PSYCH 3100 Personality Psychology - Chapter 8

*Positive punishment*

*Administering* something aversive (bad) after misbehavior; what people usually mean when they refer to punishment. - the aversive thing is applied rather than being taken away

*Continuous reinforcement schedule*

*Always* giving out a reward for good behavior. - Ex: Every time he takes out the trash, you give him a kiss.

*Partial reinforcement schedule*

*Only sometimes* giving out a reward for good behavior. - Has 4 types --> time = interval --> behavior = ratio --> variable = random --> fixed = a set amount of time - As you can see, fixed versus variable refers to a set amount of time versus a random amount, and ratio versus interval refers to whether the reward is given after the behavior versus after a certain amount of time has passed.

How to Get People (and Pets) to Do What You Want?

- Animals and humans can learn to behaviors through *operant conditioning*, which shapes their behavior through rewards.

What can you use behavior modification for?

- to change your own habits - for addictions - raising children - to elicit a desired behavior (through incentives)

What does behaviorism not focus on?

- understanding the whole person. - people's beliefs and thoughts. - the conscious and unconscious mind.

*Behaviorism*

A branch of psychology that focuses on (relatively) simple explanations for outward behavior and is unconcerned with the inner workings of the mind. - documents how our personalities are built by the rewards and punishments - It's also the basis for programs to improve child behavior, treat addiction, and help people sleep better. - explores how people learn to behave, and thus helps us understand how personality is shaped through the environment. - believes that individual differences in personality are due to social learning that occurs in the environment (including culture, peers, and family).

*Token economy*

A program in which good behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. - A b-mod program

*Systematic desensitization*

A treatment for phobias that attempts to reduce fear in many small steps by associating the feared thing with calmness. Ex: Ron would need to take small steps like imagining a toy spider, then holding a toy spider, them eventually touching a real spider.

*Phobia*

An intense fear of a specific thing. - are remarkably curable, usually using some form of classical conditioning and habituation

*Classical conditioning*

Associating two things not normally associated with each other.

LO 8.2 Explain how behavior modification works.

Behavior modification works by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesired behaviors. It can be used to influence children's behavior, break bad habits, and treat serious conditions such as drug or alcohol addiction.

*External locus of control*

Believing that events are more a matter of luck and the arbitrary decisions of powerful people. - Ex: people controlled by this believe that preparing for the job interview won't make much of a difference - are more likely to be anxious and depressed

*Internal locus of control*

Believing that your actions have an effect on events. - Ex: people controlled by are more likely to prepare for the interview. - this is a strong predictor of getting better grades

LO 8.4 Explain how classical conditioning works.

Classical conditioning occurs when an animal or person comes to associate two things not normally associated with each other, so that behavior follows from a stimulus that does not normally produce that behavior. For example, a dog might associate the ringing of a bell with food and will begin salivating. Or, if you work in bed, you might come to associate your bed with working instead of sleeping, and not sleep well. Phobias can often be treated using classical conditioning associations.

*Flooding*

Confronting your worst fear head-on, all at once. Ex: Ron would get over his arachnophobia by going straight to touching a spider.

*Extinction*

Eliminating the conditioned response.

*Habituation*

Getting used to something in the environment and not responding as strongly anymore. - a principle related to classical conditioning. - Ex: Occupants of houses near airports get used to the noise of the planes through this proecess ___________. - likely evoloved to help us pay attention to the important things

*Fixed-ratio reinforcement*

Giving out a reward after *a certain number of behaviors*. - Ex: giving him a kiss only after he's taken out the trash twice—so a certain number of good behaviors. - are common in sales—for example, you might get a commission for each piece of clothing that you sell. - Disadvantage: is that as soon as the fixed reinforcement is taken away (that is, the commission), the behavior stops (selling).

*Variable-ratio reinforcement*

Giving out a reward after *a random number of behaviors*. - Ex: a kiss after an unpredictable or random number of times—so a random number of good behaviors - usually lead to the greatest increase in the desired behavior ( ex: slot machine gambling) - is *better at maintaining* the desired behavior for extended periods of time. (When the ratio is variable, you never know when it will pay off, so you keep going.)

*Fixed-interval reinforcement*

Giving out a reward after a *certain amount of time* has passed. - Ex: a kiss every 3 days—a certain amount of time - working: you work and every 2 weeks you get a paycheck

*Variable-interval reinforcement*

Giving out a reward after a *random amount of time* has passed. - Ex: kissing him randomly at intervals of 1 to 5 days—a random amount of time

*Reinforcement schedule*

Giving out rewards for good behavior at *certain* intervals.

*Positive reinforcement*

Giving rewards or incentives for good behavior. - is often the most effective way to shape behavior - It is a great technique when used to reward good behavior, but it can also reinforce unhealthy behavior (drugs, sweets, alcohol).

*Shaping*

Gradual training that rewards behavior progressively closer to the desired one. - gradual process of reinforcement - Ex: To learn to push the cart, the dog was likely rewarded for behaviors closer and closer to the desired behavior.

*Socialization*

How children learn to become mature members of society; also known as acculturation.

*Reinforcement value*

How enticing a particular reward is. - Ex: If you are already in a relationship, the reinforcement value of meeting new people is less than if you are single and looking.

LO 8.3 Define internal and external locus of control and how they relate to expectancies.

Internal and external locus of control capture generalized expectancies about how often behaviors lead to rewards or punishment. People with an internal locus of control believe that outcomes are under their control, and people with an external locus of control believe that outcomes are under the control of external forces such as luck or powerful others.

*Progressive relaxation*

Learning how to systematically relax your body so your mind calms.

*Discrimination*

Narrowing the conditions that produce the conditioned response. - making the Condition (ex: fear) less broad

*Social learning*

Observational learning that occurs when someone watches others get rewarded or punished for behavior. - children (and sometimes adults) look to role models to see how to behave. - Bobo doll experiement

LO 8.1 Describe the types of reinforcement in operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning includes positive reinforcement (rewards after good behavior), negative reinforcement (removing adverse experiences after good behavior), positive punishment (adverse experiences after bad behavior), and negative punishment (removing rewards after bad behavior).

What are the four ways of modifying behavior:

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment

*Natural consequences*

Punishments enacted naturally as a consequence of the negative behavior. -Ex: If child touches a hot stove, she gets burned. - are more useful punishments

*Spontaneous recovery*

Relearning a conditioned response. - this happens much quicker

*Deconditioning*

Reverse the conditioning to eliminate the conditioned response.

*Negative reinforcement*

Rewards desired behavior by *taking away* something aversive or bad. Ex: cats were confined to "puzzle boxes." When the cats pressed a lever or pulled a string, a door would open for the cat to escape. The "bad" box was taken away.

*Operant conditioning*

Shaping behavior through rewards and punishments.

*Negative punishment*

Stopping bad behavior by *taking away* something good; also known as a time-out. - Ex: Lifeguards who make misbehaving kids get out of the pool use this. - time out or jail are examples - might shape personality because parents are punishing bad personality traits.

*Reciprocal determinism*

The idea that people choose the environments they enter and then change them. - Ex: Sophia chooses to joins the swim team; Sophia will also change her environment by participating in it.

*Unconditioned response (UCR)*

The response normally produced by the conditioned response (e.g., salivation being produced by food). - Ex: the saliavting

*Conditioned response (CR)*

The response produced by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning (e.g., salivation following the sound of the bell). - Ex: the salivating caused by the sound of the can opener

*Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)*

The stimulus normally produced by the unconditioned response (e.g., food producing salivation). - Ex: the animal's food

*Conditioned stimulus (CS)*

The stimulus that produces the conditioned response after classical conditioning (e.g., a bell causing dogs to salivate). - Ex: the sound of the can opener

*Behavior modification*

Using conditioning to improve behavior. -The idea behind b-mod is to reward only acceptable behavior. - "Behavior mod" or "b-mod" is often instituted in challenging cases (people addicted to drugs, kids engaged in violence)

Little Albert Experiment

Watson was heavily influenced by Pavlov's classical conditioning of a dog's reflexes and wanted to see if the same result would procure when done on emotions of a human. Little Albert was the test subject, was just a baby, and had no fear toward furry animals like rabbits and rats before this experiment. Every time Little Albert was playing with the white rat, a loud noise was made by striking a metal bar, and the baby cried due to the loud noise. This was repeated numerous times until Little Albert cried just at the sight of the white rat because he knew the noise was associated with it. Eventually, Little Albert developed a stimulus generalization to different types of furry animals and would cry at the sight of a bunny and a furry coat. This experiment was able to demonstrate that emotions were able to be conditioned.

*Expectancies*

What someone expects to happen, based on past experiences of what was rewarding. - they involve some thought and contemplation.

*Generalization*

When a conditioned response is elicited in response to things similar to the conditioned stimulus.

T/F Does operant conditioning helps enforce culturally determined gender differences?

Yes; such as in crying. Men cry very little as adults; while females cry more.

Jameela received a gift card to her favorite store if she received straight A's on her report card. What type of operant conditioning principle is this? a. Negative reinforcement b. Negative punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Positive punishment

a. Negative reinforcement

Jillian is applying to colleges this year. She works hard at it, but ultimately believes she has little control over whether she gets in or not, that it's all a matter of luck. Jillian likely has a. an external locus of control. b. implicit motivation. c. an internal locus of control. d. explicit motivation.

a. an external locus of control.

This gradual process of reinforcement is called a. shaping. b. negative punishment. c. locus of control. d. classical conditioning.

a. shaping.

____________ is the general term for shaping behavior through rewards and punishments. a. Physical conditioning b. Operant conditioning c. Social conditioning d. Classical conditioning

b. Operant conditioning

Frieda finds calculus difficult, but studies long hours and goes for tutoring because she believes these things will help her do better in the class. Frieda likely has a. explicit motivation. b. an internal locus of control. c. implicit motivation. d. an external locus of control.

b. an internal locus of control.

Extinction, in the context of classical conditioning, means the a. process for deconditioning a response. b. elimination of a conditioned response. c. spontaneous recovery of a conditioned response. d. end of a lab experiment.

b. elimination of a conditioned response.

Craig was stung by a jelly fish when he was little. Now Craig has a fear of all fish, as well as the ocean. Craig's fear has a. extinguished. b. generalized. c. deconditioned. d. habituated.

b. generalized.

How children slowly learn how to become mature members of society and learn their culture's rules is called a. classical conditioning. b. socialization. c. validating. d. norming.

b. socialization.

Craig was stung by a jelly fish when he was little. Now Craig has a fear of all fish, as well as the ocean. He went to therapy in which he had to take trips to the beach and incrementally take steps to go into the water over time. Eventually, he overcame his fear of the ocean. This process is known as a. flooding. b. systematic desensitization. c. generalization. d. torturing.

b. systematic desensitization.

Todd is prone to negative self-talk, always putting himself down. Which would be the most helpful line he could say to himself to correct this tendency should something not go his way? a. "You're a failure, and you're only way not to be is to work even harder." b. "People love me no matter what I do." c. "This was your first attempt; you will do better next time with more practice." d. "I am awesome."

c. "This was your first attempt; you will do better next time with more practice."

Spencer has been naughty all day long, and his parents finally give him a time-out. What operant conditioning principle are they employing? a. Negative reinforcement b. Positive punishment c. Negative punishment d. Positive reinforcement

c. Negative punishment

What is the best definition of behavior modification, or b-mod? a. Real-world applications of classical conditioning to improve behavior b. Real-world applications of negative punishment to improve behavior c. Real-world applications of operant conditioning to improve behavior d. Real-world applications of negative reinforcement to improve behavior

c. Real-world applications of operant conditioning to improve behavior

Trish's parents give her money for taking out the trash every once in a while. Trish can never predict exactly when she will get paid. What reinforcement schedule is this? a. Fixed interval b. Continuous c. Variable-ratio d. Fixed-ratio

c. Variable-ratio

Jake has had problems with alcohol abuse. He is in a program in which he takes a drug that will make him nauseous whenever he drinks alcohol. Jake is taking part in a. a cruel trick. b. self-hate. c. behavior modification. d. classical conditioning.

c. behavior modification.

Spanking is an example of a a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. positive punishment. d. negative punishment.

c. positive punishment.

People often choose the environments they enter and then change them. This is called a. force of nature. b. the butterfly effect. c. reciprocal determinism. d. mirror neurons.

c. reciprocal determinism.

Which of the following statements is true? a. Classical conditioning is thought to be more powerful for altering behavior than operant conditioning. b. Classical conditioning was once widely acknowledged, but has now been largely debunked. c. Classical conditioning is an effective way to strengthen muscle tone. d. Classical conditioning is the associating of two things not normally associated with each other.

d. Classical conditioning is the associating of two things not normally associated with each other.

Chuck goes to work five days a week, but gets paid after every two weeks. What schedule of reinforcement is this? a. Fixed-ratio b. Variable-ratio c. Variable interval d. Fixed interval

d. Fixed interval

Melissa believes she can accomplish anything she wants to do in life. Ty believes life is a matter of chance and that people have little control for better or worse. Which of the following statements is likely to be true based on this information? a. Ty will probably live longer than Melissa. b. Ty is likely to be happier than Melissa. c. Melissa is likely to get married sooner than Ty. d. Melissa is likely to be more successful than Ty.

d. Melissa is likely to be more successful than Ty.

In Felicia's first-grade class, the children receive buttons every time they behave well. At the end of the week, the children can trade in the buttons for small prizes. This is an example of a. spoiling children. b. classical conditioning. c. negative reinforcement. d. a token economy.

d. a token economy.

People with an external locus of control are more likely to be a. married. b. happy and content. c. in powerful positions in business. d. anxious and depressed.

d. anxious and depressed.

A dog that eats canned food typically comes running to its owner when it hears the can being opened. The sound of the can opener in this instance is the a. unconditioned response. b. conditioned response. c. unconditioned stimulus. d. conditioned stimulus.

d. conditioned stimulus.

The decisions people think about and make every day based on past experiences are called a. crises. b. dilemmas. c. choices. d. expectancies.

d. expectancies

Shannon is terrified of spiders. To overcome her fear, she enters a program whereby she has to repeatedly go into a room that contains spiders. This therapy is known as a. habituation. b. discrimination. c. shaping. d. flooding.

d. flooding.

Ben doesn't believe in luck. He thinks that everything that happens to him in life is a result of choices he made and actions he took. Ben exemplifies a(n) a. social learning. b. external locus of control. c. shaping. d. internal locus of control.

d. internal locus of control.

Naomi continued to text with her friends at the dinner table even after being told numerous times not to do so. Her parents then took her phone away for a week. This is an example of a. negative reinforcement. b. positive reinforcement. c. positive punishment. d. negative punishment.

d. negative punishment.

Behaviorism is the branch of psychology that focuses on a. understanding the whole person. b. people's beliefs and thoughts. c. the conscious and unconscious mind. d. people's actions and the factors involved in those actions.

d. people's actions and the factors involved in those actions.

Gerald is given a sticker every time he spells a list of words correctly. This is an example of a. negative punishment. b. negative reinforcement. c. positive punishment. d. positive reinforcement.

d. positive reinforcement.

Terence and Alisha often look to their parents for how to behave in certain situations. This is known as a. shaping. b. classical conditioning. c. operant conditioning. d. social learning.

d. social learning

A dog that eats canned food typically comes running to its owner when it hears the can being opened. The food in this instance is the a. conditioned stimulus. b. conditioned response. c. unconditioned response. d. unconditioned stimulus.

d. unconditioned stimulus.

*Behavior therapy*

focused on unlearning maladaptive patterns of behavior therapy which uses principles of classical and operant behavior to change behavior.

Darla recently moved into a new apartment to discover that she could hear the people above her walking around all day long. At first this was driving her crazy, but now she rarely notices it. This is called shaping. flooding. discrimination. habituation.

habituation.

Why is positive reinforcement more effective than punishment?

it's easier to continue doing a desired behavior than to learn to behave differently because positive reinforcement focuses on what the person or animal is doing well instead of what he is not doing well

negative (in reinforcement or punishment)

means to remove or take away something - Ex: an unwanted homework assignment (taking away a bad thing, for reinforcement) or a recess period (taking away a good thing, for punishment).

positive (in reinforcement or punishment)

means to the add or administer something, either good or bad - Ex: a reward (a good thing, for reinforcement) or a spanking (a bad thing, for punishment).

Is punishment an effective way of discipline?

punishment, especially physical punishment such as spanking and paddling, is not the most effective discipline technique; it changes behavior only *temporarily* and can cause children to become more aggressive 1. punishment must immediately follow the bad behavior to be effective 2. punishment needs to be consistent

*Generalized expectancies*

your belief about how often your actions usually lead to rewards versus punishment.