Psych Exam 2

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

stimulus discrimination

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization

message presented below the threshold of conscious awareness

subliminal messaging

specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions

rod

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

spontaneous recovery

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious punishment

height of a wave

amplitude

light-detecting cell

photoreceptor

psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors that is sometimes used to treat sleep disorders such as insomnia

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

theoretical repository of information shared by all people across cultures, as described by Carl Jung

Collective unconscious

awareness of internal and external stimuli

Consciousness

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

classical conditioning

mental picture of the layout of the environment

cognitive map

Two lines appear to be a different length, though in reality they are the same length. This is known as the ________ illusion. Select one: a. Meissner b. Merkel c. Müller-Lyer d. Ménière

c. Müller-Lyer

Inattentional ________ refers to the failure to notice something that is completely visible due to a lack of attention. Select one: a. sublimation b. responsiveness c. blindness d. transduction

c. blindness

Which of the following is an example of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule? Select one: a. playing basketball with your friends after completing your chores b. checking your Facebook account at random times throughout the day c. playing poker d. taking your dog to the park every afternoon at 4:00 p.m.

d. taking your dog to the park every afternoon at 4:00 p.m.

Which schedule of reinforcement is the most powerful and resistant to extinction? Select one: a. continuous b. depends on the CS-UCS relationship c. fixed interval d. variable ratio

d. variable ratio

all the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment

electromagnetic spectrum

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

negative punishment

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

neutral stimulus (NS)

type of learning that occurs by watching others

observational learning

sleep disorder defined by episodes when breathing stops during sleep as a result of blockage of the airway

obstructive sleep apnea

chemical message sent by another individual

pheromone

staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

radical behaviorism

grouping of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the taste bud

taste bud

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

unconditioned response (UCR)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

continuous reinforcement

segmenting our visual world into figure and ground

figure-ground relationship

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior

negative reinforcement

(also, crest) highest point of a wave

peak

light-sensitive lining of the eye

retina

sound's purity

timbre

touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations

Pacinian corpuscle

characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

Wakefulness

type of amphetamine that can be made from pseudoephedrine, an over-the-counter drug; widely manufactured and abused

Methamphetamine

type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep

Delta wave

organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts

closure

middle ear ossicle; also known as the hammer

malleus

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

model

pain from damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central nervous system

neuropathic pain

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

positive reinforcement

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

primary reinforcer

perception of body position

proprioception

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

secondary reinforcer

what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor

sensation

failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain

sensorineural hearing loss

not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time

sensory adaptation

things that are alike tend to be grouped together

similarity

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

extinction

small indentation in the retina that contains cones

fovea

number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period

frequency

variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued

Withdrawal

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

lowest point of a wave

trough

perception of the body's movement through space

kinesthesia

type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 1 and stage 2 sleep

Theta wave

state of requiring increasing quantities of the drug to gain the desired effect

Tolerance

collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment

Jet lag

very high amplitude pattern of brain activity associated with stage 2 sleep that may occur in response to environmental stimuli

K-complex

people become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content

Lucid dream

storyline of events that occur during a dream, per Sigmund Freud's view of the function of dreams

Manifest content

clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus

Meditation

touch receptor that responds to pressure and lower frequency vibrations

Meissner's corpuscle

results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear

Ménière's disease

sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times

Narcolepsy

sleep disorder in which the sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape from the immediate environment

Night terror

one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep

Parinsomnia

changes in normal bodily functions that cause a drug user to experience withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of use

Physical dependence

endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin

Pineal gland

emotional, rather than a physical, need for a drug which may be used to relieve psychological distress

Psychological dependence

sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams

REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)

period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

sleep disorder in which the sufferer has uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving the legs

Restless leg syndrome

work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis

Rotating shift work

state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness

Sleep

sleep disorder defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep

Sleep apnea

result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

Sleep debt

sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep latencies during subsequent opportunities for sleep

Sleep rebound

brain's control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world

Sleep regulation

rapid burst of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory

Sleep spindle

(also, somnambulism) sleep disorder in which the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors

Sleepwalking

first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep

Stage 1 sleep

second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles

Stage 2 sleep

third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

Stage 3 sleep

fourth stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

Stage 4 sleep

drug that tends to increase overall levels of neural activity; includes caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine

Stimulant

infant (one year old or younger) with no apparent medical condition suddenly dies during sleep

Sudden infant death syndrome

area of the hypothalamus in which the body's biological clock is located

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention

inattentional blindness

colored portion of the eye

iris

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

law of effect

cue that requires only one eye

monocular cue

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

shaping

temperature perception

thermoception

eardrum

tympanic membrane

(also, continuity) we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines

good continuation

auditory receptor cell of the inner ear

hair cell

cycles per second; measure of frequency

hertz (Hz)

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

higher-order conditioning

difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli

just noticeable difference

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

latent learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

learning

curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye

lens

one-eared cue to localize sound

monaural cue

sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain

nociception

period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

non-REM (NREM)

bulb-like structure at the tip of the frontal lobe, where the olfactory nerves begin

olfactory bulb

sensory cell for the olfactory system

olfactory receptor

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

operant conditioning

one of a category of drugs that has strong analgesic properties; opiates are produced from the resin of the opium poppy; includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine

opiate/opioid

color is coded in opponent pairs (i.e., black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green)

opponent-process theory of color perception

X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain's ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain

optic chiasm

carries visual information from the retina to the brain

optic nerve

rewarding behavior only some of the time

partial reinforcement

ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes

pattern perception

way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced

perception

educated guess used to interpret sensory information

perceptual hypothesis

sound's frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron

temporal theory of pitch perception

continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus

afterimage

What is the main idea of operant conditioning? Select one: a. Learning can occur when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. b. Behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: reinforcements and punishments. c. Fear is a conditioned response. d. One can learn new behaviors by observing others.

b. Behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: reinforcements and punishments.

Sarit is at a bar full of music, chatter, and laughter. He gets involved in an interesting conversation with a woman named Mona, and he tunes out all the background noise. Sarit's friend, Karen, taps him on the shoulder and asks what song just played on the jukebox. Sarit says he doesn't know, even though he is sitting right next to the jukebox and is familiar with popular music. This illustrates the role that ________ plays in what is sensed versus what is perceived. Select one: a. friendship b. attention c. mood d. habit

b. attention

Which of the following is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus? Select one: a. reflex b. extinction c. acquisition d. recovery

b. extinction

________-frequency sound waves are perceived as high-pitched sounds, while ________-frequency sound waves are perceived as low-pitched sounds. Select one: a. low; high b. high; low c. truncated; high d. condensed; sharp

b. high; low

Which of the following describes the difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli? Select one: a. subliminal b. just noticeable c. signal detection d. top down

b. just noticeable

Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it is called ________ learning. Select one: a. conditioned b. latent c. partial d. primary

b. latent

What do psychologists call a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience? Select one: a. conditioning b. learning c. reflexes d. instincts

b. learning

________ refers to the way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced; ________ refers to what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor. Select one: a. sensation; perception b. perception; sensation c. perception; reception d. preception; postception

b. perception; sensation

If a slamming door is a conditioned stimulus, then being able to distinguish between the sound of a slamming door and the sound of a heavy book being dropped would represent ________. In other words, the conditioned response happens when the door slams, but NOT when the book drops. Select one: a. acquisition b. stimulus discrimination c. extinction d. stimulus generalization

b. stimulus discrimination

__________ occurs when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. Select one: a. stimulus discrimination b. stimulus generalization c. aquisition d. extinction

b. stimulus generalization

Which type of processing involves the interpretation of sensations and is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts? Select one: a. absolute threshold b. top-down c. signal detection d. subliminal

b. top-down

Harold catches fish throughout the day at unpredictable intervals. Which reinforcement schedule is this? Select one: a. fixed ratio b. variable interval c. variable ratio d. fixed interval

b. variable interval

fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system

cochlea

electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain

cochlear implant

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color

cone

genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain

congenital insensitivity to pain (congenital analgesia)

transparent covering over the eye

cornea

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

hidden meaning of a dream, per Sigmund Freud's view of the function of dreams

Latent content

failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles

conductive hearing loss

deafness from birth

congenital deafness

partial or complete inability to hear

deafness

logarithmic unit of sound intensity

decibel (dB)

perceive depth in an image when two parallel lines seem to converge

linear perspective

middle ear ossicle; also known as the stirrup

stapes

hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleepwake cycle

Melatonin

touch receptor that responds to light touch

Merkel's disk

study that combines the results of several related studies

Meta-analysis

synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs; used to manage withdrawal symptoms in opiate users

Methadone

uses methadone to treat withdrawal symptoms in opiate users

Methadone clinic

visible part of the ear that protrudes from the head

pinna

perception of a sound's frequency

pitch

different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies

place theory of pitch perception

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

positive punishment

drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity

Depressant

touch receptor that detects stretch

Ruffini corpuscle

organize perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts

principle of closure

things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together

proximity

middle ear ossicle; also known as the anvil

incus

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

punishment

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

reflex

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

reinforcement

length of a wave from one peak to the next peak

wavelength

small opening in the eye through which light passes

pupil

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

Acquisition

type of relatively low frequency, relatively high amplitude brain wave that becomes synchronized; characteristic of the beginning of stage 1 sleep

Alpha wave

internal cycle of biological activity

Biological rhythm

lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles

Cataplexy

sleep disorder with periods of interrupted breathing due to a disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing

Central sleep apnea

biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours

Circadian rhythm

opiate with relatively low potency often prescribed for minor pain

Codeine

device used to treat sleep apnea; includes a mask that fits over the sleeper's nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person's airways, forcing them to remain open

Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)

two-eared cue to localize sound

binaural cue

feelings of intense elation and pleasure from drug use

Euphoric high

discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection

Evolutionary psychology

field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts

Gestalt psychology

one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences, often with vivid hallucinations

Hallucinogen

tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system

Homeostasis

state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli

Hypnosis

consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time

Insomnia

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior. Instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

Instinct

What term describes the continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus? Select one: a. afterimage b. preimage c. fovea d. monocular

a. afterimage

Mabel clicks her tongue while tickling Francis. Eventually, Francis starts to squirm and giggle every time Mabel clicks her tongue, even when he is not being tickled. In this example, tongue clicking is a/an ________. Select one: a. conditioned stimulus b. unconditioned response c. conditioned response d. unconditioned stimulus

a. conditioned stimulus

What is described by the concept of perception? Select one: a. how sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced b. the change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state c. how interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts d. what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor

a. how sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced

Longer wavelengths will have ________ frequencies, and shorter wavelengths will have ________ frequencies. Select one: a. lower; higher b. shorter; longer c. higher; lower d. longer; shorter

a. lower; higher

In operant conditioning, what process describes ADDING something aversive to DECREASE the future likelihood of behavior? Select one: a. positive punishment b. negative reinforcement c. positive reinforcement d. negative punishment

a. positive punishment

Which term best describes rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior? Select one: a. shaping b. acquisition c. learning d. reinforcement

a. shaping

Which of the following exemplifies olfaction? Select one: a. smelling cookies in the oven b. tasting white chocolate fudge c. hearing an airplane fly overhead d. feeling the warmth of the sun

a. smelling cookies in the oven

Your ears receive sound waves and convert this energy into neural messages that travel to your brain and are processed as sounds. This is an example of ________. Select one: a. transduction b. just noticeable difference c. top-down processing d. subliminal messaging

a. transduction

In classical conditioning, the ________ is an unlearned reaction to a given stimulus. For example, if you have an allergy to pollen and sneeze, sneezing is an unlearned reaction to the pollen (i.e., the stimulus). Select one: a. unconditioned response b. conditioned response c. conditioned stimulus d. unconditioned stimulus

a. unconditioned response

You call a friend on the phone and repeatedly get sent to voicemail, so you continue to call her every 5-20 minutes hoping to speak to her personally. Which reinforcement schedule is this? Select one: a. variable interval b. fixed ratio c. variable ratio d. fixed interval

a. variable interval

"The central tenet of Gestalt psychology is that the _________ is different from the sum of its __________." Select one: a. whole; parts b. parts; whole c. time; place d. place; time

a. whole; parts

minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time

absolute threshold

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

associative learning

thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system

basilar membrane

cue that relies on the use of both eyes

binocular cue

slightly different view of the world that each eye receives

binocular disparity

point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field

blind spot

system in which perceptions are built from sensory input

bottom-up processing

Sariah enters a room with several chirping crickets in it. Upon first entering the room, Sariah can hear the chirping; however, as she begins to talk to her friends, she is no longer aware of the chirping even though it is still there. The fact that Sariah no longer perceives the chirping sound demonstrates sensory ________. Select one: a. formation b. regression c. adaptation d. revision

c. adaptation

What kind of processing is exemplified by the following scenario? Esther's mother offers her a new dish she's been working on―a raisin-jalapeño quiche. Esther's body responds first: Esther eyes the content of the skillet, and smells the mix of raisins, jalapeños, and eggs. Her stomach churns and she looks away. Feeling disgust and disappointment, she says "I'm not hungry." Select one: a. top-down b. vertical-horizontal c. bottom-up d. sensory adaptation

c. bottom-up

When a child works on a "connect the dots" puzzle, she can often see the completed work before she has finished all of the dots. Once there is enough visual information present, she's able to perceive the completed picture even though it is still incomplete. Which Gestalt principle does this demonstrate? Select one: a. good continuation b. contiguity c. closure d. proximity

c. closure

Petra walks into a brightly lit Psychology lab to participate in an experiment involving the ability to perceive the colors of the rainbow. Which photoreceptors will be most useful during this experiment? Select one: a. fovea b. lens c. cones d. rods

c. cones

At the point of the optic chiasm, information from the right visual field (which comes from both eyes) is sent to the ________ side of the brain, and information from the left visual field is sent to the ________ side of the brain. Select one: a. right; right b. left; left c. left; right d. right; left

c. left; right

In operant conditioning, ________ is when something is REMOVED to INCREASE the future likelihood of a behavior. Select one: a. negative punishment b. positive punishment c. negative reinforcement d. positive reinforcement

c. negative reinforcement

Wesley is in a movie theater with no windows—the only light is low illumination from the emergency lights on the floor. Which photoreceptors will be most useful to Wesley as he attempts to leave the theater? Select one: a. iris b. fovea c. rods d. cones

c. rods

What kind of processing is exemplified by the following scenario? Shimon offers Mouin some salmon. Mouin thinks, "How nice. My friend is offering me fish. I wonder where he got it." This thought leads Mouin to feel happy, appreciative, and curious; he responds with a smile and an extended hand. Select one: a. top-first b. bottom-up c. top-down d. bottom-down

c. top-down

Which of the following is an example of operant conditioning? Select one: a. when a dog refuses to roll over b. when a cat learns to drool at the sound of a can opener c. when a dog rolls over, she gets a treat and is more likely to roll over next time she is given the command d. when a cat and a dog share the same water bowl

c. when a dog rolls over, she gets a treat and is more likely to roll over next time she is given the command

Which of the following is NOT true of punishment? Select one: a. Punishment may teach fear and avoidance of the punisher b. Punishment may teach someone what NOT to do, but does not necessarily encourage a more adaptive/desired behavior c. Punishment may cause increased aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency d. Punishment has no adverse effects or problems

d. Punishment has no adverse effects or problems

What did John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrate with their studies of Little Albert? Select one: a. boys display more fear than girls b. boys display fear differently from girls c. fear cannot be a conditioned response d. emotion (fear/phobia) can be a conditioned response

d. emotion (fear/phobia) can be a conditioned response

Dave's boss told him that he doesn't have to attend the company picnic (which everybody dislikes) if Dave meets his sales quota this month. Dave's boss is using ________. Select one: a. positive reinforcement b. positive punishment c. negative punishment d. negative reinforcement

d. negative reinforcement

Learning that occurs while watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say is called ________ learning. Select one: a. operant b. latent c. Pavlovian d. observational

d. observational

ability to perceive depth

depth perception

signal that some type of tissue damage has occurred

inflammatory pain

sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head

interaural level difference

small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear

interaural timing difference

change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state

signal detection theory

interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts

top-down processing

conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential

transduction

color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones

trichromatic theory of color perception

taste for monosodium glutamate

umami

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

variable interval reinforcement schedule

spinning sensation

vertigo

contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture

vestibular sense

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see

visible spectrum