Psych Exam 3 (7-9)

People tend to organize specific items into mental groupings called ____, and many such groupings often are further organized into ___.

concepts hierarchies

Animals are capable of forming ____. Wolfgang Kohler demonstrated that chimpanzees also exhibit the "Aha!" reaction that characterizes reasoning by ____.

concepts insight

Punishment can also lead to ____ and a sense of helplessness as well as to the association of the aversive event with ____.

fear the person who administered it ...

When a person is unable to envision using an obect in an atypical way, ____ is operating.

functional fixedness

Subjects often respond to a similar stimulus as they would to the original CS. This phenomenon is called _____.

generalization ...

The system of rules that enables us to use our language to speak to and understand others is called ____.

grammar

Research studies of infants knack for soaking up language suggest that babies come with a built in readiness to learn ____.

grammatical rules

Although amnesia victims typically ____ lost their capacity for learning which is called ____ memory, they ____ able to declare their memory, suggesting a deficit in their ____ memory systems.

have not implicit are not explicit

Simple thinking strategies that provide us with problem solving shortcuts are referred to as ____.

heuristics

In addition, material may be processed into ____, which are composed of a few broad concepts divided into lesser concepts, categories, and facts.

hierarchies

Our tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with our current emotional state is called ___ memory.

mood congruent

In one experiment, the child who viewed an adult punch inflatable doll played ____ aggressively than the child who had not observed the adult.

more ...

Studies by Ebbinghaus and by Bahrick indicate that most forgetting occurs ___ after the material is learned.

soon

At the heart of many false memories is ____ which occurs when we ____ an event to the wrong source.

source amnesia misattribute

Memory studies also reveal that distributed rehearsal is more effective for retention; this is called the ____.

spacing effect

Following a rest, however, the CR reappears in response to the CS; this phenomenon is called ____.

spontaneous recovery ...

The type of memory in which emotions serve as retrieval cues is referred to as ____ memory.

state-dependent

Through classical conditioning, an organism associates different ____ that it does not ____ and responds ____.

stimuli control automatically ...

This type of forgetting is known as ___, which may be caused by a gradual fading of the physical ____.

storage decay memory trace

In one study of psychology students preparing for a midterm exam, the greatest benefits were achieved by those who visualized themselves _____ (receiving a high grade/studying effectively)

studying effectively

Research studies demonstrate that the body's immune system ____ be classically conditioned.

can ...

Hormones released when we are excited or under stress often ____ learning and memory.

facilitate

Research by Jenny Saffran has demonstrated that even before ____ years of age, infants are able to discern ____ and ____ analyze which syllables most often go together.

1 word breaks statistically

By about ___ months of age, infant babbling begins to resemble the household language. At about the same time, the ability to perceive speech sounds outside their native language is ____.

10 lost

Both children and adults have short-term recall for roughly as many words as they can speak in ___ seconds.

2

The classic model of memory has been Atkinson and Shiffrin's ____ model. According to this model, we first record information as a fleeting ____, from which it is processed into ____ memory, where the information is ____ through rehearsal into ____ memory for later retrieval.

3 stage processing sensory memory short-term encoded long term

By ____ months of age babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds. This marks the beginning of their ____, their ability to comprehend speech. This ability begins to mature before their ____ or ability to produce words.

4 receptive language productive language

The window for learning language gradually begins to close after age ____. When a young brain doesnt learn any language, its language learning capacity ____ fully develops.

7 never

Our short-term memory capacity is about ___ chunks of information. This capacity was discovered by ____.

7 George Miller

By age ____, infants will imitate novel play behaviors. By age ____, they will imitate acts modeled on television. Mirror neurons help give rise to children's ____ and their ___.

8 to 16 months 14 months empathy theory of mind ...

The psychologist best known for research on observational learning is ____.

Bandura ...

The philosopher ____ believed that animals were living robots that could not think.

Descartes

A pioneering researcher in verbal memory was ____. In one experiment he found that the longer he studied a list of nonsense syllables, the ____ the number of repetitions he required to relearn it later. Additional rehearsal (or ____) increases retention.

Hermann Ebbinghaus fewer overlearning

Classical conditioning was first explored by the Russian physiologist ____. Early in the 20th century, psychologist ____ urged psychologists to discard references to mental concepts in favor of studying observable behavior. This view, called ____, influenced American psychology during the first half of that century.

Ivan Pavlov John Watson behaviorism ...

Psychologist ___ attempted to locate memory by cutting out pieces of rats' ___ after they had learned a maze. He found that no matter where he cut, the rats ____ the maze.

Karl Lashley cortexes remembered

Other theorists believe that humans are biologically predisposed to learn language. One such theorist is ____, who believes that we all are born with a ____ in which ____ switches are thrown as children experience their language. This theorist contends that all human languages have the same grammatical building blocks, which suggests that there is a ____.

Noam Chomsky language acquisition device grammar universal grammar

Memory that consists of mental pictures is based on the use of ____.

imagery

Skinner designed an apparatus, called the ____, to investigate learning in animals.

Skinner box (operant chamber)...

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards

In using operant conditioning to change your own behavior, you would follow these four steps:

a. State your goal b. Monitor the behavior (when and where it occurs) c. Reinforce the desired behavior d. Reduce the rewards gradually

George Sperling found that when people were briefly shown 3 rows of letters, they could recall ___ of them. When Sperling sounded a tone immediately after a row of letters was flashed to indicate which letters were to be recalled, the subjects were much ___ accurate. This suggests that people have a brief photographic or ___, memory lasting about few tenths of a second.

about half more iconic

These results may help explain why ___ parents might have ____ children. However, ____ factors may also be involved.

abusive aggressive genetic ...

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus

Both types of conditioning involve similar processes of ____, ____, ____, ____, and _____.

acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination ...

The initial learning of a conditioned response is called _____. For many conditioning situations, the optimal interval between a neutral stimulus and the US is ____.

acquistion one-half second ...

Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to ____ to their environment.

adapt...

Being able to recognize differences among stimuli has ____ value because it lets us limit our learned responses to appropriate stimuli.

adaptive ...

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally ____. When animals revert to their biologically predisposed patterns, they are exhibiting what is called ____.

adaptive instinctive drift ...

Overconfidence has ____ value because self-confident people tend to live ____ happily, find it ____ to make tough decisions and seem ____ credible.

adaptive more easier more

The more hours children spend watching violent programs, the more at risk they are for ____ and ____ as teens and adults.

aggression crime ...

Punishment also often increases ____ and does not guide the individual toward more desirable behavior.

aggressiveness ...

The importance of cognitive processes in human conditioning is demonstrated by the failure of classical conditioning as a treatment for ____.

alcohol dependency...

Logical, methodical, step-by-step procedures for solving problems are called ____.

algorithms

Most now agree that humans ____ possess language that involves complex grammar.

alone

The loss of memory is called ____. Studies of people who have lost their memory suggest that there ___ a single unified system of memory.

amnesia is not

Two emotion processing clusters, the ____, in the brain's ____ system increase activity in the brain's memory forming areas.

amygdala limbic

conditioned reinforcer

an acquired reinforcer

Brain injuries may produce an impairment in language use called ____. Studies of people with such impairments have shown that ____ is involved in producing speech, ____ is involved in understanding speech, and the ___ is involved in recoding printed words into auditory form.

aphasia Broca's area Wernicke's area angular gyrus

Research studies of children's eyewitness recall reveal that preschoolers ____ more suggestible than older children or adults. For this reason, whether a child produces an accurate eyewitness memory depends heavily on how he or she is ____.

are questioned

Researchers increasingly agree that memories obtained under the influence of hypnosis or using other "memory work" techniques ____ reliable.

are not

More than 200 years ago, philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume argued that an important factor in learning is our tendency to ___ events that occur in sequence. Even simple animals, such as the sea slug Aplysia can learn simple ___ between stimuli. This type of learning is called _____.

associate; associations associative learning.

Skinner believed that language development follows the general principles of learning, including ____, ____, and ____.

association imitation reinforcement

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both forms of ____.

associative learning ...

Bilingual children, who learn to inhibit one language while using their other language are better able to inhibit their ____ to irrelevant information. This has been called the ____.

attention bilingual advantage

Encoding that requires attention and effort is called ____.

automatic processing

When we judge the likelihood of something occurring in terms of how readily it comes to mind, we are using the ____.

availability heuristic

The first stage of language development, in which children spontaneously utter different sounds, is the ____ stage. This stage typically begins at about ____ months of age. THe sounds children make during this stage ____ include only the sounds of the language they hear.

babbling 4 do not

Research has shown that once we form a belief or a concept, it may take more convincing evidence for us to change the concept than it did to create it; this is because of ____.

belief perseverance

Concrete, high imagery words tend to be remembered ___ than abstract, low imagery words.

better

Jenkins and Dallenbach found that if people went to sleep after learning their memory for a list of nonsense syllables was ____ than it was if they stayed awake.

better

Results such as these demonstrate that the principles of learning are constrained by the ___ predispositions of each animal species and that they help each species ____ to its environment. THey also demonstrate the importance of different _____ in understanding complex phenomena.

biological adapt levels of analysis...

It appears that thinking ____ occur without the use of language. Thinking in terms of mental pictures is called ___. Athletes often supplement physical with ____ practice.

can non declarative (procedural) memory mental

Because memory is reconstruction as well as reproduction, we ____ be sure whether a memory is real by how real it feels.

cannot

Correlation does not prove ___. Most researchers believe that watching violence on television ____ lead to aggressive behavior.

causation does ...

Memory may be aided by grouping information into meaningful units called ____. An example of this technique involves forming words from the first letters of to- be-remembered words; the resulting word is called an ___.

chunks acronym

The type of learning in which the organism learns to associate two stimuli is ____ conditioning.

classical...

The early behaviorists believed that to understand behavior in various organisms, any presumption of ____ was unnecessary.

cognition ...

Skinner and other behaviorists resisted the growing belief that expectations, perceptions and other ____ processes have a valid place in the science of psychology.

cognitive ...

Classical and operant conditioning are both subject to the influences of processes and ____ predispositions.

cognitive biological ...

When a well-learned route in a maze is blocked, rats sometimes choose an alternative route, acting as if they were consulting a ____.

cognitive map ...

Scientists who study these mental activities are called ____.

cognitive psychologists

In experiments to determine what an animal can perceive, researchers have found that animals are capable of forming ____ and ___ between stimuli. Similar experiments have been conducted with babies, who also can't verbalize their responses.

concepts discriminating...

Eventually, the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would salivate on hearing the tone. This salivation is called the _____.

conditioned response ...

In Pavlov's classic experiment, a tone, or ____, is sounded just before food, the ____, is placed in the animal's mouth.

conditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus ...

The tendency of people to look for information that supports their preconceptions is called ____.

confirmation basis

A cure for this is to _____.

consider the opposite

Research has shown that recall of an event is often influenced by our experiences and assumptions. The workings of these influences illustrate the process of memory ____.

construction

The procedure involving reinforcement of each and every response is called _____. Under these conditions, learning is ____. When this type of reinforcement is discontinued, extinction is ____.

continuous reinforcement rapid rapid ...

Through classical conditioning, drug users often feel a ____ when they are in the ____ associated with previous highs.

craving context ...

Childhood seems to represent a ____ for mastering certain aspects of language. THose who learn a second language as adults usually speak it with the ____ of their first language. Moreover they typically show ____ mastery of the ____ of the second language.

critical period accent poorer grammar

Skinner's critics argued that he ___ people by neglecting their personal ____ and by seeking to ____ their actions.

dehumanized freedom control...

Short-term memory for random ____ is slightly better than for random ___ and memory for information we hear is somewhat ____ than that for information we see.

digits letters better

A modified form of this model accommadates 2 important new concepts. First, some information is processed ____ and ____ into long-term memory, without our ____ awareness.

directly automatically conscious

A situation, event or signal that a certain response will be reinforced is a ____.

discriminative stimulus ...

Drugs that block the effects of stress hormones ____ memories of emotional events.

disrupt

Deaf infants ____ babble. Many natural babbling sounds are ____ pairs formed by _____.

do consonant-vowel bunching the tongue in the front of the mouth

Animals definitely ____ communicate. For example, honeybees do so by means of a ____.

do dance

In several studies, researchers have found that using the pronoun "he" (instead of "he or she") ___ influence people's thoughts concerning gender.

does

When research participants are given feedback on the accuracy of their judgements such feedback generally ____ help them become more realistic about how much they know.

does

When the US is presented prior to a neutral stimulus, conditioning ____ occur.

does not ...

The persistence of a memory ____ reveal whether it derives from an actual experience. Whereas real memories have more _____, gist memories are more _____.

does not details durable

continuous reinforcement

each and every response is reinforced

Sensory memory for sounds is called ____ memory. This memory fades ___ rapidly than photographic memory, lasting for as long as ___.

echoic less 3 or 4 seconds

The best retrieval cues come from the associations formed at the time we ___ a memory.

encode

The first type of forgetting is caused by ____ failure.

encoding

One reason for age-related memory decline is that the brain areas responsible for ____ new information are ___ responsive in older adults.

encoding less

This type of forgetting occurs because some of the information that we sense never actually ____.

enters the memory system

Condsidering the 2 theories together, we can say that although we are born with a readiness to learn language, ____ is also important, as shown in linguistically stunted children who have been isolated from language during the ____ for its acquisition.

experience critical period

Skinner's views were controversial because he insisted that ___ influences, rather than ____ and ____ shape behavior.

external internal thoughts feelings ...

If a CS is repeatedly presented without the US, ____ soon occurs; that is, the CR diminishes.

extinction ...

Not being able to take a new perspective when attempting to solve a problem is referred to as _____. One example of this obstacle to problem solving is the tendency to repeat solutions that have worked previously; this phenomenon is known as the development of a ____.

fixation mental set

Reinforcement of the first response after a set interval of time defines the ____ schedule. An example of this schedule is _____.

fixed interval checking the mail as delivery time approaches ...

When behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses, a ____ schedule is in effect.

fixed-ratio ...

Memories for surprising significant moments that are especially clear are called ____ memories. Like other memories, these memories ___ err.

flashbulb can

Many people fear ____ more than ___ and ____ more than ____, despite the fact that these fears are not supported by death and injury statistics. This type of faulty thinking occurs because we fear _____.

flying driving terrorism accidents a. what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear b. what we cannot control c. what is immediate d. what is most readily available in memory

Without the ability to ____, we would constantly be overwhelmed by information.

forget

Memory researcher Daniel Schacter has identified the seven sins of memory, divided into 3 categories that identify the ways in which our memory can fail: the 3 sins of ___, the three sins of ___ and the one sin of ____.

forgetting distortion intrusion

The way an issue is posed is called ____. This effect influences political and business decisions, suggesting that our judgements ____ always be well reasoned.

framing may not

Amnesia patients typically have suffered damage to the ____ of their limbic system. This brain structure is important in the processing and storage of ____ memories. Damage on the left side of this structure impairs ____ memory; damage on the right side impairs memory for ____ designs and locations. The rear part of this structure processes ____ memory.

hippocampus explicit verbal visual spatial

Memory construction explains why memories "refreshed" under ____ are often inaccurate.

hypnosis

The violence-viewing effect stems from several factors, including ____ of observed aggression and the tendency of prolonged exposure to violence to ____ viewers.

imitation desensitize ...

One study of Canadian children found their English-speaking children who were ___ in French had higher ___ scores and math scores than control children.

immersed aptitude

The cerebellum is important in the processing of ___ memories. Humans and laboratory animals with a damaged cerebellum are incapable of simple ___ conditioning.

implicit eye-blink

The dual explicit-implicit memory system helps explain ___ amnesia. We do not have explicit memories of our first three years because the ___ is one of the last brain structures to mature.

infantile hippocampus

Memories of events that happened before age ____ are unreliable. This phenomenon is called ____.

infantile amnesia

Both human memory and computer memory can be viewed as ____ systems that perform 3 tasks: ____, ____, and ___. The model called ____ views memory as emerging from interconnected _____.

information-processing encoding storage retrieval connectionism neural networks

When you suddenly realize a problem's solution, ___ has occurred. Research studies show that such moments are preceded by ____ activity involved in focusing attention and accompanied by a burst of activity in the ____.

insight frontal lobe right temporal lobe

Research suggests that memories are also lost as a result of ____, which is especially possible if we simultaneously learn similar, new material.

interference

Excessive rewards may undermine ____, which is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. The motivation to seek external rewards and avoid punishment is called ____.

intrinsic motivation extrinsic motivation ...

Learning by observing and imitating others is called ____ or ____. This form of learning ___ in species other than our own.

modeling observational learning occurs...

Immediate reinforcement ____ more effective than its alternative, ____ reinforcement. This explains in part the difficulty that ____ users have in quitting their habits, as well as the tendency of some teens to engage in risky ____.

is delayed drug unprotected sex...

Operant conditioning ____ constrained by an animal's biological predispositions. For instance, with animals it is difficult to use food as a ____ to ___ behaviors that are not naturally associated with ____.

is reinforcer shape food ...

Eyewitnesses' confidence in their memories ____ related to the accuracy of those memories.

is not

Animals may learn from experience even when reinforcement is not available. When learning is not apparent until reinforcement has been provided, _____ is said to have occurred.

latent learning ...

B.F. Skinner used Thorndike's _____ as a starting point in developing a behavioral technology. THis principle states that ____ behavior is likely to ____.

law of effect rewarded recur...

A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience is called ____.

learning

latent learning

learning that becomes apparent only after reinforcement is provided

Increasing numbers of memory researchers think that motivated forgetting is ___ common than Freud believed.

less

After learning has occurred, a sending neuron needs ____ prompting to fire and the number of ____ it stimulates may increase. This phenomenon, called _____, may be the neural basis for learning and memory. Blocking this process with a specific ____, or by genetic engineering that causes the absence of an ____, interferes with learning. Rats given a drug that enhances ____ will learn a maze _____.

less receptor sites long-term potentiation drug enzyme LTP faster

According to the ____ hypothesis, language shapes our thinking. THe linguist who proposed this hypothesis is ____.

linguistic determinism Benjamin Whorf

Correlational studies _____ watching television violence with violent behavior.

link ...

Learning that persists over time indicates the existence of ____ for that learning.

memory

Researchers believe that the physical basis of memory, or the ___ involves a strengthening of certain neural connections, which occurs at the ____ between neurons.

memory trace synapses

...

mental pictures that aid memory

Neuroscientists have found ____ neurons in the brain's ____ lobe that provide a neural basis for ___ learning. These neurons have been observed to fire when monkeys perform a simple task and when they ____. This type of neuron ____ been found in human brains.

mirror frontal observational observe other monkeys performing the same task has ...

When witnesses to an event receive misleading information about it, they may experience a ___ and misremember the event. A number of experiences have demonstrated that false memories ____ be created when people are induced to imagine nonexistent events; that is, these people later experience _____. People who believe they have recovered memories of alien abduction and child sex abuse tend to have _____.

misinformation effect can imagination inflation vivid imaginations

Memory aids are known as ___ devices.

mnemonic

In boosting productivity in the workplace, positive reinforcement is ___ effective when applied to specific behaviors than when given to reward general merit and when the desired performance is well defined and ___. For such behaviors, immediate reinforcement is ___ effective than delayed reinforcement.

more achievable more ...

Children who are able to delay gratification tend to become ____ socially competent and high achieving as they mature.

more...

Phonemes are grouped into units of meaning called ____.

morphemes

A stimulus that strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus is a ____.

negative reinforcer...

Classical conditioning associates ____ stimuli with stimuli that trigger responses that are ____. Thus, in this form of conditioning, the organism ____ control the responses.

neutral automatic does not ...

The procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a different ____ stimulus, thereby establishing the latter as a ____ stimulus, is called ____. Associations that are not consciously noticed ____ influence attitudes.

neutral conditioned higher-order conditioning can...

Children are most accurate when it is a first interview with a ____ person who asks ___ questions.

neutral nonleading

Some animals also display an amazing ____ ability; for example, Alex the parrot could say how many objects were in a group.

numerical

Another aspect of Pavlov's legacy is that he showed how a process such as learning could be studied _____.

objectively ...

Complex animals often learn behaviors merely by ____ others perform them.

observing...

During the second stage, called the ____ stage, children convey complete thoughts using single words. This stage begins at about ___ years of age.

one-word 1

Skinner also advocated the use of ____ principles to influence people in ways that promote more desirable ____.

operant behavior...

Through operant conditioning, an organism associates its ____ with their ____.

operant behaviors consequences...

In contrast, behavior that is more spontaneous and that is influenced by its consequences is called ___ behavior.

operant...

The tendency of organisms to associate a response and its consequence forms the basis of ____ conditioning.

operant...

The tendency of people to overestimate the accuracy of their knowledge results in ____.

overconfidence

The procedure in which responses are reinforced only part of the time is called ____ reinforcement. Under these conditions, learning is generally ____ than it is continuos reinforcement. Behavior reinforced in this manner is ____ resistant to extinction.

partial (intermittent) slower very ...

Using a jingle, such as the one that begins "one is a bun" is an example of the ___ system.

peg-word

Skeptics believe that some chimpanzee trainers may be overgenerous in interpreting ambiguous animal signing, thanks to their ____, the tendency to see what they want or expect to see.

perceptual set

The basic sound units of language are its ____. English has approximately ____ of these units. The basic units of sign language are defined by ____ and ____.

phonemes 40 hand shapes movements

A stimulus that strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response is a _____.

positive reinforcer...

In some cases, old information facilitates our learning of new information. This is called ____.

positive transfer

Experiments by Rescorla and Wagner demonstrate that a CS must reliably ____ the US for an association to develop and, more generally, that ___ processes play a role in conditioning. It is as if the animal learns to ____ that the US will occur.

predict cognitive expect ...

positive reinforcement

presentation of a desired stimulus

punishment

presentation of an aversive stimulus

Reinforcers, such as food and shock, that are related to basic needs and therefore do not rely on learning are called ____. Reinforcers that must be conditioned and therefore derive their power through association are called ____.

primary reinforcers conditioned (secondary) reinforcers ...

The process by which associations can lead to retrieval is called ____.

priming

The disruptive effect of previous learning on current learning is called ____. The disruptive effect of learning new material on efforts to recall material previously learned is called ____.

proactive interference retroactive interference

Humans are especially capable of using their reasoning powers for coping with new situations and thus for ____.

problem solving

Children will also model positive or ___ behaviors.

prosocial ...

Concepts are typically formed through the development of a best example, or ____ of a category. People more easily detect ____ prejudice against ____ than vice versa.

prototype male females

An aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that preceded it is called ____. If an aversive stimulus is administered, it is called ____. If a desirable stimulus is withdrawn, it is called _____.

punishment positive punishment negative punishment ...

Intuitive reactions allow us to react ____ and in ways that are usually ____.

quickly adaptive

The ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness is called ____.

recall

Bahrick found that 25 years after graduation, people were not able to ____ the names of their classmates but were able to ____ 90 percent of their names and their yearbook pictures.

recall recognize

People briefly recall the last items in a list quickly and well, called the ____ effect. Following a delay, first items are remembered ___ than last items, called the ____ effect.

recency better primacy

With novel information, conscious reptition or ____ boosts memory.

rehearsal

Peterson and Peterson found that when ___ was prevented by asking people to count backward, memory for letters was gone after 12 seconds. Without ____ processing, short term memories have a limited life.

rehearsal active

An event that increases the frequency of a preceding response is a ____.

reinforcer...

shaping

reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a behavior

People who are currently depressed may recall their parents as ____. People who have recovered from depression typically recall their parents about the same as do people who ____.

rejecting, punitive and guilt-promoting have never suffered depression

If you have learned something and then forgotten it, you will probably be able to ___ it ___ quickly than you did originally.

relearn more

negative reinforcement

removal of an aversive stimulus

People judge how well something matches a particular prototype; this is the ____.

representativeness heuristic

Freud proposed that motivated forgetting or ___ may protect a person from painful memories.

repression

The reflexive responses of classical conditioning involve ____ behavior.

respondent ...

Some psychologists once believed that any natural ____ could be conditioned to any neutral ____.

response stimulus...

variable-interval schedule

responses are reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time

When information that is stored in memory temporarily cannot be found, ___ failure has occurred.

retrieval

Bandura believes people imitate a model because of ___ and ____, those received by the model as well as by imitators.

rewards punishments ...

Our tendency to recall the high points of events such as family vacations illustrates the phenomenon of ____.

rosy retrospection

Many people who are bilingual report feeling a different sense of ____, depending on which language they are using.

self

Research has shown that comparing visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding showed that memory was best with ____ encoding. We have especially good recall for information we can meaningfully relate to ourselves, called the ____ effect.

semantic self reference

Encoding the meaning of words is referred to as ____ encoding; encoding by sound is called ____ encoding; encoding picture images of words is ____ encoding.

semantic acoustic visual

Memory for concrete nouns is facilitated when we encode them ___ and ___.

semantically visually

The system by which meaning is derived from morphemes, words and sentences is the ___ of a language.

semantics

Stimuli from the environment are first recorded in ___ memory.

sensory

...

sensory memory that decays more slowly than visual sensory memory

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list best is called the ____.

serial position effect

Kandel and Schwartz have found that when learning occurs in the sea slug Aplysia, the neurotransmitter ____ is released in greater amounts, making synapses more efficient.

serotonin

The procedure in which a person teaches an animal to perform an intricate behavior by building up to it in small steps is called ____. This method involves reinforcing successive ____ of the desired behavior.

shaping approximations...

The use of teaching machines and programmed textbooks was an early application of the operant conditioning procedure of ____ to education. Online ___ systems software that is ____ and ____ based learning are newer examples of this application of operant principles. Reinforcement principles can also be used to enhance ____ abilities by shaping successive approximations of new skills.

shaping testing interactive Web athletic ...

Garcia discovered that rats would associate ____ with taste but not with other stimuli, Garcia found that taste-aversion conditioning ___ occur when the delay between the CS and the US was more than an hour. Conditioning is speedier, stronger, and more durable when the CS is ____ relevant.

sickness would ecologically ...

The Gardners attempted to communicate with the chimpanzee Washoe by teaching her ____.

sign language

Humans and other animals can also be trained not to respond to ___ stimuli. This learned ability is called ____.

similar discrimination ...

Models are most effective when they are perceived as ____, or ____. Models are also more effective when their words and actions are _____.

similar successful admirable consistent ...

Because punished behavior is merely ____, it may reappear. Also punishment teaches ____ that behavior is unacceptable in one context may be be acceptable in another.

suppressed discrimination ...

Michael Domjan's sexual conditioning studies with quail demonstrate that classical conditioning is highly adaptive because it helps animals ____ and ____.

survive reproduce ...

The system of rules we use to combine words into grammatically sensible sentences is called ____.

syntax

The hippocampus seems to function as a zone where the brain ____ stores the elements of a memory. However, memories ____ migrate for storage elsewhere. The hippocampus is active during ___ sleep, as memories are processed for later retrieval. Recalling past experiences activates various parts of the ___ and ___ lobes.

temporarily do slow-wave frontal temporal

generalization

tendency for similar stimuli to evoke a CR

...

the blocking of painful memories

intrinsic motivation

the motivation to perform a behavior for its own sake

...

the process by which information gets into the memory system

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a weakened CR

Studies have shown that retention is best when learning and testing are done in ____ contexts.

the same

Cognition, or ____ can be defined as ___.

thinking the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Forrest dwelling chimpanzees learn to use different sticks as ____. These behaviors, along with behaviors related to grooming and courtship, ____ from one group of chimpanzees to another, suggesting the transmission of ____ customs.

tools vary cultural

When we try each possible solution to a problem, we are using ____.

trial and error

During the ____ stage, children speak in sentences containing mostly nouns and verbs. This type of speech is called ___ speech. It ____ follow the rules of syntax.

two-word telegraphic does

An animal will salivate when food is placed in its mouth. This salivation is called the ___.

unconditioned response ...

Although the mind's subsystems are localized in particular brain regions, the brain acts as a ____.

unified whole

In contrast to short term memory--and contrary to popular belief--the capacity of permanent memory is essentially ____.

unlimited (limitless)

When the first response after varying amounts of time is reinforced, a ____ schedule is in effect.

variable interval ...

3 year old Yusef knows that if he cries when he wants a treat, his mother will sometimes give in. When as in this case reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses a ____ schedule is being used.

variable-ratio ...

It is human nature to seek evidence that ____ our ideas more eagerly than to seek evidence that might ____ them.

verifies refute

Compared with the real world, television depicts a much higher percentage of crimes as being ___ in nature.

violent ...

Norman Geschwind has explained how we use language. When we read aloud, the words register in the brain's _____ are relayed to the ___, which transforms them into an auditory code that is received and understood in ____ and sent to ____ which controls the ____ as it creates the pronounced word.

visual area angular gyrus Wernicke's area Broca's area motor cortex

Children in developed countries spend more time ____ than they spend in school.

watching television ...

After LTP has occured, an electric current passed through the brain ____ disrupt old memories and ____ wipe out recent experiences.

will not will

Second, the phenomenon of short-term memory has been clarified by the concept of ____ memory, which focuses more on the ___ processing of briefly stored information. THis form of memory processes incoming ____ as well as information retrieved from ____ memory.

working active stimuli long-term