstem to all parts of the cerebral cortex and cause a generalized activation of the cerebellum

synaptic vesicle

- store various neurotransmitters that are released at the synapse

reticular activating system

- the major function is to control the arousal level of the brain - consciousness, alertness and the sleep/wake cycle are controlled (system of structures that support arousal in the cerebral cortex)

therapeutic drug development

1.First, a company identifies a disorder to treat, this decision includes carefully considering opinions from scientists, outside consultants, and business executives. These individuals seek to develop a treatment that yields a likelihood of making a profit. 2.SECOND, drug synthesis, chemists synthesize experimental compounds. 3.Third, the drugs produced in stage 2 are tested in biological experimentation, high-throughput screening methods provide basic biological information about compounds. Results are sent to chemists and guide synthesis of further compounds. 4. Focused screening methods, focused testing occurs with most promising compounds identified during stage 3. 5. Safety Pharmacology, tests identify adverse effects and toxic doses. 6. Clinical trials, most effective and safest compounds tested from previous stages are tested in humans. Regularly approval sought after positive clinical findings

DEA schedule of controlled substances

5 stages. 1. No accepted medical use, high abuse potential. Stage 2, accepted medical use and high abuse potential (morphine). Stage 3, accepted medical use and moderate abuse potential (hydrocodone). Stage 4, accepted medical use and low abuse potation (diazepam). And stage 5 accepted medical use and low abuse potential (codeine containing cough syrups)

Controlled drug vs noncontrolled

Controlled is a drug which is illegal whose manufacture, possession, or use is regulated by a government, non-controlled drugs are substances that are over the counter or prescribed to treat medical conditions.

licit vs illicit drugs

Licit drugs are legal drugs, illicit drugs are illegal drugs.

sodium potassium pump

Neuronal membrane mechanism that brings two K+ ions into the neuron while removing three Na+ ions out of the neuron. By removing more Na+ ions than the K+ ions brought in, this pumping activity results in net negative effects.

subjective effects

Pharmacological effects that cannot be directly observed by others. In other words, we cannot observe or measure another's drug experience. Researchers measure subjective effects by asking the participant questions.

glial cells

cells that support the function of neurons

neurotransmission

Transmission of information between neurons. Typically involves a neuron releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters into a synapse, which allows neurotransmitters to act on sites on another neuron.

polymorphism

a difference in the encoding of a gene compared to the most common sequence in a population. For example, some polymorphism's lead to greater production of certain types of enzymes in the liver. For these individuals, the extra enzymes may break down a drug before it produces any substantial effects.

dose

a ratio amount of drug per an organism's body weight

drug

a substance that is given or taken that alters physiological functioning

potency

amount of drug used to produce a certain level of effect. "Describing a drug as highly potent means that drug effects occur at lower doses"

voltage gated ion channels

channels that open or close, depending on local potential changes. Na+ channels open in response to depolarization.

psychoactive drugs

chemical agents that can influence biological function resulting in changes in behavior. o"...Drugs that achieve these effects (drugs that affect mood, perception, thinking, or behavior) by acting in the nervous system are called psychoactive drugs."

instrumental drug use

consists of using a drug to address a specific purpose. For example, someone may take antidepressent drug such as Prozac for reducing depression. Instrumental use usually occurs with therapeutic drugs.

electrical potential

difference between the electrical charge within a neuron versus the electrical charge of the environment immediately outside the neuron (normally the electrical charge within a neuron is negative compared to the outside environment. This leaves the neuron's membrane polarized, meaning that on one side the charge is negative but on the other side the charge is positive.)

local potential

electrical potential on a specific part of a neuron. The local potential changes in response to events within a neuron and with communication from other neurons. Local potentials change as charged particles called ions move in and out of the neuron through ion channels.

efferent neuron

has an axon coming from a structure, which means its sending information away from the CNS

afferent neurons

has an axon going to another structure, which means the information is going to the CNS (motor neurons)

neurogenetics

how genes support the function of neurons. Also studies how gene mutations cause neurological disorders

pharmacology

is the study of drugs and their actions and effects on living systems. "...encompasses two large fields: psychology and pharmacology. Thus, pharmacology attempts to relate the sections and effects of drugs to psychological processes."

epigenetics

mechanisms of gene expression not involving alterations to DNA sequence

neurotrophin

naturally occuring chemical substance that promotes the growth and development of neurons

axon

part of a neuron that sends neurotransmitters to other neurons. Most neurons only have one axon which branches from the soma, usually opposite of the dendrites. An axon begins at the soma and ends with multiple branches containing axon terminals

concentration gradient

particles of the same type resist being concentrated. Thus, as K+ becomes more concentrated within the neuron some K+ ions exit the neuron due to a concentration gradient.

dendrite

parts of a neuron that receive information from other neurons. The membranes contains proteins called receptors that neurotransmitters can activate. When activated receptors cause changes in the functioning of the neuron. The more dendrites a neuron has the more input it can receive from other neurons.

objective effects

pharmacological effects that can be directly observed by others. In other words, a researcher can independently measure the drug's effects. For example, psychostimulant drugs increase heart rate and a researcher can objectively measure an individuals heart rate by taking the person's pulse.

ion channels

pores in a neuronal membrane that allows the passage of ions

pharmacokinetics

refers to how drugs pass through the body. This field considers different ways to administer a drug, how long a drug stays in the body, how well the drug enters the brain, and how it leaves the body.

recreational drug use

refers to using a drug entirely to experience its effects. For example, it may consist of drinking alcohol purely to experience its intoxicating effects

ED50 value

represents the dose at which 50 percent of an effect was observed (effective dose). "So, on the curve it is the dose that matches with 50 percent effect point on the curve. We tend to calculate ED50 values because they represent a middle point on the curve and thus are generally more useful for conveying a drug's effective dose range than other ED values". ED50 values provide a means for comparing the potency of drugs

electrical transmission

series of electrical events that begin at an axon hillock and proceed down the length of an axon

transcription factor

substance that increases or decreases gene transcription

somatic nervous system

system responsible for delivering voluntary motor signlas from the CNS to muscles throughout the body and for conveying sensory information from the body to the CNS. In short, this system produces voluntary movement. This system is made up of motor and sensory neurons. Sensory neurons send information to the dorsal part of the spinal cord and the motor signals are sent to muscles from the ventral part of the spinal cord.

autonomic nervous system

system that controls involuntary movements for vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing. This system consists of the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

pharmacodynamics

the physiological actions of drugs. For psychoactive drugs, this includes the drug's actions on the nervous system. Most addictive recreational drugs, for example, act on the brain's reward pathways to produce pleasurable effects.

psychopharmacology

the sub discipline of pharmacology that concerns the effects of psychoactive drugs on behavior. (Psychoactive drugs work on the behavioral regulation of the brain.)