Psych Test #3

Why Does it Matter?

Referring to dilemmas as problems can lead to: - Trying to seek clear and "correct" answers for dilemmas But there are usually no"correct" answers - Dilemmas generally involve more complex and unsatisfying trade offs and compromise than problems

Parapsychology

The study of extrasensory perception (ESP or sixth sense of some type) and psychokinesis.

Gray Areas in the Field of Psychology

The study of the paranormal, known as paraschology is one example of this.

Strive for balanced view

Try to listen to the neglected side but also realize that the majority is not always correct.

Problems vs. Dilemmas

When making judgements, many times we confuse dilemmas with problems. But they are very different from one another.

Two concepts associated with Loss Aversion

- Endowment effect - Sunk cost fallacy

The Significance of Hypotheses

- Investigation can only occur after a hypothesis has been formulated. - Data collection in the absence of a hypothesis has little or no scientific value. - Hypotheses are needed for scientific observation because they tell us what to look for (distinguish relevant from irrelevant information). - Hypothesis are designed to account for data (to help you lead your research or experiment in the right direction).

Benefits of Asking Questions 1

- Prevents hasty conclusions (allows you to not jump to conclusions) - Allows for the evaluation of of each part of the argument individually (rather than settling for an overall evaluation) - You can break down the different elements of the argument-may be some parts of the argument will be weaker or stronger than others, which breaks us to the next point) - Helps us to identify both the strengths and weaknesses of the argument - Provides a structure around which to arrange your thoughts

Principles of Science

- Science seeks to understand the world by identifying general principles that are both explanatory and predictive. - Scientists are interested in knowing how something works - But before scientific navigation can take place, the world is understood to be publicly understandable: - Science must be able to withstand public scrutiny (and this is only possible if knowledge is available to the public-we should be able to make our own judgements about the results of different scientific investigations)

Hypothesis need to be:

- Testable - Fruitful - Of broad scope - Simple - Conservative

However ESP's

- Undermine the theory of knowledge underlying modern science. -Experience (anecdotal evidence) is the only source of knowledge to the external world. - It is difficult to prove these as they are mostly based on anecdotal evidence-which is evidence based on what people say and their narratives.

Every Decision is a Trade-Off

-Every decision you take, the outcome will always have both "pluses" and "minuses" - Whatever choice you make leaves all the other choices behind - If you listen to music, you give up silence at the moment - If you go to sleep, you give up being awake - It is wise to make an assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of all of your alternatives before arriving at a judgment.

Criteria of Adequacy

-Hypotheses bring harmony to facts that may have seemed disjointed and unrelated. -Criteria of adequacy: How well a hypothesis systemizes and unfies our knowledge an increases our understanding.

Three or 4 main Types of ESP (psi phenomena)

-Telepathy -Precognition -Clairvoyance -Psychokinesis

Testability

A hypothesis is only scientific if it is testable. - Cannot determine if it is true or false if it can't be tested - Ex: Il will be difficult to test a hypothesis that looks at whether or not there are such things as ghosts. It needs to be more concrete.

A hypothesis.... a) does NOT have to be tested to be correct b) can be completely proven c) may be disproved by a single experiment

A. does not have to be correct. It is okay if a hypothesis is proven wrong.

Include all appropriate qualifications 2

American men over 40 who never attended college tend to be opposed to the idea of women's liberation advocated by the National; Organization for Women "American men (not all men) over 40 who never attended college (not members of all age groups and educational levels) tend to be opposed to the idea of women's liberation advocated by the National Organization for Women (no the idea of women's liberation in general but only the idea that is advocated by the organization)

Include all appropriate qualifications 1

Be careful with the qualifications you include to express your thoughts precisely which will make your judgement more defensible

Making judgments seems easy

But we can make many mistakes in our judgements. But there are ways to prevent it.

The problem is not having a hypothesis that was proven wrong

But with maintaining a hypothesis once it has been proven wrong.

Make your predicate exact

Changing the predicate can completely change the meaning of your sentence - Ex: Peace has been, can be, must be, should be, could be, will be achieved

Judegement

Conclusions arrived at through examination of evidence and careful reasoning. - Products of thinking-weighed and evaluated - However, that does not guarantee their worth or wisdom - Can reflect misconceptions about truth, knowledge, and opinion

Decision Making

Evaluating all the alternatives (options you have) and then making an informed choice.

Between familiarity and correctness

Familiar ideas are not necessarily the correct ones - When making judgements, we need to disregard the familiarity or unfamiliarity of the idea, so we can be open to insights from both sides of the issue - As we discussed in class, familiarity breeds corrects in our minds. Just because you are familiar with something doesn't mean it's correct.

Expressing Judgement

How we express our judgements can alter their meanings. To effectively express judgments, we need to.

Best Hypothesis

Is one that explains the phenomenon and meets the criteria of adequacy better than its competitors.

Ghost example

It is best that we do not have hypothesis that are too far-fetched, especially when we don't know what types of beliefs people hold about the topic. Well established beliefs are hard to contradict...this brings us back to the topic background information we discussed in the Knowledge lecture.

Benefits of Asking Questions 2

It is very important to ask questions and detailed questions before arriving at a conclusion/judgement.

Deal with probability

Jugement "suggests" rather than judgement "proves" - Always speak in moderation ("suggests" leaves room for more information/facts but "proves"doesn't)

The "Mug Study"

Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thale, 1990 - Two groups of participants given the same exact mug. One group was given the mug to keep and the other asked how much they would be willing to pay for it. The group that kept or "owned" the mug ascribed higher value for the mug than the group that was asked how much they would be willing to pay for it. Even though the mug was exactly the same in both situations and a very ordinary mug, the group was given the mug to "own'' ascribed greater value to it.

Between the person and the idea 2

Learn to separate the idea from the person that is expressing the idea. Just because you don't think this person would know something about the topic doesn't mean they actually don't because they are a particular gender, race, or nationality.

Make your subject appropriately specific

Make the subject as specific as possible - Ex: Today's college students vs. Today's U.S. college students vs. Today's college students at Cal State Fullerton

The Scientific Method

Observe (begin by observing the phenomenon) Create hypotheses-possible explanations for what we have - Seek and investigate information about possible explanations - Test hypotheses - Draw conclusions (analyze the results you have acquired through your investigation)

A Warning about Hypothesis

One can never completely confirm or deny a hypothesis - We might come across more information/evidence for or against it. Maintaining a hypothesis in the face of contradicting evidence can be unreasonable. - You should modify your hypothesis and eventually change the direction of your research.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

People are reluctant to give up on a venture because of past investment. -Ex: Changing your major (we already invested so much time, effort, resources into this major, might as well go through with finishing a degree in this major)

Endowment Effect

People ascribe greater value to things they already own compared to objects owned by someone else. - Ex: Mug Study

Telepathy

Perception of another's thoughts without the use of senses - Example: being able to read someone's mind

Clairvoyance

Perception of distant objects/situations without the use of the senses. Also referred to as "knowledge at a distance." - Ex: Your twin hurt her right leg while in another city, and you suddenly feel pain in your right leg.

Precognition

Perception of future events (i.e visions) with the use of the senses. Ex: Having a dream where you see a train wreck and then you wake up to the news of a train derailment.

ESP

Perception that is not mediated by an organism's recognized sensory organs.

Between matters of preference and matters of judgement

Preferences concern taste; judgment concerns interpretations of fact and theory - Better to question judgement rather than preference -Example: discussing whether or not you like Sushi (preference) is different from having discussions about gun rights (judgement)

Problems

Situations involving a questions that calls for a correct answer - Examples: Math (algebraic equations) or an engineering mistake -Problems need to be solved

Dilemmas

Situations that require choices between competing or conflicting values that cannot be simultaneously or fully resolved. - Examples: telling the truth or hurting someone's feelings; choosing between family and career - Dilemas need to be negotiated or navigated, not solved

Between what is said and how it is said

Style and substance are quite different How someone says something shouldn't impact on how sound or unsound their argument is. It is very important to keep an eye on how something is said. Some people are very eloquent and graceful speakers but it doesn't necessarily mean that whatever they are saying is true and factual. You have to be careful to differentiate between the two.

Psychokinesis

The ability to affect physical objects without the use of the body, by simply thinking about them. -Ex: Being able to move a chair or make things float without physical contact

Conservatism

The best hypothesis is the one that is most conservative. - The one that fits best with established beliefs - Remember if beliefs are well-established, it may be difficult to introduce a new hypothesis. - The hypothesis may have to be conflict with some of our previous beliefs, but eh fewer conflicts, the better.

Simplicity

The best hypothesis is the simplest one. - Should assume no more than is required to explain the phenomena in question. - The simpler it is, the fewer ways for it to go wrong. - It is not wise to unnecessarily complicate the study.

Scope

The best hypothesis is the the one that has the greatest scope. - Explains and predicts the most diverse phenomena. -The broader the scope of the hypothesis, the better it is. -However we want to make sure we do not get too carried away with it. We have to remember to keep the hypothesis simple.

Between the individual and the group

The individual's views might differ from the group or class to which they belong - What or how an individual feels or acts should not be carelessly attributed to the group or vice versa. - Just because someone belongs to a group doesn't mean they will do everything the same as that group. Every individual is capable of making their own decisions, even if it differs from the opinions and decisions of the group they belong to.

Fruitfulness

The most fruitful hypothesis is the one that makes the most successful new predictions - It is important to have a hypothesis which will actually give us some new information that we have not already been exposed to.

Between the person and the idea 1

The tendency to confuse person with idea - Tendency to look favorably on ideas of people we admire and unfavorably on the ideas of those we dislike - Disregard the ideas of people who we feel don't have ideas on certain subjects Example: males on womens' issues - Remember: A person's gender, color, nationality, or religion is not a proper basis for accepting or rejecting ideas

Loss Aversion

The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to an attempt to acquire gains. -Ex: It's better to not lose $5 than randomly find a 10 dollar bill on the ground.

Making Important Distinctions

To avoid making faulty evaluations, it is very important to know how to be careful in making certain distinctions in judgments:

Guarding Against Errors in Judgement

To prevent errors in judgment, you should: - Know yourself and your biases to begin with - Be observant (remember to look at the obvious and not so obvious aspects of an issue) -Clarify issues and conduct inquiry (asking questions can really clarify an issue) -Carefully evaluate evidence you have obtained - Ask yourself: What does evidence mean? Is it relevant to the issue on hand? Is it significant?

Avoid Exaggeration

When uncertain, go for a modest interpretation ( the less extreme conclusion)

We use scientific methods everyday?

when observing, asking questions, investigating, and concluding.