PSYCH Exam 2
What is the central concept behind the phenomenon of ego depletion?
Ego strength is like a muscle that can be built up or atrophy.
Navi has realized that whenever her friend Eloise is around, she begins to feel angry. If Navi draws an inference based on the covariation principle, what will she conclude?
Eloise causes Navi to become angry.
One study tracked the daily influence of events on college students' moods, and also their own perceptions of the influence of events. What were the findings of this study?
Events like the weather and lack of sleep did not affect participants' moods, but the participants believed that they did.
The idea that self-awareness makes us focus more on the gap between what we want to be doing and what we are actually doing most closely connects to _____.
Freud's concept of the superego
Which of the following research on cognitive dissonance processes could MOST clearly be considered the first empirical demonstrations of what phenomenon?
Freud's contention that psychological defenses substantially influence thoughts and behavior
After Phineas Gage suffered a serious brain injury, what was the result of his accident?
Gage changed from an honest, reliable man to a volatile, unpredictable man.
Hakeem is being asked to complete a psychology study about his childhood. At the beginning of the study, he is given a piece of candy in exchange for participating - and Hakeem loves candy. What does research suggest he will remember about his childhood?
He will primarily focus on the positive details of his childhood.
Hae Min is trying to remember the day that her friend Carlos went missing. The police are asking her to recall everything about that day as part of their investigation of Carlos's disappearance. Which of the following statements BEST characterizes what Hae Min's process of remembering the day will be like?
Her memory of the day will be a fragmentary and reconstructive process, biased by her schemas, and she will only be able to remember some pieces of information, subjectively interpreted.
Ibn prides himself on his ability to carry out risky feats like sky-diving. Recently, Ibn has experienced the unfortunate death of his father, which made him think about his own eventual death. The anxiety-buffer conception of self-esteem suggests that:
Ibn is now strongly motivated to carry out risky feats.
N'Faly and Iarla are both attending psychotherapy to cure their agoraphobia. N'Faly's therapist is using a traditional exposure method, through which N'Faly will gradually get further and further from his house. Iarla is using a controversial new method, involving standing outside his house and screaming. What does research suggest will be the outcome of these therapies?
If N'Faly and Iarla both believe they chose the therapy, they will experience some success.
Which of the following statements provides a description of the process through which information sometimes becomes a part of long-term memory?
Information that is actively rehearsed or is otherwise distinctive, goal-relevant, or emotionally salient gets consolidated for later retrieval.
Why are people typically more upset if they miss an opportunity (such as making a flight on time) by a very short amount of time compared to if they miss the same opportunity by a fairly long amount of time?
It is easier to generate counterfactuals if we miss an opportunity by a short amount of time.
Which of the following statements is NOT an accurate implication from the existing research literature on self-esteem?
It is relatively easy to increase a person's overall level of self-esteem.
Jama is talking with her coworker. She has a crick in her neck, and so is moving her head up and down vigorously and repeatedly to reduce the discomfort. Jama's coworker is presenting her with an idea that he thinks they should bring up at the next board meeting. What does research suggest Jama's response will be?
Jama will likely approve of the coworker's idea.
Kaguya is considering stealing a blue book which she needs for an upcoming exam from the university book store. As she is about to walk out of the store with the book, she approaches the glass doors at the entrance which reflect images of the individuals inside the store. What does research suggest is likely to happen?
Kaguya will not steal the book.
Lee-Na's family is playing a trivia-based game at a holiday party. Lee-Na's mother asks all of the trivia questions. Lee-Na's sister ends up getting the highest score, though Lee-Na gets the most questions right in the science category. What does research on the fundamental attribution error suggest an observer would conclude about Lee-Na's family?
Lee-Na's mother is the more intelligent than all the others.
Mason is not the kind of person who reflects much on his own beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Recently, his friends and family have made it clear to him that he has a drug abuse problem. He has decided to enter counseling and attend Narcotics Anonymous meetings. What does research suggest will likely happen?
Mason has a higher likelihood than some of successfully staying off drugs.
An implementation intention involves:
Mental rules that link particular situational cues to goal directed behaviors.
What is the implication for parenting based on research on the minimal deterrence phenomenon?
Minimal deterrence will make a child more likely to internalize the idea that he or she doesn't want to engage in the undesired behavior.
Which of the following statements accurately summarizes findings from research on the narration of personally experienced traumatic events?
Narration of trauma primarily improves coping among those individuals who seek out cause-effect sequences in their story about the past.
Which of the following reasons is NOT one of the significant reasons why there are gender differences in behavior?
Nearly all behaviors have biologically rooted gender differences.
What happens in the typical cyberball game paradigm?
Participants begin playing an electronic game of "catch" with two avatars, and the avatars eventually stop including the participant in the game.
A 1967 study demonstrating the fundamental attribution error assigned participants to read an essay that was either in favor of or against Fidel Castro. Participants were also randomly assigned to be told that the author of the essay either freely chose to write it or was forced to write it on that particular theme. What were the results of the study?
Participants believed the author's attitude toward Fidel Castro corresponded to the essay that was written, regardless of whether the person was forced to write the essay or had chosen to do so.
In a study by Baldwin and colleagues (1990), Catholic participants were presented with a description of a sexual dream, and then were subliminally exposed to an image of either the Pope or an unknown figure scowling in disapproval. What were the findings of the study?
Participants exposed to the Pope judged themselves less favorably.
In a study on projection, participants were given false feedback suggesting that they were high in a specific negative trait (e.g., dishonesty). They were then given the opportunity to rate another person on various traits. What were the findings of the study?
Participants rated the other person as higher specifically on the negative trait they had been told they (the participant) possessed.
In one study supporting social identity theory, participants were first told randomly that, on the basis of their aesthetic judgments, they were part of either a "figure orientation" or a "ground orientation" group. Some of the participants were then told that members of their same group were high in a trait called "surgency." What were the results of this study?
Participants who believed their ingroup was high in surgency rated themselves as high in surgency.
Which of the following statements is the MOST complete summary of Schachter and Singer's (1962) classic study on the two-factor theory of emotion?
Participants who were given an arousing injection and not told that their arousal was a side effect of the injection were more likely to believe they felt happy or angry, depending on a confederate.
Which of the following statements is MOST accurate?
People are fairly poor at predicting what the strength of their emotional reactions to future events will be.
Which of the following examples is NOT an example of the fundamental attribution error?
People believe that individuals become depressed because the people around them treat them as if they should be depressed.
What does research suggest about people's ability to form impressions of others?
People can form a fairly accurate impression of another person in about 30 seconds.
What is the key idea behind cognitive dissonance theory?
People experience an uncomfortable tension with inconsistencies in their beliefs, attitudes, and behavior.
In a classic study, Heider and Simmel (1944) showed people a film clip of a large triangle and small triangle moving around and out of a larger square. When the researchers asked people what was going on in the clip, what were the findings?
People explained the events in terms of intentional actions committed by the shapes.
Which of the following statements is true about the relationship between feelings and memory?
People generally remember events as being more negative than they actually were.
Which of the following findings has emerged from research on social comparison?
People generally think of themselves as better in most respects now than they used to be.
What does the contemporary state of research suggest about the relationship between culture and self-esteem?
People in different cultures pursue self-esteem equally via different routes and standards.
What is one of the foundational insights of social comparison theory?
People often don't have an "objective" means of assessing their ability on a given dimension.
What is the central proposition of self-perception theory?
People sometimes infer their attitudes and attributes by observing their behavior and the situation in which it occurs.
When it comes to the self-concept, what does the phenomenon of solo status imply?
People tend to define themselves more in terms of attributes which distinguish them from the majority of others in a situation.
According to the research, training a person to be better at a certain task will affect that person's ability to accurately evaluate of their own performance on that task in what way?
People who are better trained at performing a task will more accurately evaluate their performance than if they had not received the training.
. What is the central insight of action identification theory?
People's descriptions of their actions can range from more concrete to more abstract.
Which of the following findings has not been demonstrated by research on self-schemas?
People's opinions about their central self-schema(s) tend to fluctuate dramatically in different situations.
Which of the following statements accurately summarizes findings from research on possible selves?
Possible selves serve as an important guide to behavior and achievement.
Which of the following research findings is an actual finding from research on people's personalities?
Preference for music with vocals is a reliable indicator of extraversion.
A classic study investigated people's memory for a car accident they had watched on film. Compared to people who were asked "How fast was the car going when it hit the other car?" people who were asked "How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car":
Recalled that there was broken glass at the scene of the accident.
Which of the following reasons is NOT a likely reason why repressed memories may actually be false?
Research suggests that it is impossible for any memory to be outside of conscious awareness.
_____ is an individual difference in people's desire and ability to adjust their self-presentations.
Self-monitoring
What does research suggest about the relationship between people's ratings of themselves and others' ratings of them?
Self-ratings and other-ratings have a weak correlation (around a .20 or .30 correlation).
Layla plays in a local rock band that gets gigs at small venues, bars, and restaurants. One night the band has a meeting during which they all can give each other feedback on how they perform at their specific instruments. What does research suggest will be Layla's experience of this meeting?
She will interpret the feedback she receives as more negative than the other band members intend.
At the beginning of a romantic relationship, Reema feels like she may or may not be in love with her new partner. Half a year later, Reema feels very much in love and is contemplating getting married to her partner. What does research suggest Reema's memory will be of the beginning of her relationship?
She will remember being in love with her partner from the beginning.
Which of the following statements about the relationship between schema consistency and memory is MOST accurate?
Sometimes people are very good at remembering highly schema-inconsistent events.
What does research on lying suggest?
The majority of lies that people report telling are intended to save either one's own face or the face of another person.
Which of the following stages is NOT a stage in the three-stage model of dispositional attribution developed by Gilbert and colleagues?
The observer makes an automatic external attribution.
The fact that people are more likely to dream about mental content that they have been trying to suppress most clearly illustrates what fact?
The operator is a controlled process, and the monitor is an automatic process.
_____ occurs when people attribute the reason for their action to an external incentive and their intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of the task are consequently diminished.
The overjustification effect
Which of the following factors is LEAST likely to increase the chances that a person will make a correspondent inference about an individual?
There is a clear external factor that is contributing to the individual's behavior.
What is one likely reason why trauma and near-death experiences might cause some people to have positive outcomes?
These events can prompt one to focus less on trivial aspects of life and more on fundamental goals.
What does research suggest about foreign-exchange students who have strong entity theories of achievement and intelligence?
They are less likely to attend remedial English courses.
What does research suggest about people who have unstable self-esteem?
They are more sensitive to potential self-esteem threats.
Which of the following consequences does research suggest will NOT result from convincing a person to adopt an incremental theory of intelligence?
They will tend not to pursue opportunities to improve their intelligence.
In a study by Gilbert and colleagues (1988), participants were shown a video of a nervous-looking woman discussing various topics. It was explained to half the participants that she was discussing anxiety-provoking topics, while the rest of the participants thought she was discussing pleasant topics. Finally, half the participants were randomly assigned to complete a cognitively draining task while they performed the study. What were the results?
Those participants who completed a cognitively draining task were equally likely to assume that the woman was a nervous person regardless of what they thought she was discussing.
In one study, some people were primed with the name of a significant other prior to working on a task. What were the findings of the study?
Those primed with a significant other worked for more time on the task if the significant other had high expectations of them.
In one study, people were asked to engage in suppression of thoughts (or not), and then offered the chance to drink beer before a driving test. What were the results of the study?
Those who engaged in suppression of thoughts drank more beers.
What does research suggest about people's ability to evaluate themselves across a variety of domains and skills?
Those who give themselves the highest evaluations on a given ability or set of skills are often the worst performers.
In one study, participants received personality feedback before watching either a disturbingly graphic video or a video with neutral content. What were the findings of the study?
Those who received positive, esteem-enhancing feedback were not differentially affected by the videos.
Tong is late for his date with Juanita because traffic on the freeway was unusually bad. Juanita is angry with Tong when he arrives. What does research on the actor-observer effect suggest each of these people will think about the other?
Tong thinks Juanita is angry because she is always angry; Juanita thinks Tong is late because he is always late.
Uri has just climbed a long flight of stairs very quickly to get to a meeting. Coming out of the stairwell, he passes a pretty woman whom he has never seen before. According to research on the misattribution of arousal, what is particularly likely to happen in this scenario?
Uri will believe that he is attracted to the woman.
Which of the following statements is an accurate description of the relationship between schemas and memory?
We often remember information that matches our schemas, and ignore information that conflicts with our schemas.
Which of the following explanations has NOT been proposed for the phenomenon of ego depletion?
When people engage in cognitive control, they become more sensitive to a variety of pieces of distracting information coming from the environment.
Which of the following study results on the effects of gender is accurate?
Women and men talk the same amount on average.
Juwon observes that, in her society, women tend to perform maternal and familial tasks, whereas men tend to perform independent tasks requiring intelligence. According to social role theory, what is Juwon likely to conclude on the basis of her observations?
Women perform more maternal and familial tasks because they are intrinsically better at such tasks.
The sociometer model primarily suggests that:
a basic function of self-esteem is indicating one's level of acceptance by others.
Francis experienced early success as a musician. He was well liked when he performed in local clubs and bars, and a representative from a record company expressed interest in signing him to a label. However, before achieving national recognition, his partner died, which caused Francis to fall into a deep depression. Eventually, he gave up his dream of being a musician, and now spends his time working in a local coffee shop. Francis's story is most clearly an example of:
a contamination story.
State self-esteem refers specifically to:
a feeling about the self that can temporarily increase or decrease in positivity in response to changing circumstances.
Trait self-esteem refers specifically to:
a general attitude toward the self, ranging from very positive to very negative.
Which of the following factors does NOT typically affect the magnitude of dissonance?
a person's level of self-esteem
Functional magnetic resonance imaging is:
a scanning technique that provides information about the activity of brain regions when people perform tasks.
Theory of mind refers to:
a set of ideas about other peoples' thoughts, desires, feelings, and intentions based on what we know about them and the situation they are in.
Which of the following study designs describes the induced compliance paradigm?
a study in which individuals are forced to engage in a behavior that goes against their attitudes
Which of the following study designs describes the free choice paradigm?
a study in which individuals choose between alternatives and, subsequently, their attraction to the alternatives is assessed
False consensus refers to:
a tendency to assume that other people share our own attitudes, opinions, and preferences.
In the context of social cognition, what does the concept of dialecticism refer to?
a tolerance for inconsistency and change in thinking about the world and others
. In the context of implicit personality theories, a central trait like "warm" and "cold" is:
a trait that dominates other people's impression of a person, and to which they mold their understanding of the person's other, non-central traits.
Moussa just went for a run. Afterward he got a call from his ex-partner. Research inspired by excitation transfer theory suggests that he is most likely to become emotionally agitated in this conversation at what time?
about five minutes after the run
Mirror neurons are:
activated both when one performs an action oneself and when one simply observes another person perform that action.
What is an upward counterfactual?
an imagined alternative that is better than what actually happened
What is a downward counterfactual?
an imagined alternative that is worse than what actually happened
A counterfactual is:
an imagined alternative that runs counter to what actually happened.
A self-schema is defined as:
an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about an attribute that is part of one's self-concept.
. Failures to live up to the ought self elicit _____, while failures to live up to the ideal self elicit _____.
anxiety and guilt; dejection and sadness
Which conception suggests that self-esteem primarily serves as a defense against threats?
anxiety-buffer
Compared to those low in self-monitoring, people high in self-monitoring:
are better at giving cynical performances.
What are the "two factors" in Schachter's two-factor theory of emotion?
arousal × cognitive label
Yi-Chih is teaching an infant yoga class, and is currently alone in the classroom with several male infants. How does research suggest Yi-Chih will think of himself in this situation?
as an adult
Which of the following methods is NOT one that researchers have used to increase self-awareness?
asking people to focus on an object in their immediate environment
Basking in reflected glory refers to people's tendency to _____.
associate with successful others
People perform easy tasks best _____, and they perform difficult tasks best _____.
at high levels of abstraction; at low levels of abstraction
. The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to:
attribute behavior to internal qualities of an actor and underestimate situational factors.
Andrei has a group of friends who are atheists. His family, however, is very conservatively religious. Andrei tries to make sure that his atheist friends and his religious family members are never in the same place at the same time. This is an example of what self-presentational strategy?
audience segregation
People with which of the following disorders typically have diminished theory of mind?
autism
The theory that even subtle exposure to goal-related stimuli can automatically activate the goal and guide behavior is called _____.
auto-motive theory
The tendency to assume that information that comes easily to mind is more frequent or common is referred to as the _____.
availability heuristic
Which of the following reasons is NOT a reason why people often experience the phenomenon of false consensus?
because people typically expose themselves to diverse forms of news media
Kahlil wants to be able to run a marathon by the end of the spring. What does research suggest will be the best way for him to achieve his goal?
begin with a focus on the abstract goal, and then gradually shift his focus towards a set of concrete steps
Which of the following is an example of an availability heuristic?
being more afraid of flying than driving because of heavy media coverage of airplane crashes
What is the best way for an individual to break the spiral of depression when they are experiencing negative self-regulatory perseveration?
by focusing on the more abstract goal that an unattainable goal was in the service of attaining
When faced with a daunting situation, if a person believes their resources are adequate they experience _____, but if a person believes their resources are inadequate they experience _____.
challenge; threat
The induced hypocrisy paradigm is used to activate a sense of _____.
cognitive dissonance
The mental reframing of a situation to minimize emotional reaction to it is referred to as _____.
cognitive reappraisal
Being reminded of extrinsic sources of self-esteem has led to all of the following effects except _____.
commitment to personally valued goals
What was the major contribution of Fritz Heider to social psychology?
common sense psychology and recognition of the importance of how people make sense of the everyday world
Ileana doesn't like horror films, but her new partner is dragging her along to one. In order to minimize the extremeness of the physical arousal she might experience during the film, what would be the best strategy for Ileana to pursue?
concentrating on the fact that the images are staged, rather than real
Which of the following factors will NOT override the cool system and activate the hot system?
conceptualizing a goal in terms of concrete steps
Which of the following theories would best explain the different ways people think about an event that is either going to happen tomorrow or a year from now?
construal-level theory
Dyna sees a woman shouting at another woman on the street. Dyna decides that this woman must be aggressive. Dyna has just made a(n) _____.
correspondent inference
When we attribute to an actor the attitude, desire, or trait that corresponds to an action they have committed, this is called a(n) _____.
correspondent inference
Santiago is addicted to candy, but he is also a nutrition expert who is aware that candy is bad for his health. Out of the following options, what is probably the MOST likely way that he will try to resolve his dissonance?
deciding that if he didn't eat candy, he would probably become unhappy and that would be bad for his health anyway
Which of the following characteristics is NOT typically listed by research conducted in the United States as a primary contingency on which people base their self-esteem?
deference to authority figures
According to the self-regulatory perseveration theory of depression:
depression results from an inability to disengage from a goal that the person cannot achieve.
As people age, what are they most likely to regret?
desirable actions that they did not commit
The tendency to reduce the importance of any potential cause of a person's behavior to the extent that other potential causes exist is referred to as the:
discounting principle.
Which of the following sources is NOT one of the three sources of relevant information for a causal attribution identified by Kelley?
duration
The phenomenon whereby people reduce dissonance by convincing themselves that what they suffered for is actually quite valuable is referred to as _____.
effort justification
The process of information being stored in short-term memory is called _____, while the process of information being stored in long-term memory is called _____.
encoding; consolidation
Intrinsic self-esteem is based on _____, while extrinsic self-esteem is based on _____.
enduring inner qualities; factors like physical appearance or social approval
Ataui is asked by her niece to explain why it is not good to sit around all day without exercising. Then, a few minutes later, Ataui reflects on the fact that she has not exercised in quite some time. According to research on cognitive dissonance processes, what is Ataui now likely to do?
engage in exercise
Which of the following situations is most likely to generate feelings of guilt and regret?
engaging in an upward counterfactual
An _____ theory sees a particular attribute as something fixed that a person can't control or change, whereas an _____ theory sees a particular attribute as something malleable that can increase or decrease.
entity; incremental
What is one way in which researchers have studied the construct of implicit self-esteem?
evaluating the speed with which participants can identify positive vs. negative words after being primed with first-person singular pronouns
Research suggests that when a behavior is high in consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus, it tends to elicit a(n) _____, whereas when a behavior is high in consistency but low in distinctiveness and consensus, it tends to elicit a(n) _____.
external attribution; internal attribution
People are more likely to make _____ attributions for their failures, and _____ attributions for their successes.
external; internal
Yamir attends sociology class because he would feel guilty if he didn't attend. However, he doesn't really feel like sociology connects to his sense of what he wants to do with his life. Yamir attends the class for reasons of _____.
extrinsic motivation
When people are primed with everyday pieces of information, that information _____; while when people are primed with a goal, that goal _____.
fades from memory at a constant rate; induces tension and remains salient until an end-state is achieved
Extrinsic motivation refers to _____, while intrinsic motivation refers to _____.
feeling that one's actions are controlled by external forces; feeling that one's actions reflect one's authentic desires
Which of the following circumstances will NOT reduce the level of dissonance a person feels in a situation?
feeling very committed to an action they have taken
Wei has a stereotype that lawyers are greedy and ruthless. During the trial of a lawyer for embezzlement charges, Wei serves on the jury and has to make a decision about the verdict in the evening, even though she is a morning person. What does research suggest Wei will do?
find the defendant guilty
When a person's skills and the challenges set by a situation match, which of the following states will occur?
flow
Wong has just received feedback in his gym class that he is not as good of an athlete as he thought he was. If he pursues the defensive strategy of compensation, what is Wong now likely to do?
focus on his academics
While the _____ concerns people's tendency to overestimate the role of internal factors in others' behavior, the _____ concerns an asymmetry between how people explain their own behavior and that of others.
fundamental attribution error; actor-observer effect
Research suggests that forming implementation intentions:
generally has an enhancing effect on people's ability to achieve their goals.
Dikembe is on a first date. He is aware that the person he is going out with is very interested in people who are intelligent. Accordingly, Dikembe has spent the last week trying to brush up on works of classic literature and current events. During the first date, Dikembe is likely going to be:
giving a cynical performance.
In their research on self-perception theory, what did Storms and Nisbett (1970) find was an effective treatment for insomnia?
giving people a placebo pill that they were told would cause arousal as they went to sleep
What substance does research suggest is involved in the effect of ego depletion on self-control in subsequent situations?
glucose
Numani's father always wanted him to succeed in business. One day Numani is debating whether or not he should go to his management class or play ping pong with his friends. Sitting on the couch flipping through his cell phone to call a friend, he scrolls past his father's name in the contact list without noticing it. What does research suggest Numani is likely to do?
go to his management class
Manute has often done well on math tests in the past. However, the latest concepts in his math course have been very difficult for him, and he is uncertain about whether he will be able to do well on the upcoming exam. All he finds himself able to think about is how a failure on the test would be harmful to his sense of himself as a math scholar. The night before the test, a friend invites Manute to go to a party. What does research on self-handicapping suggest Manute will do?
go to the party, stay up late, and drink and smoke as much as possible
When someone we think is _____ does something we think is _____, we remember this much better than if it is the other way around.
good; bad
People in collectivist cultures define themselves more in terms of _____, while people in individualist cultures define themselves more in terms of _____.
group identities; unique attributes
We are more likely to feel _____ when we focus on a bad behavior we have committed, and to feel _____ when we think that we are a bad person.
guilt; shame
Compared to younger people, older people are consistently _____.
happier
According to research on self-verification, people who have positive views of themselves seek out others who _____, and people who have negative views of themselves seek out others who _____.
have positive views of them; have negative views of them
The fact that an accomplished classical musician will be treated very differently in a famous concert hall compared to if they are performing in a random subway station is MOST CLEARLY a testament to the importance of which social psychological viewpoint?
he dramaturgical perspective
The covariation principle refers to:
he tendency to see a causal relationship between an event and an outcome when they happen at the same time.
A person's capacity as a child to wait more time to get two cookies instead of one is predictive of:
heir performance on standardized tests and general functioning up to 30 years later.
The self-regulatory perseveration theory of depression suggests that depressed individuals are likely to have _____ levels of self-awareness
high
Bob realizes that everyone in the neighborhood prefers to go to the Italian restaurant rather than the burger place. According to Kelley's covariation model of attributions, the general opinion about the restaurants in town is _____.
high-consensus
Bob knows that Tina wanted a zombie-themed birthday party on her 10th, 11th, and 12th birthday parties. According to Kelley's covariation model of attributions, Tina's opinion about zombie-themed birthdays is _____.
high-consistency
Bob knows that Linda doesn't usually dislike movies with Tom Selleck. However, she hated this particular Tom Selleck movie. According to Kelley's covariation model of attributions, Linda's opinion about this Tom Selleck movie is _____.
high-distinctiveness
More concrete descriptions of an action tend to focus on _____, while more abstract descriptions of an action tend to focus on _____.
how an action is performed; why an action is performed
A movement in 1960s psychology that emphasized people's potential for self-actualization and growth, and which was inspired by certain psychoanalytic thinkers, was referred to as:
humanistic psychology.
In which of the following situations is the actor-observer effect LEAST likely to be magnified?
if the acting person has a strong internal attribution for their own behavior
In which of the following cases is a person MOST likely to engage in an elaborate, thoughtful process of causal attribution to understand an event?
if the event is completely unexpected
Which of the following conditions does NOT increase the likelihood that people will remember schema-inconsistent information?
if the schema being violated is highly important to the person
According to construal level theory, when people are thinking about temporally distant events, they tend to think _____, while when people are thinking about temporally close events, they tend to think _____.
in more abstract terms; in more concrete terms
Research suggests that when people are having difficulty carrying out an action, they tend to reconceptualize that action:
in more concrete terms.
People from individualist cultures are more likely to experience dissonance _____, while people from collectivist cultures are more likely to experience dissonance _____.
in private settings; in public settings
Braden believes that if he works hard in school, he can make himself more intelligent. This suggests that Braden has an _____ theory of intelligence.
incremental
Which of the following cultural variables is MORE likely to influence people to commit the fundamental attribution error?
individualism
Short-term memory is _____, while long-term memory is _____.
information that is currently activated; information from past experience that may or may not be currently activated
If Tyrell believes he failed his math test because he has no mathematical intelligence, than he is making a(n) _____ attribution about his behavior.
internal
A(n) _____ locus of causality refers to behavior being caused by an aspect of the actor, while a(n) _____ locus of causality refers to behavior being caused by an aspect of the situation.
internal; external
People from individualist cultures are more likely to make _____ attributions for people's behavior, while those from collectivist cultures are more likely to make _____ attributions for people's behavior.
internal; external
In a state of flow, the individual _____, while in a state of mindfulness, the individual _____.
is absorbed in an activity; is completely attentive to the present moment
When giving a sincere performance, a person _____; when giving a cynical performance, a person _____.
is not consciously aware that they are performing; is consciously aware that they are performing
Which of the following sources is NOT a likely source of a person's initial causal hypothesis when they are trying to make an elaborate, effortful attribution?
knowledge of a factor that is temporally and spatially distant from the event
Compared to overall self-esteem, self-compassion should be _____ self-serving biases and defensive tendencies.
less dependent on
People high in self-concept clarity are _____ others' feedback, while those low in self-concept clarity are _____ others' feedback.
less sensitive to; more sensitive to
The dimension of attribution which refers to whether a behavior is either an aspect of the actor or the environment in which they are in is called _____.
locus of causality
What are the two fundamental dimensions along which Heider believed causal attributions vary?
locus of causality; stability
The extent to which a person believes that either internal or external factors determine their outcomes is referred to as _____.
locus of control
What term did Cooley use to describe the self as seen from the perspective of symbolic interactionism?
looking glass self
Which of the following elements is NOT a key element of self-compassion?
maintaining a deep sense that the self is always good
Using the least possible amount of external justification required to prevent undesirable behavior is referred to as _____.
minimal deterrence
What experimental paradigm has been used to demonstrate that cognitive dissonance processes are driven by a negative, affective state of tension?
misattribution of arousal
Which theory or phenomenon most clearly connects self-perception processes to emotional processes?
misattribution of arousal
Ascribing arousal resulting from one source to a different source is called _____; _____ is the process through which leftover arousal from one event intensifies reactions to another event.
misattribution of arousal; excitation transfer
Which of the following psychological phenomena has been identified by research as a resource that helps individuals preserve a sense of self-continuity and meaning, even in the face of reminders of mortality?
nostalgia
Self-awareness theory states that:
one's attitudes, values, and goals will be most likely to influence behavior when attention is focused on the self.
The looking glass notion of the self suggests that people understand themselves first by considering _____ and then incorporating those into the self-concept.
others' appraisals of the self
The _____ refers to our conscience, or beliefs about what we are obligated to do, while the _____ refers to our beliefs about what we would like to accomplish and become.
ought self; ideal self
. Which of the following human capabilities is NOT essential to self-regulation?
our ability to convince ourselves that we're better at something than we actually are
Reflected appraisals refer to:
our beliefs about what other people believe about us
In the induced hypocrisy paradigm:
participants advocate an opinion they already believe in, and then are reminded of a time when their actions contradicted that opinion.
The term "mood-congruent memory" refers to the fact that:
people are more likely to remember negative information when in a negative mood, and positive information in a positive mood.
What does research suggest about the relationship between goals and consciousness?
people are often motivated by unconscious goals
Social identity theory suggests that:
people define and value themselves largely in terms of the social groups with which they identify.
The ease of retrieval effect refers to the fact that:
people judge how frequently an event occurs on the basis of how easily they can retrieve examples of that event.
According to social comparison theory, to whom or what are we most likely to compare ourselves when trying to determine where we stand on a particular trait or ability?
people who are in approximately the same range as us, or who are similar to us
Research suggests that magical thinking and superstitious behavior is relatively more likely amongst _____.
people with a strong need for control experiencing a high-stress situation
Affective forecasting refers to:
people's attempts to predict what their emotional reactions to potential future events will be.
What does the strategy of audience segregation refer to?
people's attempts to separate groups of people in their lives with whom they maintain somewhat different identities
Blaming victims for the suffering they experience is one example of what phenomenon?
people's desire to believe that the world is just
What does the better than average effect refer to?
people's tendency to rank themselves higher than others on positive attributes
Self-handicapping refers to:
placing obstacles in the way of one's success to protect self-esteem.
Research has shown that which of the following demographic groups is relatively more likely to make the fundamental attribution error?
political conservatives
Assigning to others those traits that people fear they themselves possess is referred to as _____.
projection
People who suffer damage to the fusiform face area (FFA) tend to suffer from ____.
prosopagnosia
The EAR device is used to:
record ambient sounds in a person's environment over a period of time to extract information about their activities and personality.
A life story in which a set of obstacles are overcome and ultimately lead to positive experiences is referred to as a _____, while a life story in which a state of good fortune is transformed to a state of failure or tragedy is referred to as a _____.
redemption story; contamination story
Which of the following possibilities is NOT a primary way to reduce dissonance?
reflect deeply on the inconsistency between the two cognitions
Which of the following strategies is NOT likely to help people reduce the negative effects of ego depletion on self-control?
refraining from consuming any sugary substances while working
Shinobu is thinking about how he has performed in his pursuit of a career as a chemical engineer, and feels that there is only a small discrepancy between what he has accomplished and what he envisioned himself accomplishing. How does self-discrepancy theory suggest he is likely to feel?
satisfied
If we are given a schema for thinking about a person before observing their behaviors, we are more likely to remember _____; but if we are given a schema for thinking about a person after observing their behaviors, we are more likely to remember _____.
schema-inconsistent behaviors; schema-consistent behaviors
If a person is highly successful in a domain that is important to our self-esteem, we are motivated to _____; if a person is highly successful in a domain that is not very important to our self-esteem, we are motivated to _____.
see that person as dissimilar to us; see that person as similar to us
In social psychological research, self-verification refers primarily to:
seeking out others who support the way one views oneself.
The idea that people respond less defensively to threats to one aspect of themselves if they think about another valued aspect of themselves is referred to as:
self-affirmation.
Being kind to the self when one fails or feels inadequate is referred to as _____.
self-compassion
A clearly defined, internally consistent, and temporally stable sense of self is referred to as _____.
self-concept clarity
The view that a person holds of one's traits, social roles, and social identities is called that person's _____, while the aspect of the self that directs the person's thoughts and actions is called that person's _____.
self-concept; ego
Which of the following is NOT a basic need posited by self-determination theory?
self-evaluation
A coherent life story connecting one's past, present, and possible future is referred to as (a) _____.
self-narrative
Hariqbal is preparing an online dating profile. One of the questions for the profile is whether he is a romantic person. In order to answer this question, Harqibal thinks back on some of his most recent actions. Since in the past week he read a book of love poems, enjoyed a dramatic film, and took a long walk by the beach, he decides that he must be a romantic person. What process has Hariqbal engaged in?
self-perception
The process of guiding one's thoughts, feelings, and behavior to reach desired goals is referred to as _____.
self-regulation
A _____ tends to be fairly consistent across situations, whereas a _____ tends to be differentially activated by situational cues.
self-schema; working self-concept
Which of the following is not an example of a self-presentational strategy?
self-verification
Which of the following phenomena is NOT a mechanism that people use routinely to maintain their self-esteem?
self-verification
Which of the following options is NOT likely to maintain successful self-presentation in the presence of different audiences?
shifting back and forth in a short space of time between extreme versions of one's divergent identities
Some research (Ma-Kellams & Blascovich, 2012; Vail et al., 2012) suggests that people who experience trauma:
sometimes report experiencing personal growth.
Ligiea believes that she failed her first test in college because she is attending a very difficult and prominent University. She is making a(n) _____ attribution about her behavior.
stable external
A classic study by Cialdini (1976) and colleagues on people's reactions to their college sports team showed that:
students were more likely to wear school apparel when the football team had won a game.
The _____ is the mental process that is on the lookout for signs of an unwanted thought, while the _____ is the mental process that pushes signs of an unwanted thought outside of consciousness.
superego; ego
Mead and Cooley were prominent representatives of which line of thought in social psychology?
symbolic interactionism
The perspective that people use their understanding of how significant people in their lives view them as the primary basis for knowing and evaluating themselves is known as _____.
symbolic interactionism
According to Kelley's covariation model of attributions, if we know that someone's opinion has high consensus, what does that MOST CLEARLY tell us about their opinion?
that it is caused by an external factor
According to Kelley's covariation model of attributions, if we know that someone's opinion has low distinctiveness, what does that MOST CLEARLY tell us about their opinion?
that it is caused by an internal factor
According to Kelley's covariation model of attributions, if we know that someone's opinion has low consistency, what does that MOST CLEARLY tell us about their opinion?
that it is unstable
Tasks which ask a child to wait 20 minutes for two cookies or to ring a bell if they would like to have one cookie sooner are designed to measure:
the ability to delay gratification.
Research suggests that feeling ostracized in a game of cyberball increases activation in which brain region?
the anterior cingulate cortex
While the sociometer model emphasizes _____, the status-maximization model emphasizes _____.
the desire to fit in with others; the desire to stand out from others
Dubula is trying to decide what he is going to write about for his term paper. He is getting an early start on the project; the paper is not due until four months from now. According to construal level theory, what kind of project topic is Dubula likely to pursue?
the easiest possible topic
A causal attribution is:
the explanation that people use for what caused a particular event or behavior.
Which of the following factors is LEAST likely to exert a strong influence on a person's level and sources of self-esteem?
the extent to which they are motivated to self-verify
The idea that changes in facial expression elicit emotions associated with those expressions is referred to as _____.
the facial feedback hypothesis
Spreading of alternatives is a strategy that is relevant to _____.
the free choice paradigm
A study showing that overweight people are significantly less happy if they live in a society that stigmatizes obesity than if they live in a society in which obesity is common and accepted testifies BEST to which concept from symbolic interactionism?
the generalized other
The tendency of social perceivers' assessments of an individual on a given trait to be biased by the perceivers' more general impression of the individual is called:
the halo effect.
Ironic processing refers to:
the idea that the more we try not to think about something, the more those thoughts enter our mind and distract us from other things.
While _____ refers to the tendency to overestimate others' ability to know the self's thoughts, _____ refers to the belief that others are more focused on the self than they are.
the illusion of transparency; the spotlight effect
Self-esteem is defined as:
the level of positive feeling one has about oneself.
According to self-awareness theory, what determines whether a person distracts him or herself from negative self-awareness, or commits to trying to be better in the future?
the likelihood that a negative discrepancy can be easily reduced
The process by which cues that are given after an event can plant false information into memory is referred to as _____.
the misinformation effect
Chuan decides to go to a bar on a Friday night. Initially, Chuan is very happy to spend a night out. However, at the bar, he accidentally bumps into another man and spills his drink. This man becomes very angry, because he infers that Chuan intentionally knocked into him in order to spill his drink. In this scenario, what is the best example of a causal attribution?
the other man's inference that Chuan deliberately knocked him over
What does research suggest is a variable that lessens the tendency of the ease of retrieval effect to influence self-perceptions?
the personal relevance of the domain in which the individual is trying to recall past behaviors
In a classic study by Asch, participants read some traits of a person whom they did not know. In one condition, participants read that the person was "intelligent, industrious, and envious." In the other condition, participants read that the person was "envious, intelligent, and industrious." The results showed that people liked the person more in the first condition. What phenomenon did this study demonstrate?
the primacy effect
Alonzo hears a description of a person who sounds very much like a librarian to him. Even if Alonzo knows that the person comes from a part of the state where there are very few (perhaps only one) libraries, he is still as likely to believe that the person is a librarian as he would be if that person came from a different part of the state. This is an example of _____.
the representativeness heuristic
In a study, participants watched a videotape of a woman they believed was either a librarian or a waitress, who claimed to like beer and classical music. When participants were asked what they remembered about the woman, those who believed she was a librarian were more likely to recall that she liked classical music, those who believed she was a waitress remembered that she liked beer. What does this study illustrate?
the role of schemas in shaping memory
In the area of causal attribution research, magical thinking refers to:
the tendency to believe that simply having thoughts about an event before it occurs can influence that event.
At a general level, what is the self-serving attributional bias?
the tendency to make external attributions for bad things one does, and internal attributions for good things one does
Which of the following is not a view of the self-posited by self-discrepancy theory?
the undesired self
According to expectancy-value theory, what determines the amount of effort a person is likely to expend on a goal?
the value of the goal and the person's estimation of how achievable it is
Reconstructive evidence suggests that Phineas Gage suffered damage to which part of the brain?
the ventromedial prefrontal cortex
When people experience an event as a challenge:
their heart rate increases, and their veins and arteries dilate.
A classic study by Storms (1973) showed that when people were engaged in a conversation, they thought that _____ was leading the conversation; but when they watched a video of the conversation from their partner's perspective, they thought that _____ was/were leading the conversation.
their partner; they (the participant)
When (around the age of four) children realize that their own beliefs and desires are separate from other people's beliefs and desires, they have developed _____.
theory of mind
In a study (Aronson and Carlsmith 1963) conducted among preschoolers, children in which experimental condition were the most likely to change their attitudes towards a particular toy (which had initially been desirable) at the end of the study?
those who had been told that the experimenter would be mildly annoyed if they played with the toy
In a study on induced hypocrisy and condom use, which participants were most likely to purchase a condom at the end of the study?
those who had made a public speech advocating condom use before being reminded of a time when they did not use condoms
Aronson and Mills (1959) conducted a classic study in which female college students were recruited for a discussion group. The discussion that they actually listened to was quite boring; however, prior to hearing the discussion, women participated in different conditions. Women in which experimental condition expressed the greatest interest in the discussion and commitment to the group?
those who had to read explicit pornography in front of the experimenter
A study (Staw 1974) was conducted among those who signed up for the R.O.T.C. during the Vietnam era draft years. In this study, which group of individuals became comparably better soldiers?
those who would not have been drafted
Research suggests that people who frequently experience shame are more likely:
to be angry or depressed.
Which of the following is not one of the fundamental motives behind self-presentation?
to expose the arbitrariness of cultural standards for success
What is one possible way to reduce the interpersonal conflicts that can arise from the actor-observer effect?
to have each person view a situation from the perspective of the other
The actor-observer effect describes the tendency:
to make internal attributions for the behavior of others and external attributions for our own behavior.
People in individualist cultures tend to declare themselves better than average on _____, while people in collectivist cultures tend to declare themselves better than average on _____.
traits like self-reliance; traits like loyalty
Victor is meeting another student whom he did not know previously. He will have to work with this student on a class project. Instantly, when Victor meets this student, she vaguely reminds him of his good friend Mari (even though he does not consciously recognize this). Victor immediately gets the feeling that he is going to get along well with this new student. What process has just occurred?
transference
A person is most likely to exaggerate the differences between two alternatives when they have been forced to choose between:
two equally desirable alternatives.
Self-concept clarity refers to _____, while self-complexity refers to _____.
unity in the self-concept; multiplicity in the self-concept
According to Dweck's (1975) work on attributions and academic performance, what is the most productive form of causal attribution in a learning environment?
unstable internal
If Saulo believes he performed poorly on a literature test because he failed to study the night before, he is making a(n) _____ attribution about his behavior.
unstable internal
In classic research, Dweck (1975) found that boys tend to attribute their poor performance in math to _____ factors, whereas girls tend to attribute their poor performance in math to _____ factors.
unstable internal; stable internal
Comparing oneself with those who are better off is making a(n) _____ comparison; comparing oneself with those who are worse off is making a(n) _____ comparison.
upward; downward
When is it most helpful to generate upward counterfactuals?
when a negative event is likely to reoccur, and will be under our control
The theory of symbolic self-completion suggests specifically that:
when people feel a self-defining aspect of themselves is threatened, they compensate by displaying symbols which support their self-definition.
When are we NOT likely to rely on self-perception processes?
when there is a salient external factor that might explain our behavior
In which of the following situations are we LEAST likely to make a correspondent inference about a person who is screaming wildly?
when they are at a football game
According to the three-stage model of dispositional attribution, under which circumstances is a person MOST likely to commit the fundamental attribution error?
when they are distracted or too tired to pay close attention to the situation
In a classic study conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) on cognitive dissonance, under which circumstance did subjects come to believe that a boring task was interesting.
when they were paid $1 to tell someone that they enjoyed the task
In what situation may we be likely to understand a person as a unique individual, rather than relying on simple stereotypes to form our impression of them?
when we need to work with that person to accomplish a task
Arvind is depressed and does not really like himself. At his new school, there are two people who seem interested in being friends with him. One, Amanda, is generally positively disposed towards him and gives him compliments. The other, Lucas, seems to enjoy hanging out with Arvind but also is critical of him. Research suggests that Arvind:
will prefer to associate with Lucas.
Which of the following techniques will NOT help people minimize the negative effects of ironic processing?
working to keep unwanted thoughts out of consciousness
Ang is very worried about his upcoming physics test; he feels that if he performs poorly on the test, his career and life will be over. Ang's friend, Hank, wants to increase the accuracy of Ang's predictions about how this event will affect him emotionally. In order to achieve this goal, Hank can ask Ang to:
write out a list of all the different activities Ang is going to be doing in the weeks after the test.
Participants in a study who were asked to eat Cheetos with chopsticks were likely to conceive of their action as:
"putting food in my mouth."
Which of the following examples involves someone using the strategy of trivialization to reduce dissonance?
A person who litters without taking the time to find a trash can decides that lots of people litter in that area, so it's not a big deal.
In order to concentrate on his exam, Absalom actively tries to push all thoughts of the date he went on last night out of his mind. What does research suggest will happen?
After he finishes the exam, thoughts of the date will be even more prominent in Absalom's mind than before he started.
What is the central concept of the dramaturgical perspective?
All of social life can be compared to a theatrical production in which people, like actors, perform according to a script.
What were the results of a study in which participants were asked to deliver shocks to another participant either in front or not in front of a mirror?
Among participants in front of a mirror, their preexisting attitudes toward punishment predicted their level of punishment.
In one study, participants were told that they had either done well or poorly on a test, and were then given the opportunity to participate in an ostensible study on alcohol preferences. What were the findings?
Among those participants who believed they did poorly, existing levels of private self-consciousness predicted higher levels of drinking.
How does the phenomenon of mood-congruent memory explain why depressed individuals have trouble recalling past positive events?
Because depressed people are usually in a negative mood, it is easier for them to recall negative events.
Manal has decided that she would like to lose some weight in the coming month. She posts online that this is her goal for the month. What does research based on symbolic self-completion theory suggest will happen?
Because she has self-completed through her online post, Manal may actually be less likely to lose much weight.
Bettina would very much like to become a famous singer-songwriter. However, as her life goes on she begins to feel that this will be a very difficult goal to achieve. What does expectancy-value theory suggest will happen?
Bettina will eventually give up on the goal and shift her energy to something else.
Ricardo and Monique are in couple's therapy because they often argue with each other. On one day, their therapist asks each of them to think of 5 times in which they provoked the other person into an argument. On another day, their therapist asks them to think of 10 times when they did the same thing. According to research, what will the effect of the therapist's technique be on making Ricardo and Monique think of themselves as argumentative?
Both Ricardo and Monique will probably see themselves as more argumentative on the day when they are asked to recall 5 incidents.
What does self-presentation research suggest is the best way to convince others that one is competent and sincere?
By not only self-promoting, but also by presenting a few personal weaknesses, disagreements, and flattering others.
Cassia arrives at a job interview but has to wait outside the interview room with another candidate for the position. This candidate appears disorganized and is not well-dressed. What can we conclude about Cassia's state of mind based on social comparison theory?
Cassia has somewhat heightened self-esteem.