[PSYCH] Unit 14 - Social Psychology

In a sentence, list several of the characteristics that physically attractive people are judged to possess:

Attractive people are perceived as happier, more sensitive, more successful, and more socially skilled

Give an example of altruism

Giving food and shelter to people displaced by an earthquake, hurricane, or other major disaster without expectation of reward

Charles Osgood has advanced a strategy of reconciliation called GRIT, which stands for ______. They key to this method is each side's offering of a small ______ gesture in order to increase mutual trust and cooperation

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction; conciliatory

Identify several cultural differences in personal space, expressiveness, and pace of life

Most North Americans, the British, and Scandinavians prefer more personal space than do Latin Americans, Arabs, and the French. Cultural differences in expressiveness and the pace of life often create misunderstandings. For example, people with northern European roots may perceive people from Mediterranean cultures as warm and charming but inefficient, while Mediterraneans may see the northern Europeans as efficient but emotionally cold

List the conditions under which obedience was highest in Milgram's studies

Obedience was highest when the person giving the orders was close at hand and perceived to be a legitimate authority figure, the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution, the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, and when there were no role models for defiance

Give an example of the practical consequences of attributions

Our attributions - to individuals' dispositions or situations - have important practical consequences. A hurtful remark from an acquaintance, for example, is more likely to be forgiven if it is attributed to a temporary situation than to a mean disposition

Identify the circumstances in which a person is most likely to offer help during an emergency

People are most likely to help someone when they have just observed someone else being helpful; when they are not in a hurry; when the victim appears to need and deserve help; when they are in some way similar to the victim; when in a small town or rural area; when feeling guilt; when not preoccupied; and when in a good mood

Comment on the impression of women that pornography frequently conveys and the effects this impression has on attitudes and behavior

Pornography tends to portray women as enjoying being the victims of sexual aggression, and this perception increases the acceptance of coercion in sexual relationships. Repeatedly watching X-rated films also makes one's partner seem less attractive, makes a woman's friendliness seem more sexual, and makes sexual aggression seem less serious

They psychologist who first studied the effects of group pressure on conformity is ______

Solomon Asch

Summarize the findings of the Zilmann and Bryant study on the effects of pornography on attitudes toward rape

The study by Dolf Zillman and Jennings Bryant found that after viewing sexually explicit films for several weeks, undergraduates were more likely to recommend a lighter prison sentence for a convicted rapist than those who viewed nonerotic films

One genetic marker of those who commit the most violence is the ______ chromosome. Studies of violent criminals reveal diminished activity in the brain's ______, which play an important role in controlling ______

Y; frontal loves; impulses

Researchers have found that the reactions of people in crowded situations are often ______ (lessened/amplified)

amplified; e.g. watching a movie alone you barely react, but when you watch in a movie theater you laugh a lot

Aggressive behavior is defined by psychologists as ______. Thus, psychologists ______ (do/do not) consider assertive salespeople to be aggressive

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy; do not

Our first impression of another person is most influenced by the person's ______

appearance

According to the two-factor theory, emotions have two components: physical ______ and a ______ label

arousal; cognitive

Prejudice is a negative ______, and ______ is a negative ______

attitude; discrimination; behavior

Feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose our responses are called ______

attitudes

Compared with strangers, friends and couples are more likely to be similar in terms of ____________

attitudes, beliefs, interests, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, economic status, age

Heider's theory of how we explain others' behavior is the ______ theory. According to this theory, we attribute behavior either to an internal cause, which is called a ______, or an external cause, which is called a ______

attribution; dispositional attribution; situational attribution

Like all attitudes, prejudice is a mixture of ______, ______, and predispositions to ______

beliefs; emotions; action

Many factors contribute to aggression, including ______ factors, such as an increase in testosterone; ______ factors, such as frustration; and ______ factors, such as deindividualation

biological; psychological; social-cultural

Like other behaviors, aggression emerges from the interaction of ______ and ______

biology; experience

Discrimination increases prejudice through the tendency of people to ______ victims for their plight

blame

That there are genetic influences on aggression can be shown by the fact that many species of animals have been ______ for aggressiveness

bred

Research suggests that prejudice may also derive from ______, the process by which we attempt to simplify our world by classifying people into groups. One by-product of this process is that people tend to ______ the similarity of those within a group. One manifestation of this is the ______, the tendency to recall faces of ones own race more accurately than those of other races.

categorization; overestimate; other-race effect

When people focus on an issue and respond favorable to an argument, ______ has occurred. Persuasion may also occur through the ______ (slower/faster) ______ as people respond to incidental cues such as a speaker's appearance

central route persuasion; faster; peripheral route

Taking on a set of behaviors, or acting in a certain way, generally ______ (changes/does not change) people's attitudes

changes

According to ______ theory, thoughts and feelings change because people are motivated to justify actions that would otherwise seem hypocritical. This theory was proposed by Leon Festinger

cognitive dissonance

The classic social psychology studies of obedience were conducted by Stanley Milgram. When ordered by the experimenter to electrically shock the "learner," the majority of participants (the "teachers") in these studies ______ (complied/refused)

complied

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas is called ______. This perception can take place between individuals, ______, or ______

conflict; groups; nations

The term that refers to the tendency to adjust one's behavior to coincide with an assumed group standard is ______

conformity

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions of a group of people and transmitted form one generation to the next defines the group's ______

culture

Research studies also reveal that the terror of facing ______ tends to heighten patriotism and produce loathing and aggression toward people who threaten one's ______

death; world

With age, testosterone levels - and aggressiveness - ______ (increase/decrease). Although testosterone heightens aggressiveness, aggression ______ (increases/decreases) testosterone level

decrease; increases

The feeling of anonymity and loss of self-restraint that an individual may develop when in a group is called ______

deindividuation

Violence on television tends to ______ people to cruelty and ______ them to respond aggressively when they are provoked

desensitize; prime

Once established, aggressive behavior patterns are ______ (difficult/not difficult) to change. However, ______ programs have been successful in bringing down re-arrest rates of juvenile offenders and gang members

difficult; aggression-replacement

Research studies of the impact of violent video games ______ (confirm/disconfirm) the idea that we feel better if we "blow off steam" by venting our emotions. This idea is the ______. Expressing anger breeds ______ (more/less) anger

disconfirm; catharsis hypothesis; more

Dissonance theory predicts that people induced (without coercion) to behave contrary to their attitudes will be motivated to reduce the resulting ______ by changing their ______

dissonance; attitudes

Twin studies suggest that genes ______ (do/do not) influence human aggression

do

Today, most psychologists ______ (do/do not) consider human aggression to be instinctive

do not

(Close-Up) Today's biopsychosocial approach has stimulated neuroscience studies that have detected implicit prejudice in people's ______-muscle responses and in the activation of their brain's ______

facial; amygdala

The speed at which culture changes is much ______ (faster/slower) than the pace of evolutionary changes in the human ______

faster; gene pool

In getting people to administer increasingly larger shocks, Milgram was in effect applying the ______ technique

foot-in-the-door

According to the ______ principle, inability to achieve a goal leads to anger, which may generate aggression

frustration-aggression

The enhancement of each group's prevailing tendency over time is called ______. Electronic discussions on the ______ provide a medium for this tendency

group polarization; Internet

When the desire for group harmony overrides realistic thinking in individuals, the phenomenon known as ______ has occurred

groupthink; e.g. failure to anticipate Pearl Harbor, Watergate coverup

(text and Close-Up) Blatant forms of prejudice ______ (have/have not) diminished. However, even people who deny holding prejudiced attitudes may carry negative ______ about race

have; associations

Sociologists have found that suicides sometimes increase following a ______ suicide

highly publicized

Kids who play a lot of violent video games see the world as more ______, get into more ______ and ______, and get worse ______

hostile; arguments; fights; grades

(Close-Up) Studies of prejudice indicate that it is often unconscious, or ______. Several studies have shown that the more a person's features are perceived as typical of their ______, the more likely they are to elicit ______ responding

implicit; racial category; race-based

Over time, the initial differences between groups usually ______ (increase/decrease)

increase

When people are repeatedly exposed to unfamiliar stimuli, their liking of the stimuli ______ (increases/decreases). This phenomenon is the ______ effect

increases; mere exposure

Ingham found that people worked ______ (harder/less hard) in a team tug-of-war than they had in an individual contest. This phenomenon has been called ______

less hard; social loafing

In a series of staged accidents, Latane and Darley found that a bystander was ______ (more/less) likely to help if other bystanders were present. This phenomenon has been called that ______

less; bystander effect

When conflicts arise, a third-party ______ may facilitate communication and promote understanding

mediator

The chameleon effect refers to our natural tendency to unconsciously ______ others' expressions, postures, and voice tones. This helps us to feel what they are feeling, referred to as ______

mimic; mood linkage

The power of one or two individuals to sway the opinion of the majority is called ______ (e.g. Rosa Parks)

minority influence

The distorted images people in conflict form of each other are called ______ perceptions. These perceptions may become ______ that confirm themselves by influencing others to react in ways that seem to justify them

mirror-image; self-fulfilling prophecies

In humans and animals, aggression is facilitated by ______ systems, which are in turn influenced by ______, alcohol, and other substances in the blood

neural; hormones

One reason that people comply with social pressures is to gain approval or to avoid rejection; this is called ______

normative social influence

All cultural groups evolve their own rules for expected behavior, called ______

norms

According to John Darley and Bibb Latane, people will help only if a three-stage decision-making process is completed: Bystanders must first ______ the incident, then ______ it as an emergency, and finally ______ for helping

notice; interpret; assume responsibility

People who feel loved and supported become more ______ to and ______ of those who differ from them

open; accepting

Also, those who have been socially rejected, or ______, are more likely to respond aggressively to insults

ostracized

Aggressive behavior can be learned through ______, as shown by the fact that people use aggression where they're found it pays, and through ______ of others

rewards; observation (or imitation)

Crime rates are higher in countries in which there is a large disparity between those who are ______ and those who are ______. High violence rates also are typical of cultures and families in which there is minimal ______

rich; poor; father care

When you follow the social prescriptions for how you should act as, say, a college student, you are adopting a ______

role

That prejudice derives from attempts to blame others for one's frustration is proposed by the ______ theory

scapegoat; e.g. negative stereotypes to Arab-Americans after 9/11

Experiments have shown that, among other factors, depictions by the media of ______ most directly affect men's acceptance and performance of aggression against women. Such depictions may create ______ to which people respond when they are in new situations or are uncertain how to act

sexual violence; social scripts

More recent studies have found that women's compliance rates in similar situations were ______ (higher than/lower than/similar to) men's

similar to

In considering the power of social influence, we cannot overlook the interaction of ______ (the power of the situation) and ______ (the power of the individual)

social control; personal control

The idea that social behavior aims to maximize rewards and minimize costs is proposed by ______ theory

social exchange

The tendency to perform a task better when other people are present is called ______

social facilitation

Through our ______, we associate ourselves with certain groups

social identities

Psychologists who study how we think about, influence, and relate to one another are called ______

social psychologists

Situations is which conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behavior by pursuing their own self-interests are called ______

social traps

Another rule tells us to help those who need our help; this is the ______ norm

social-responsibility

The Asch and Milgram studies demonstrate that strong ______ influences can make ______ people ______ to falsehoods and ______ orders to commit cruel acts

social; ordinary; conform; obey

The "rape myth" is the mistaken idea that ____________. Most rapists ______ (accept/do not accept) this myth

some women invite or enjoy rape; accept

Copycat violence is a serious example of the effects of ______ on behavior

suggestibility

In Muzafer Sherif's study, two conflicting groups of campers were able to resolve their conflicts by working together on projects in which they shared ______ goals

superordinate

The aggressive behavior of animals can be manipulated by altering the levels of the hormone ______. When this level is ______ (increased/decreased), aggressive tendencies are reduced

testosterone; decreased

Most people tend to ______ (overestimate/underestimate) the extent to which people's actions are influenced by social situations because their ______ is focused on the person. This tendency is called the ______

underestimate; attention; fundamental attribution error

Prejudice is an ______ (and usually ______) attitude toward a group that involves overgeneralized beliefs known as ______

unjustifiable; negative; stereotypes

A majority opinion will have the most success in swaying the majority if it takes a stance that is ______ (unswerving/flexible)

unswerving

In humans, aggressiveness ______ (varies/does not vary) greatly from culture to culture, era to era, and person to person

varies

When explaining our own behavior, or that of someone we know well, this tendency is ______ (stronger/weaker). When observers view the world from others' perspectives, attributions are ______ (the same/reversed)

weaker; reversed

In this study, when the opinion of other group members was contradicted by objective evidence, research participants ______ (were/were not) willing to conform to the group opinion

were

When college men were placed in an aroused state, their feelings toward an attractive woman ______ (were/were not) more positive than those of men who had not been aroused

were

Worldwide, ______ (women/men) are more likely to live in poverty. People tend to perceive women as being more ______ and ______ and less ______ than men

women; nurturant; sensitive; aggressive

Cross-cultural research reveals that men judge women as more attractive is they have a ______ appearance, whereas women judge men who appear ______, ______, and ______ as more attractive

youthful; mature; dominant; affluent

Explain what a reward theory of attraction is and how it can account for the three predictors of liking - proximity, attractiveness, and similarity

A reward theory of attraction says that we are attracted to, and continue relationships with, those people whose behavior provides us with more benefits than costs. Proximity makes it easy to enjoy the benefits of friendship at little cost, attractiveness is pleasing, and similarity is reinforcing to us

Many research studies demonstrate that our attitudes are strongly influenced by our ______. One example of this is the tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger one. This is the ______ phenomenon

actions (or behavior); foot-in-the-door

For our ancestors for whom the unfamiliar was often dangerous, this effect was ______. One implication of this is that ______ against those who are culturally different may be a primitive, ______ emotional response

adaptive; prejudice; automatic

One drug that unleashes aggressive responses to provocation is ______

alcohol

An unselfish regard for the welfare of others is called ______

altruism

In general, people become aroused in the presence of others, and arousal enhances the correct response on a(n) ______ (easy/difficult) task. Later research revealed that arousal strengthens the response that is most ______ in a given situation

easy; likely

Companionate love is promoted by ______ - mutual sharing and giving by both partners. Another key ingredient of loving relationships is the revealing of intimate aspects of ourselves through ______

equity; self-disclosure

Another reason people comply is that they have genuinely been influenced by what they have learned from others; this type of influence is called ______

informational social influence

Prejudice is also fostered by the ______, a tendency to favor groups to which one belongs - called the ______ - while excluding others, or the ______

ingroup bias; ingroup; outgroup

One landmark of human culture is the preservation of ______, which is derived from our mastery of ______, so that we can pass it on to future generations. Culture also enables an efficient division of ______

innovation; language; labor

High levels of testosterone correlate with ______, low tolerance for ______, ______, and ______. Among teenage boys and adult men, high testosterone also correlates with ______, hard ______, and aggressive-bullying responses to ______

irritability; frustration; assertiveness; impulsiveness; delinquency; drug use; frustration

A person's attractiveness ______ (is/is not) strongly related to his or her self-esteem or happiness

is not

In most situations, establishing contact between two conflicting groups ______ (is/is not) sufficient to resolve conflict

is not

The belief that people get what they deserve - that the good are rewarded and bad punished - is expressed in the ______ phenomenon. This phenomenon is based in part on ______, the tendency to believe that one would have foreseen how something turned out

just-world; hindsight bias

For those with money, power, and prestige, prejudice often serves as a means of ______ social inequalities

justifying

People also seem to prefer physical features that are neither unusually ______ nor ______. Average faces, which tend to be ______, are judged to be more sexually attractive

large; small; symmetrical

Americans today express ______ (less/the same/more) racial and gender prejudice than they did 50 years ago

less

When people who overheard a seizure victim calling for help thought others were hearing the same plea, they were ______ (more/less) likely to go to his aid than when they thought no one else was aware of the emergency

less

Another factor that fosters the formation of group stereotypes and prejudice is the tendency to ______ from vivid or memorable cases

overgeneralize

Elaine Hatfield has distinguished two types of love: ______ love and ______ love

passionate; companionate

One such rule involves the buffer zone that people maintain around their bodies, called ______

personal space

Other aversive stimuli can provoke hostility, including ____________

physical pain; personal insults; foul odors; hot temperatures; cigarette smoke

Shared ______ breed solidarity, as demonstrated by a surge in the use of the word ______ in the weeks after 9/11

predicaments; "we"

A prerequisite for, and perhaps the most powerful predictor of, attraction is ______

proximity

One rule of social behavior tells us to return help to those who have helped us; this is the ______ norm

reciprocity