Psych 464 Exam 1
What are advantages and disadvantages of using a particular age to define "adult"?
Based on physical development (but doesn't include psychological and social standards) Based on ability (but differs among countries--drinking, voting, etc) Too many variations due to culture
What are three effects of aerobic exercise on cardiovascular functioning?
Benefits functional capacity, lifestyle, and changes in body mass
What do the upper middle class have more privileged access to? What leads to their privileged access?
Better education and jobs Stable marriages to equally or more successful partners Safe, thriving neighborhoods Higher income and more wealth Healthier lifestyles and longer life-spans More likely to inherit, not earn their privileged standing
What are some biological, psychological and socio-cultural contributions to diabetes?
Biological: changes in glucose metabolism, obesity Psychological: sedentary lifestyle, also associated with depression and stress Sociocultural: habitual eating patterns, lack of education, low economic resources
What are sequential research designs? What are theire strengths and limitations?
Can examine age-related change within individuals • Can examine change across cohorts and/or different periods Expensive and time-consuming • Involves complex data analysis
Are claims made by T.A. sciences accurate and well-supported?
Can fight telomere shortening with diet and exercise, but only up to a point Company advertised supplement that can increase length Not reliable--not enough scientific evidence, limited clinical trial evidence, very expensive, website says "may"
What is the main take-away finding? How can these results be applied to the real world? Lachman et al., (2010) Promoting functional health in midlife and old age: Long term protective effects.
Can improve functional health by promoting these protective factors
What is the relationship between back pain and cognitive performance?
Can interfere with performance including memory, language, and verbal IQ
What are the first and second leading causes of death in older Americans
Cardiovascular disease, cancer
What are the four principles underlying the study of adult development and aging?
Changes are continuous, only the survivors grow old, individuality matters, normal aging is different from disease
What is resveratrol?
Chemical in red wine, rumored to be linked with better health outcomes Negates impact of high calorie diet in mice
What are hormones, what system are they regulated by, and what is their function?
Chemical messengers produced by endocrine system
Why is it important to shift back to human studies?
Chronic conditions and aging (longitudinal studies) Relevance for biological systems Role of psychological factors (how mental health and well being impacts aging process)
List the two forms of respiratory disease that make up COPD.
Chronic emphysema (loss of elasticity in alveoli), chronic bronchitis (bronchial tubes inflamed and irritated)
What are the differences between the two components of COPD
Chronic emphysema: loss of elasticity in alveoli Chronic bronchitis: bronchial tubes inflamed and irritated
What could a loss of sense of smell indicate?
Cognitive decline
What kind of impact to psychosocial factors have on functional capacity and cognitive function?
Control beliefs, social support, exercise
What are four interventions that can be implemented for people with Type 2 diabetes?
Control glucose intake, blood pressure, blood lipids along with exercise and weight control
What hormone regulates energy and is involved in stress? How does it change with age and what are some of the resulting consequences?
Cortisol, glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis--aging causes dangerous increases in cortisol, heightens neuronal loss (mixed evidence)
How did the commercial company react to animal studies of aging?
Create drugs that mimic the effects of caloric restriction, resveratrol
What are the three variable rate (error) theories and how do they differ from programmed theories of aging?
Cross linking, free radical, error catastrophe
Why is the experience of menopause so different across cultures?
Women in societies that view aging more positively tend to have less severe menopausal symptoms--social support, view it as natural instead of disease, placebo type effect
What is an SNP?
short nucleotide polymorphism--single base change in DNA sequence that occurs in significant proportion (more than 1 percent) of large population
Why is it important to conduct non-human primate studies of aging?
similarities (anatomical, physiological, and behavioral)
Why might older adults dislike wearing hearing aids
social stigma, have to admit have problem
Which hormone shows changes in male sexual reproductive functioning?
testosterone
What behaviors help maintain vital organ system or compensate for loss of function
Aerobic exercise and diet, no smoking
Who is most likely to have heart disease in the U.S.
African american women
How is saying 'Ok Boomer' related to ageism,?
form of stereotyping based on age that can have negative consequences
What are some issues in estimating the prevalence of AD?
generalizing from small samples, different diagnostic norms
Describe three lifestyle or environmental factors thought to be causes of or contributors to Alzheimer's disease.
Smoking, high alcohol intake, high saturated fats in diet
Which hormone shows changes in female sexual reproduction?
estrogen
What factors contribute to prostrate cancer?
family history, race, aging
Do males or females have longer life expectancy? How does this impact the gender distribution of the population of adults over age 50?
females
Why was the 1989 study augmented in 1994?
improved statistical power, examine gender differences
How do changes in innate immunity relate to chronic diseases?
"Inflamm-aging" Consequences (with high levels of inflammatory markers below): diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, alzheimer's, pulmonary diseases, arthritis, autoimmune diseases, neurological diseases Chronically high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (markers) Interleukin-6 (IL-6) C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
Focus group
--meeting of respondents asked to provide feedback about a particular topic of interest
Observational study
--researchers draw conclusions about behavior through care and systematic examination in particular settings
Case study
--summarizes the findings from multiple sources for those individuals
How did mortality rates compare between CR and Control for age-related mortality versus early mortality?
3x higher for control
What is the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease currently?
6th leading cause of death among aged americans
How many older adults are able to maintain functional capacities according to 1991 and 2002 data?
80%
What are the key differences between healthy aging, MCI, and AD in trajectories of cognitive function?
AD brain changes start decades before symptoms show Amnestic MCI (mild cognitive impairment): memory problems, other cognitive functions are okay; brain compensates for changes Cognitive decline accelerates after AD diagnosis Total loss of independent function
What sociodemographic factors are linked with health outcomes?
Age Socioeconomic status (education, income) Race/ethnicity Social relationships (married people live longer; socially integrated people live longer) → "social epidemiology"
Explain why age cannot be a true Independent variable
Age can't be manipulated
What is the trend in diabetes incidence in the United States?
increasing
How do societal age norms impact social aging?
Age is basis for ascribing status (some value age some youth), dimension for regulating social interaction, normative system as to when life tasks should be accomplished
Define age, cohort, and time of measurement. What is each variable intended to represent?
Age: how many years person has lived--change within individual Cohort: year or period of person's birth--influences relative to history at time of birth Tom: year or period in which person is tested--current influences on individuals being tested
What are the key differences between dementia and Alzheimer's disease?
AD brain changes start decades before symptoms show Dementia (memory loss, confusion) - not an inevitable part of aging, sometimes reversible Alzheimer's Disease (memory & language impairment)
What are the differences between activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living?
ADLs: Bathing, dressing, transferring, using toilet, eating IADLs (instrumental): Using phone, doing laundry, taking medications
What are the diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome?
Abdominal obesity (waist circumference), triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, blood pressure, fasting glucose levels
How is functional health defined?
Ability to carry out basic activities
What are white matter hyperintensities? Where do they cluster in the brain?
Abnormalities that form in the white matter (axons) of frontal lobe Associated with hypertension Explain significant amount of variation in cognitive functioning
What are the two key biological changes in the brain that coincide with AD?
Accumulation of amyloid plaques (insoluble waste products outside of neurons) Development of neurofibrillary tangles (collapse of nutritional transport system within the neuron)
Provide examples of concepts from the fields involved in the biopsychosocial perspective.
B: physiological factors, genetics, p: cognition, emotions, personality, s: social context, history, culture
What are some of the key myths of aging and what are some of the consequences of these myths?
Aging is a disease (reality many adults are living active, healthy, fulfilling life, few live in nursing homes) Old age is mindless (reality: dementia not normal part of age, many aspects of cognition are maintained or improved with age) Old age is sexless (reality: sexual activity continues, lack of attention to sexual health and STDs in older adults) Old age is useless (reality: many work, volunteer, act as caregivers) Old age is powerless (reality: many strive to make positive influences to enact social change) Older adults are all alike (reality: as people age they become more different)
Briefly describe the process of aging according to the telomere theory.
Aging is caused by loss of telomeres from ends of chromosomes Finite number of times cells can divide, with each division more of telomere is lost, once shorten to point of no longer being able to protect the chromosome, adjacent chromosomes fuse, the cell cycle stops, and the cell dies
What are the three greatest risk factors for the development of cancer?
Alcohol, carcinogens
Describe the major changes in the cardiovascular system.
Alterations in heart muscle and arteries lower aerobic capacity, cardiac output, and maximum heart rate Plaque of cholesterol
What are the two major microscopic changes in the brain associated with Alzheimer's disease? What processes are thought to be responsible for the development of these changes?
Amyloid plaques--malfunction of enzymes Neurofibrillary tangles--tau protein is changed and loses ability to separate and support microtubules
List and define two multivariate correlational approaches. How are these used to overcome the problem that "correlation does not equal causality"?
Analysis of relationships among more than two variables Multiple regression analysis: predictor variables are regarded as equivalent to independent variables, and variable that is predicted is regarded as equivalent to dependent; statistics involved enable investigators to suggest and test inferences about cause-effect relationships Logistic regression: researchers test the likelihood of an individual receiving a score on a discrete yes-no variable; can attest to whether differences between yes and no are due to chance or to other factors
What reproductive hormones are involved in andropause and menopause?
Andro: testosterone declines Meno: estrogen declines
What four types of medical treatment are currently being tested for people with Alzheimer's disease?
Anticholinesterases (THA, donepezil hydrochloride, rivastigmine, memantine)--prevent breakdown of ACh
What genetic abnormalities are associated with AD and what function are they related to?
ApoE gene (may play role in plaque formation) APP gene (may control production of beta amyloid) PS1 & PS2(presenilin genes) - increase production of NF tangles and amyloid plaques)
What is the difference between atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis?
Atherosclerosis: condition in which plaque builds up in the arteries "Athero"--glue like Arteriosclerosis: thickening and hardening of the arteries (themselves) "Arterio"--related to the arteries
Describe five diseases of the cardiovascular system along with their causes.
Atherosclerosis: fatty deposits on arteries Arteriosclerosis: thickening/hardening of arteries Coronary (ischemic) heart disease: lack of blood to heart Myocardial infarction: acute condition in which blood supply to part of heart is blocked Hypertension: chronic abnormally elevated blood pressure Congestive heart failure: heart unable to pump enough blood to meet needs of other organs Cerebrovascular accident: stroke, artery leading to brain bursts Transient ischemic attack: ministroke, temporarily blocked
Define and explain the purpose of using alternative indices of age.
Based on functional age (how people actually perform) Biological (functioning of organ systems), psychological (functioning on tests), social (social roles occupied by the individual)
Define and contrast the random error theories of aging and provide an implication that each theory has for how individuals can slow the rate of their own aging.
Cross linking--collagen molecules form cross linkings--due to exposure to certain types of sugars Free radical--cause of aging is the increased activity of unstable oxygen mlcs that bond to other mlcs and compromise cell's functioning--advertisements for antioxidants but not enough research to verify Error catastrophe--mutations lead to deleterious changes, errors in mitochondrial dna may be source of harmful changes
What are the three models of generational differences. What does each focus on? How do they differ and how are they similar?
Cyclic model--impacts of cyclical change; cyclical nature of economic, political, cultural changes; emphasizes recession, depression, improvement, prosperity Modernization model--cultures/generations modernize in systematic stages; increasing individualism, tolerance, civic engagement; focus on values, societal and cultural shifts Extrinsic individualism--generations will evolve in systematic ways; more self focused, less civic engagement, less trust, less inward focus; focus on how culture shapes the individual, attitudes, beliefs, sense of trust
What reproductive hormone changes in both males and females?
DHEA declines
What is the difference between presbycusis and presbyopia?
Damage to nerves in inner ear (due to infection, noise exposure, heredity, tumors, etc.)-->PRESBYCUSIS (can't hear high-pitch sounds) Presbyopia: problems with vision
What is the purpose of sequential research?
Data collection strategies that consist of different combinations of age, cohort, and time of measurement variables Sequential studies that provide element of replication and allow strong inferences to be drawn
What is somatopause and what hormone does it relate to?
Decline in activity--growth hormone; declines in bone mineral density; increases in fat; decreases in muscle mass; losses in strength
What was the interaction between age and experimental condition on gray matter volume?
Declines in amount of gray matter with aging
Summarize the effects of aging on the lungs.
Decrease in expiratory volume Respiratory system loses functioning due to stiffening of lung tissue
What are the major levels of organization in the ecological perspective?
Defines five levels of environment or systems, all of which interact in their influence on the individual Microsystem (setting in which people have daily interactions, most impactful), mesosystem (realm in which interactions take place among two or more microsystems), exosystem (environments people do not closely experience on regular basis but still impact them--extended family), macrosystem (larger social institutions--country's economy, laws, social norms)
What is the evidence of "slowing aging"; what key outcomes are measured?
Delayed mortality Delayed onset of age-associate disease (which contributes to mortality)
What are the three major approaches to understanding development? How do they differ in their emphasis on the role of the individual in development?
Developmental science: lifespan view, multiple intersecting factors that impact change Lifespan perspective: people develop continuously over time rather than a series of changes Contextual influences: lifespan change is a function of nature and nurture
What three measures can people take to lower their risk of cardiovascular disease?
Diet high in fruits and veggies exercise
How did the CR and control groups compare on age-related diseases?
Differed greatly, control more likely to have earlier mortality
How do age differences in functional health compare at 0, 1, 2, and 3 protective resources? Lachman et al., (2010) Promoting functional health in midlife and old age: Long term protective effects.
Differences in functional health between younger and older were significantly reduced with protective factors
What are the three theories in social gerontology? Which one best reflects a continuous perspective af adult development and aging?
Disengagement Theory: normal aging involves mutual withdrawal of individual and society Activity Theory: the best way to age is to remain actively involved Continuity Theory: the consequences of disengagement or activity depends on the individual's sense of identity and what they did before
What changes occur that lead to a loss of balance?
Due to changes in muscles, vestibular system, cerebellum, motor cortex
What causes error catastrophe/somatic mutations?
Due to toxin exposures
What differentiates early-stage, middle-stage, and late-stage AD
Early: short-term memory loss, being unaware of memory lapses, symptoms may be only noticeable to close relatives, function at home is normal Middle: short term memory loss deepens, may begin to forget conversations completely or names of street where live, loved ones, or how to drive; mental confusion and trouble thinking logically; some loss of self awareness; may become disoriented; may become more aggressive or passive; difficulty sleeping; depression Late: severe cognitive impairment and short term memory loss; speech impairment; may repeat conversations over and over; may not know names or dates; very poor reasoning ability and judgement; neglect of personal hygiene; personality changes; may need extensive assistance with ADLs
Which countries tend to have the highest rates of cardiovascular disease?
Eastern european
What might be the reasons for so few studies on the role of religion in aging? What might researchers be missing by failing to study this topic?
Effects of religion on health, important influence on aging, set of social structures that transcend nationality, source of coping strategies and social support
What new stage of adulthood explains generational differences in achievement of five key milestones?
Emerging adulthood (stage of exploration between adolescence and assumption of adult responsibilities) Milestones: complete school, leave home, become financially independent, marry, have child
Define the term "epigenetic" and explain how it relates to Erikson's psychosocial theory.
Epigenetic principle asserts that each stage unfolds from previous stage according to predestined order Psychosocial theory of development: proposes that at certain points in life, biological, psychological, and social changes come together to influence the individual's personality
What was the relationship between biological age and chronological age? Were values of biological age comparable to their chronological age, or did they differ? Belsky et al., 2015: Lifespan approaches to biological aging
Even at age 38, there is large variation in biological age Some participants were biologically younger and some were older than their chronological age
List five forms of treatment and prevention of osteoporosis.
Exercise (resistance), nutritional supplements, medications
What is one of the best ways to slow somatopause?
Exercise--strength training
What is the difference between experiencing racism and expecting racism?
Expectations of racism are much more common than direct experiences of racism Indirect experiences → historical knowledge, expectations of racism (form both African Americans' and whites' beliefs about race)
What was Lewis et al.'s main hypothesis?
Expectations of racism will predict increased carotid intima-media thickness (IMT)
How are expectations of racism proposed to lead to increased CVD risk?
Expectations of racism→ threat and unsafety→ affective arousal (anxiety, fear, vigilance)→ physiological dysregulation (autonomic, immunologic, neuroendocrine)
What are threshold experiences and how are these experienced by individuals?
Experiences that cause one to challenge view of own identity Can be normal changes or illness Can be assimilated (disregarded without changing identity) Can be accommodated (change identity in response to experience) Can be balanced (note experience, admit change, but be fine with it)
What are the four risk factors for cancer
Exposure to sun, cigarette smoking, diet, environmental toxins
What are the lifestyle and social factors that can contribute to changes in digestion in older adults?
Families become smaller, people move out, financial resources may decrease with retirement, age related mobility and cognitive problems can make cooking more difficulty--less motivated to eat or eat healthily
What fear is loss of balance related to?
Fear of falling
How was biological aging quantified? Belsky et al., 2015: Lifespan approaches to biological aging
For each participant, a biological score was based on measures of a multisystem function: endocrine, immune, urinary, cardiovascular, respiratory, etc. Higher values correspond to older or less healthy biological age
What are the key differences between genome wide association studies and genome-wide linkage studies?
GWAS: Researchers scan entire genome of large number of people for SNP's connected with certain traits or disorders GWLS: Researchers study genomes of families with specific traits or disorders
What are some reasons proposed as to why there is growing tension between younger and older generations?
Gen Z has finally snapped over climate change and financial inequality
What is Campbell's theoretical perspective on generational differences?
Generational differences are real and useful Researchers should try to understand them--meaningful sources of info to understand individuals
In what ways is generational status similar to other constructs like gender and race?
Generational status is a useful social construct to predict human behavior (similar to gender and race as "fuzzy" constructs)
What is the meaning of mutual constitution?
Generations shape the culture of the time and culture shapes generations
According to findings from MIDUS, how is generativity conceptualized? Did males or females score higher on generativity? Which age group and education group showed the highest levels of generativity? Is this consistent with Erikson's model?
Generativity: concern for guiding and directing next generation People come to you for advise, you like teaching Females scored higher 55-64 tends to score highest Consistent with erikson's model
What factors contribute to breast cancer?
Genetic and environmental
What is the difference between geriatrics and gerontology?
Geriatrics: medical specialty in which aging is main focus Gerontology: integration of biological and social sciences and humanities to understand aging
Why is it important to distinguish normal aging from disease?
Growing older doesn't always mean growing sicker Need to treat onset of disease instead of just dismissing it as getting older
What five hormones show age related changes? Which ones show declines with age, and which ones show increased levels with age?
Growth hormone: decreases--somatopause Thyroid: decreased Melatonin: decreases Cortisol: decreases DHEA: decrease (related to reproductive system)
What do the HAROLD and PASA models predict about aging and the brain?
HAROLD: Brains of older adults become activated in the opposite hemisphere when the original area suffers deficits PASA: proposes that the front of the brain in older adults becomes more responsive to make up for lower responsiveness found in rear
What are some examples of protective resources that counteract risk of AD?
Higher education Continued mental activities Social networks Diet, exercise, limited alcohol intake
Why is stroke more prevalent in Southeastern states?
Higher fat diet, more likely to smoke, higher BMIs
What does a significant interaction mean? Chiang et al. (2018). Midlife self-reported social support as a buffer against premature mortality risks associated with childhood abuse.
Higher levels of social support reduce the effect of high levels of physical abuse on early mortality risk; which is evidence of moderation
What are the basic research steps?
IDENTIFY A PROBLEM FORMULATE HYPOTHESES COLLECT DATA ANALYZE DATA DISSEMINATE FINDINGS--write research paper and share with broader community
How is aging proposed to affect identity?
Identity accommodation tends to have more negative effects on individual than does identity assimilation or balance Changes occur in graduated way over time in line with the multiple threshold model
What are the four major psychosocial crises of adulthood according to Erikson? Define and provide an example of each.
Identity achievement vs identity diffusion--individuals must decide who they are and what they wish to get out of life (adolescence) Intimacy vs isolation--individuals are faced with making commitments to close relationships (young adulthood) Generativity vs stagnation--adults focus on psychosocial issues of procreation, productivity, and creativity; ex mentoring (middle adulthood) Ego integrity vs despair--look back at experiences with acceptance or failure (later adulthood)
What are the components of identity process theory?
Identity: favorable view of self Threshold experiences: normal changes, illness Identity accommodation: incorporate new sense of reality into identity (neg or pos) Identity balance: gradual integration, appropriate adaptation (neg and pos) Identity assimilation: unhealthy or healthy denial--reinterpreting reality in more favorable way (unhealthy--seriously sick but ignore, healthy--don't prevent from engaging in normal activities)
What were the main findings of the Whitehall II study? Which model did this study support?
Impact of social class on health Employment grade--rank types of jobs by prestige Lower level jobs have worse health Men tend to report higher levels of physical functioning (health) than women Evidence of ecological perspective
Describe four ways in which chronic medical conditions can interfere with body temperature control in later adulthood.
Impaired control of SNS (can't constrict vessels in response to cold) Decrease in sweat output (causing core temp to rise) Dermal layer becomes thinner (more difficult to cool skin)
Psychosocial treatments for Alzheimer's disease attempt to change which two major categories of problems dealt with by caregivers?
Incapacitating cognitive and physical symptoms
What are the key consequences of uncertainty and poor scientific understanding of menopause?
Inconsistencies in treatment *Need to consider age at treatment (younger women might benefit more from HRT, riskier for older women) Many women lack access to safe and effective HR therapy and may turn to riskier therapies (commercial options)
What are independent and dependent variables?
Independent Variable: the factor that the experimenter manipulates (in an experimental study) Dependent Variable: factor that experimenter observes (in an experimental study)
What principle of aging explains why some adults who are age 70 have the same hippocampal volume as those who are age 20?
Individuality matters
What was the key finding? How did protective factors influence functional health? Lachman et al., (2010) Promoting functional health in midlife and old age: Long term protective effects.
Individuals with more protective factors were better able to maintain functional health
What are the four components of ethical standards in research?
Informed consent (awareness of procedures, risks, benefits), debriefing (info about tru purpose), suggest resources, right to withdraw, confidentiality of data
What two forms of treatment are available for people with COPD?
Inhalers that open airways and reduce inflammation, machines that provide oxygen, surgery to remove damaged tissue
5. How did purpose in life impact the relationship between brain pathology and cognitive function? Boyle et al., (2012) Effect of Purpose in life on relation between Alzheimer disease pathological changes on cognitive function in advanced age.
Key finding→ greater purpose in life is associated with reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease (and reduced impact of high levels of plaques and brain damage on cognitive functioning--didn't experience symptoms of alzheimer's even though had biological evidence)
What is the major assumption of the life course perspective?
Lcp: norms, roles, and attitudes about age have an impact on the shape of each person's life
What are the two main factors that have contributed to changes in life expectancy in the last 100 years?
Le: average number of years of life remaining for people born within similar period of time (life span is max age for given species) Reduced death rates for children and young adults, people are living longer once they reach age 65
What does the Gompertz curve represent?
Longevity is an inherited, species-specific traits (curve compares life-spans of different species) Plots relationship between age and death rates for a given species
Define a longitudinal and a cross-sectional design. Compare two advantages and two disadvantages of each.
Longitudinal: people are followed repeatedly from one test occasion to another Advantages: gives better picture of development Disadvantages: costly, time-consuming Cross sectional: researchers compare groups of people ith different ages at one point in time Advantages: quick data collection, speed/economy Disadvantages: age effects are confounded with cohort effects (difference could be due to experiences of generation)
What behaviors should you engage in when speaking to older adults who have difficulty hearing
Look while speaking to person Minimize background noise Don't chew gum while talking Keep voice pitch low Enunciated carefully
How do changes in reproductive hormones affect skin and hair?
Loss of skin elasticity--collagen and elastin become flexible and elastic--less firmly connected
Explain the major changes in height and weight in adulthood.
Loss of weight and increase in weight into 50s followed by decrease
What sorts of deaths are attributable to smoking?
Lung cancer, ischemic heart disease, COPD, other diagnoses, other cancers, stroke
Describe why it is important for researchers to establish the reliability and validity of measures for each age group in a cross-sectional study.
Measures whose reliability and validity were established on young adult samples are often used inappropriately without testing their applicability to samples of adults of varying ages
What are the two main types of medical treatment for AD?
Medications, psychosocial treatments
Describe five major forms of cancer according to their site in the body and the nature of the specific form of cancer.
Melanoma: skin Lung: smoking Stomach: spicy foods, dried, smoked, salted Colon: high fat diet
What hormone regulates sleep and how does it change with age?
Melatonin, declines with age, leads to poor sleep and rhythm disruptions
What are the key differences between male and female changes in sexual reproduction?
Men-->MALE CLIMACTERIC (more gradual, occurs later) Declining testosterone levels Decline in sperm count Enlarged prostate (urinary, sexual problems) Erectile dysfunction - impotence Women-->MENOPAUSE (age 45-55) (perimenopause: scattered, less regular periods) Ovaries no longer produce estrogen to sustain menstrual cycle Symptoms: hot flashes, vaginal drying, headaches, insomnia HRT-->hormone replacement therapy Controversial (linked to increased risk of breast cancer, heart disease, blood clots, dementia)
Why is there so much uncertainty about menopause?
Menopause is neglected by science and society - Long history of women's reproductive health as a taboo subject - The term hysteria directly translates to "wandering womb/uterus"
What are the four levels of the Bronfenbrenner model? How do these different levels connect with each other?
Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem
What is the relationship between occupation and cancer risk?
Mining, pesticide workers, construction workers, chemical workers, metal workers, shoe manufacturing, furniture manufacturing
Are commercial treatments for andropause safe and effective?
Mixed success, side effects, exercise can compensate
What are the four main implications of changes in the age distribution of the population in the U.S. over the next 30 to 40 years?
More friends and associates because more peers of your age group to associate with Males more likely to live longer Increase in careers related to aging Changes in lifestyle as adjustments to aging population in entertainment and media are made
What are the major changes in sleep patterns and circadian rhythms in adulthood?
More time in bed relative to time spent asleep Take longer to fall asleep Awaken more often during night Lie in bed longer before rising Sleep is shallower, more fragmented, and less efficient Circadian rhythms are shifted so slightly earlier
Is social class becoming more or less relevant to human development?
More, the divide is growing
What are the key differences between reliability and validity?
Most desirable: highly reliable and highly valid research methods
List and describe six forms of dementia that may appear to be Alzheimer's disease. Indicate how each form of dementia is different from Alzheimer's disease.
Multi-infarct dementia--caused by transient ischemic attacks Frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder--personality changes Lewy body--parkinsons Pick's disease--severe atrophy of frontal and temporal lobes Normal pressure hydrocephalus--obstruction of flow cerebrospinal fluid Subdural haematoma--blood clot that creates pressure on brain tissue
How does somatopause affect muscles, bones and joints?
Muscle loss--sarcopenia Bones--loss of bone mineral content Joints--loss of arterial cartilage
What did Maggie Kuhn propose should be done to combat myths of aging and ageism?
Need more interaction between generations in order to address stereotypes
What are some psychological consequences of expectations and experiences of racism that are proposed?
Need to look beyond health behaviors and socioeconomic status Expectations of racism emerge from the historical and socio-political context of race and ethnicity in America Heightened expectations of racism may account for increased CVD risk among African American Women Through increased vigilance/anxiety/physio. dysregulation
What are some examples of animal models of aging
Nematodes, mice, rhesus macaque
Compare the two models of changes in the central nervous system. What are the proposed effects of aging? What research supports these models and what are the strengths/limitation of this evidence?
Neuronal fallout Proposed effects of aging: losses occur in numbers of neurons and synapses Relevant research: decreases in prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, increases in white matter hyperintensities Plasticity model Proposed effects of aging: Continued growth through dendritic elaboration (not actually new neurons but more dendrites) Relevant research: Diet and exercise preserve brain function and cognition
Which nation shows the strongest relationship between meat consumption and number of colon cancer cases?
New Zealand (US canada)
Contrast the neuronal fallout and plasticity models of the aging nervous system.
Nf: hypothesis that individuals progressively lose brain tissue over life span because neurons do not have ability to replace themselves when die; losses occur in numbers of neurons and synapses P: continued growth through dendritic elaboration
What is the reason that researchers do not allow cause-and-effect conclusions to be drawn from correlational studies?
No control, no independent or dependent variables, can't know which caused which
Is it true that older generations have always complained about younger generations?
No hard evidence
Is the percent of older adults age 65 and older the same across all countries in 2008 and projected to be the same in 2040?
No--smallest percent in Africa Globally proportion will increase but at different rates
List the three influences on development and provide examples of each.
Normative age graded (cultural norms of what is appropriate for a certain age) Normative history graded (events that affect everyone) Nonnormative (random events, idiosyncratic)
How do cognitive, social, and behavioral indicators of AD differ from non-AD memory lapses
Not alzheimer's: forgetting things occasionally, misplacing items, forgetting names of titles, some reduction in ability to recall words, being absent minded or sometimes hazy on details, spacing things out like appointments
Are commercial treatments for somatopause safe and effective?
Not scientifically supported
What are some key criticisms of Erikson's theory?
Not universally relevant--doesn't carry same way across all cultures Not all segments of society may have access to complete every stage
What is niche-picking? Provide an example from your own experience that illustrates how this principle operates in development.
Np: proposal that genetic and environmental factors work together to influence the direction of a child's life Children pick out their niche or area in which they develop their talents and abilities, once they start down particular pathway, they experience further changes that influence the later development of those particular abilities
What are three major psychological symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
Occasional loss of memory Changes in personality and behavior Loss of ability to perform simple tasks
What reasons did Maggie Kuhn give as to why ageism exists?
Older adults are also just as responsible for creating and sustaining outdated beliefs The way they act may reiterate stereotypes
What is hemispheric asymmetry and how does hemispheric asymmetry change with aging?
Older adults show reduction in hemispheric asymmetry, certain brain regions compensate for others that show decline
What did biological age predict? Belsky et al., 2015: Lifespan approaches to biological aging
Older biological age corresponds to worse physical (and cognitive) functioning at age 38
Which of the three meta-theories is most relevant to the biopsychosocial model?
Organismic model--Development shaped by "nature" (natural endowment); Genetic factors shaping development Mechanistic model-- Development shaped by "nurture" (environmental inputs) interactional/contextual model--Development shaped by nature and nurture (reciprocal influences)--biopsychosocial model
What are the key differences between osteoarthritis and osteoporosis?
Osteoarthritis → joints degenerate because of wear and tear on cartilage porosis--bones
What are free radicals and what is proposed to counteract them?
Oxygen atoms with unpaired electrons that are highly reactive--can cause cell damage Antioxidants can counteract
Describe the disease process in Type 2 diabetes.
Pancreas produces insulin but body fails to respond to signal, large amounts of glucose remain in blood
Assimilation (piaget)
People use their existing schemas as a way to understand the world around them; change perception of culture to fit their own way of understanding it
How is the proportion of older adults projected to change by race/ ethnicity from 2012 to 2050?
Percent of hispanic individuals will increase and white decrease
Why do researchers believe it is important to distinguish personal from social aging?
Personal: changes that occur within individual and reflect influence of time's passage on body (primary, secondary, tertiary) Social: effects of a person's exposure to a changing environment
Summarize the major changes in the skin and hair.
Photoaging of skin Hair thins and becomes gray, balding in men
What is an implication of the "matrix" as described within Erikson's theory regarding the relationship between age and specific psychosocial issues?
Presented as series of steps, but the intersection of ages and psychosocial issues along the diagonal is not the only possibility for development, can experience at different ages
What is the Hayflick limit? How is related to the telomere theory of aging?
Programmed aging theories are based on the principle that cells have reproductive limits Limit--human cells will divide about 50 times Telomere Theory: With each cell division, the telomere (DNA sequence that caps chromosomes) shortens; when too short, the cell can no longer divide
What else besides changes in biology affect the experience of menopause?
Psychosocial and cultural factors also matter Women experience menopause differently and it is perceived differently across cultures
Compare an experimental with a quasi-experimental design. Which type of design is used in studies on aging?
Quasi: researchers compare groups on predetermined characteristics
What are five risk factors for the development of osteoporosis?
Race, ethnicity, hormonal changes, lack of vitamin d
How does Piaget's theory differ from that of Erikson?
Rather than simply describing children's development, piaget tried to explain the processes underlying their growth of cognitive abilities
Can random error theories be integrated with programmed aging theories? Why or why not?
Ret: based on assumption that aging reflects unplanned changes in an organism over time Pat: suggest that not build to last but rather meant to deteriorate over time in systematic fashion
What are the differences between random selection and random assignment
S: how people are chosen from the larger population to participate in the research (equal opportunity) A: placement of respondents into experimental/control groups (equal likelihood of either)
Which decibel level is considered safe for eight hours a day exposure?
Safe exposure limit is 85 decibels for 8 hours a day (ex: busy city traffic)
Describe the major changes that occur with age in the muscles, bones, and joints. Indicate next to each change what steps individuals can take to prevent or offset these changes.
Sarcopenia--loss of muscle mass--strength training Corresponding decrease in muscle strength although endurance is maintained Bones lose mineral content, particularly women--diet and exercise Joints encounter many deleterious changes--strength training builds muscles that support joints, flexibility training maintains range of motion even in damaged joints
What is the key difference between developmental science and developmental psychology
Science: look at multiple factors in development Psychology: focus on childhood
Is selective optimization with compensation best reflective of identity accommodation, identity balance, or identity assimilation?
Selective: choose areas of focus Optimize: maximize performance in these areas Compensate: make up for losses in one area with gains in another Identity balance
What is the main consequence of inequality on human development? Provide and example:
Self-realization: activities characterized by both being purposeful and satisfying Ex work and career fulfillment--To achieve self-realization, individuals need jobs with innovation, variety and complexity. These jobs are more likely achieved by upper social classes.
What were the predictor variables and outcome variables? Chiang et al. (2018). Midlife self-reported social support as a buffer against premature mortality risks associated with childhood abuse.
Self-reported social support (later in life) Child abuse (early in life) outcome--Reduction in mortality
What solutions have researchers developed to overcome the problems of descriptive research designs?
Sequential research designs--different combinations
List and define the 5 major social categorizations used in describing the findings and theories in adult development and aging.
Sex and gender, race (biological classification based on physical/structural characteristics), ethnicity (cultural background of an individual), SES (position in educational and occupational ranks of society), religion
What is the relationship between shorter telomere length and cancer incidence and mortality?
Shorter telomeres predicted higher incidence of cancer and earlier mortality
What are some examples of respiratory disorders?
Sleep apnea-->halt in breathing that causes person to wake up (related to snoring, daytime napping, weight, alcohol intake, back-sleeping) Emphysema-->damage to lung tissue (smoking, pollution, respiratory infection), difficulty breathing
Name the conditions that can interfere with sleep in older adults.
Sleep apnea: temporarily unable to breath Arthritis, osteoporosis, cancer, chronic lung disease, congestive heart failure, digestive disturbances
. What are the four major risk factors for diseases of the cardiovascular system?
Smoking Sedentary lifestyle Unhealthy diet High intake of alcohol
List the five diagnostic criteria of the American Psychiatric Association for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease.
Social cognition, aphasia (loss of language), apraxia (loss of coordinated movement), agnosia (loss of ability to recognize familiar objects), disturbance in executive functioning (loss of ability to plan and organize)
Do different countries show the same rate of increase in life expectancy at birth from 1950 to 2005? What are some reasons why or why not?
South korea has largest increase, zimbabwe had declines (negative impacts of imperialist control), Russia (social constraints)
What four forms of treatment are available for cancer? What are their side effects?
Surgery Radiation therapy Chemotherapy Biological therapy
Why is it difficult to study generational differences?
Teasing apart age, cohort, and period effects Am I healthier than someone who is older than me because I am younger (age effect), or because I was born into a time of medical advancements (cohort) or because of a recent health-promoting event, such as a fitness challenge (period)?
List the four forms of validity and provide an example of how each would be measured.
Test measures what it is supposed to measure Content validity: provides indication of whether test desgined to assess factual material accurately measures that material Criterion validity: indicates whether test score accurately predicts performance on an indicator measure Construct validity: used to assess extent to which a measure intended to assess a psychological construct is able to do so (convergent, discriminant)
What is the relationship between SES and bone mineral density
Those with higher incomes have higher bone density (cross sectional data) Those with persistently high incomes (longitudinal data) have higher bone density Low before, high now have relatively high levels (more important current SES than childhood)
Which organ regulates immune function, specifically adaptive immunity, and how does it change with age?
Thymus, shrinks with age, t and b cells fail to develop or function properly
What hormone regulates metabolism and body temperature and how does it change with age?
Thyroid hormones, decreases with age, hypothyroidism associated with cognitive impairment
What are the three sequential designs in the Most Efficient Design?
Time sequential: data organized by age and time of measurement Cohort sequential: cohorts compared at different ages Cross sequential: cohorts are examined at different times of measurement
Why did Belsky et al. propose we should quantify biological aging early in the lifespan
To improve interventions
Who is considered to be upper middle class?
Top 20% of income earners
How does the U.S. compare to other countries in terms of life expectancy?
US had highest for males in 2005 (US is now number 46)
How is inequality perpetuated by the educational system?
Upper middle-class parents are able to invest more in their children's education at every stage (tutors, best preschools, etc.) Educational achievement has become more dependent on parental income (Unequal access to top tier colleges, Unequal access to graduate/professional education)
Why is mortality considered a useful outcome in adult development and aging studies? Chiang et al. (2018). Midlife self-reported social support as a buffer against premature mortality risks associated with childhood abuse.
Very objective measure No reporting bias
What is the difference between aerobic versus vital capacity?
Vital capacity: amount of air drawn in with deep breadth & then expelled aerobic: from lungs to others cells??
Equilibration.
When assimilation and accommodation are perfectly balanced Each stage of his theory represents this (early infancy, preschool, middle childhood, adolescence through adulthood)
When is talking about generational differences stereotyping and when is it not age stereotyping?
When based on real data, not anecdotes, it is not stereotyping Important to not overstate findings- there are still large within-generation differences
Accommodation. (piaget)
When you change your schemas in response to new info about world
What is caloric restriction and how does it relate to the study of aging?
rodent study showed that caloric restriction (CR), without malnutrition, extended average and maximum life span
What are the two forms of reliability? Why are each important?
Yields consistent results every time Test-retest reliability: determined by giving test on two occasions to assess whether similar scores Reliability related to internal consistency, which indicates whether respondents answer similarly on comparable items
How does HRT affect younger versus older women?
Younger women might benefit more
Which demographic group is most vulnerable to strokes?
african american
Why are age, cohort, and time of measurement dependent on each other? Why is this a problem in research on adult development and aging?
age=tom-cohort Any time you know two variables, third one automatically falls out
What is the most common chronic condition?
arthritis
Why do many people have inaccurate perceptions of aging?
based on information that is no longer valid, Older adults are also just as responsible for creating and sustaining outdated beliefs
What are the 5 best ways to "shorten" your life?
being overweight, drinking and driving, eating inadequate fruits and veggies, being physically inactive, smoking
What are the key differences between cataracts, macular degeneration and glaucoma?
cataracts (cloudy, opaque areas in lens) - 50% elders macular degeneration - retina loses ability to distinguish fine details glaucoma - fluid pressure within eye, damages optic nerve (some treatments available)
What molecule does cross-linking impact?
collagen
Chiang et al. (2018). Midlife self-reported social support as a buffer against premature mortality risks associated with childhood abuse. 1. What was the authors primary study design? Experimental or correlational?
correlational
Which major organ system shows the fewest changes with age?
digestive
What does Carotid Intima-Media thickness measure and what is it evidence for?
measures thickness of carotid artery lining--greater thickness shows greater evidence of plaque and CVD risk
What two controversial topics were covered on aging and physical changes?
menopause , ??
Did the authors analyze mediation or moderation? How can you tell? Chiang et al. (2018). Midlife self-reported social support as a buffer against premature mortality risks associated with childhood abuse.
moderation
At what age groups are educational differences in morality most pronounced?
most prominent from age 65-74 (some difference 55-64)
How is health defined by the world health organization (WHO)?
not just absence of disease
You are hired to be a consultant in a nursing home to study socialization patterns of residents. Which research method would give you the most useful data? Why?
observational
Why is the biopsychosocial perspective important in understanding the processes of adult development and aging?
view of development as a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social processes Aging is not a simple, straightforward progression through time, all three affect
What are some of the research and methodological shortcomings of previous research on generational differences?
• Research on generational differences is in its infancy (just began researching) • Scientists are continuing to debate the meaning and consequences of generational differences in psychological phenomena Most of the data on generational differences is drawn from WEIRD samples (Western, high Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) and in the United States only
How are periods of adulthood broken down by age?
• Young (Ages 20-40) • Middle-age (Ages 40-65) • Late or older age (Ages 65 or more) • Young Old: 65-74 • Old-Old: 75-84 • Oldest Old: 85+ • Centenarians (100+) • Super-centenarians (110+)
