psych

social referencing

"reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation. The development of social referencing helps infants interpret ambiguous situations more accurately when they encounter a stranger

health habits in emerging adulthood

-A longitudinal study revealed that most bad health habits that were engaged in during adolescents increased in emerging adulthood. inactivity, diet, obesity, substance use, reproductive health care, and health care access worsened in emerging adulthood -diet and exercise programs most effective for weight loss- lifestyle change -30 minutes or more of aerobic exercise daily is recommended.

work in emerging adulthood

-Damon suggested that purpose is the missing ingredient in many adolescents and emerging adults' achievement and career development. Too many youth drift aimlessly through their high school and college years, engaging in behavior that places them at risk for not fulfilling their potential and not finding a life pursuit that energize them. -work defines people in fundamental ways. It is an important influence on financial standing, housing, the way they spend time, where they live, friendships, and their health -for those who identified themselves as primary students, a national study found that as the number of hours worked per week increased, their grades suffered.

Temperament sensitive parenting tips

-attention to and respect for individuality -structuring the child's environment -avoid applying negative labels to the child

major changes in attention during early childhood

-attention- 1) executive attention "involves planning actions, attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors. monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing w/ difficult situation 2) sustained attention is more "focused and extended engagement w/ an object task, event, or other aspect of the environment" -short-term speed of processing greatly improves as well

sex in emerging adulthood

-by the end of emerging adulthood most people have had sex -Americans tend to fall into three categories- sex twice or more a week, a few times a month, or a few times a year/ never

parent conflict during adolescence

-conflict with parents often escalates during early adolescence, remains somewhat stable during high school and then declines as the adolescent reaches 17-20. (serious conflict is not typical necessarily, may be a warning sign that something is going on) -everyday negotiations and minor disputes not only are normal but also can serve the positive developmental function of helping the adolescent make the transition from childhood dependency to adult independence.

communicating with a dying person in late adulthood

-establish your presence- same eye level/ touch -get rid of surrounding distractions -shorter, more frequent visits -don't push the dying person to accept or deny their death -allow their own emotions -discuss unfinished outcomes -help them contact whoever they request -encourage reminiscing -talk to them at their time choice -express you emotions for them

Help improve MLC's memory

-guide children to elaborate about the information they are to remember -encourage children to engage in mental imagery -motivate children to remember material by understanding it rather than memorizing it -repeat and vary instructional information and link it to other information early and often -embed memory

benefits of play

-helps the child master anxieties and conflicts -pent-up tensions are released through play -better at cope with life problems -may feel less threatened and be more likely to express their true feelings in the context of play -important context for cognitive development

identity statuses

-identity diffusion is the status of individuals who have not yet experienced s crisis or made any commitments. Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices they are also likely to show little interest in such mattes -identity foreclosure is the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents usually in an authoritarian way, before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies and vocations on their own -identity moratorium- is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined -identity achievement- is the status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment

key features of emerging adulthood

-identity exploration especially in love and work -instability- residential changes peak during emerging adulthood -self-focused- emerging adults "are self focused in the sense that they have little in the way of social obligations and duties and commitments to others, leaving them with the autonomy to run their own lives -feeling in-between - many emerging adults don't consider themselves adolescents or full-fledged adults -the age of possibilities, a time when individuals have the opportunity to transform their lives- -peak physical performance also begin decline by the end

middle and late childhood

-lasts from approximately 6 years of age to 10 or 11 year of age. -involves slow, consistent growth, the calm before rapid growth of adolescence. -motor skills become much smoother and more coordinated. -increased myelination of the central nervous system -fine motor coordination develops to the point at which children can write rather than print words. -especially from 8-11 years of age, children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits rather than the more concrete self-descriptions of younger children. references to social groups in self descriptions

BIG FIVE OMG: Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

-openness- imaginative or practical, interested in variety or routine, independent or conforming -conscientiousness- organized or disorganized, careful or carless, disciplined or impulsive -extraversion- sociable or retiring, fun-loving or somber, affectionate or reserved -agreeableness- softhearted or ruthless, trusting or suspicious, helpful or uncooperative -neuroticism- emotional stability- calm or anxious, secure or insecure, self- satisfied or self-pitying -research indicates greater developmental changes in the five personality factors in adulthood. For example a recent study found that emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness were lower in early adulthood, peaked between 40 and 60 years of age, and decreased in late adulthood, while conscientiousness showed a continuous increase from early adulthood to late adulthood. -Caspi and Roberts concluded that the evidence does not support the view that personality traits become completely fixed at a certain age in adulthood. However, they argue that change is typically limited, and in some cases the changes in personality are small - OCE and lower levels of N are linked with reduced mortality risk

child maltreatment

-physical abuse- infliction of physical injury -child neglect-failure to provide for childs basic needs -sexual abuse-fondling of genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibition or commercial exploitation. -emotional abuse-acts or omissions by parents that cause serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems -there is no single factor that causes child maltreatment. combo of culture, characteristics of family, developmental characteristics of the child, likely contribute to child maltreatment -about 1/3 of parents who were abused themselves of on to abuse their children. -leads to poor emotional regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer relationships, difficulty adjusting to school, other psychological problems such as depression and delinquency

major changes in late adulthood

-physical appearance- wrinkles and age spots, shorter, weight usually drops -sensory development- vision declines- visual field becomes smaller. cataracts- thickening of the lens of eye (cloudy). Glaucoma- damage to optic nerve bc of fluid causing pressure on it. Macular degeneration- deterioration of macula of the retina- messes up focal point and spreads out. hearing loss. smell and taste- greater decline in smell than taste. touch and pain- less sensitive to pain, may be less tolerant of pain though. -circulatory system and lungs- cardiovascular disorders increase in late adulthood. lungs lose elasticity, the chest shrinks, and diaphragm weakens -sleep- sleep time and efficiency decline in older adults. -sexuality- aging induces changes in sexual performance. mostly in males. sexuality is lifelong.

Major Peer Statuses

-popular children- frequently nominated as a best friend and rarely disliked -average children- receive an average number of positive and negative nominations -neglected children- infrequently nominated as a bff but not disliked by peers -rejected children- infrequently bff, often disliked by peers -controversial children- frequently disliked and frequently made a bff

hormones during adolescence

-the concentrations of certain hormones increase dramatically during adolescence. testosterone is a hormone associate in boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height, and a change in voice. Estradiol is a type of estrogen; in girls it is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development. -behavior and moods can also affect hormones. stress, eating patterns, exercise, sexual activity, tension, and depression can activate or suppress various aspects of the hormonal system. HORMONES ARE NOT ENTIRELY TO BLAME FOR ADOLESCENTS MOOD SWINGS

how to increase creativity

-try to be surprised by something everyday -try to surprise at least one person everyday -write down what surprised you and how you surprised others -when something sparks your interest, follow it -wake up in the morning with a specific goal to look forward to -spend time in settings that stimulate your creativity

strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students

-turn the class into a jigsaw classroom- students from different cultural backgrounds are placed in a cooperative group in which they have to reach a common goal -encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse ethnic cultural group -be a competent cultural mediator -view the school and community as a team

major changes in middle adulthood

-visible changes- wrinkles, loss of fat and collagen in underlying tissues, pigmentation, age spots, thinner and grayer hair. -height and weight- individuals lose height in Middle adulthood and many gain weight -strength and joints and bones- sacropenia- age-related loss of muscle mass and strength, the cartilage, tendons and ligaments become less effective and many individuals experience joint stiffness, progressive bone loss starting in mid to late 30s -vision and hearing- accommodation of the eye- ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina declines shapely between 40-59 years of age. Middle adults particularly struggle seeing close up. Hearing- sensitivity to high pitch usually declines first -cardiovascular system- cardiovascular disease increases considerably in middle age. Level of cholesterol in the blood increases through the adult years and in midlife begins to accumulate on the artery walls -lungs- there is little change in lung capacity through most of muffle adulthood. however around 55 the portends in lung tissue become less elastic. affected by smoking and exercise habits -sleep- total number of hours slept usually remains the same in early adulthood, but beginning in the 40s, wakeful periods are more frequent. sleep- disordered breathing and restless legs syndrome become more prevalent in middle age -health and disease- indeed, many individuals live through middle adulthood without having disease or persistent health problems. for others, disease and persistent health problems become more common. stress is a large factor.

reasons for avoiding corporal punishment

-when adults punish a child by yelling, screaming or spanking, they are presenting them with an out of control model for handling stressful situations. Children may mimic this behavior. -punishment can instill fear, rage or avoidance. -punishment tells children what not to do, but not what to do. -parents might unintentionally become so angry that they are abusive. -physical punishment is associated with higher levels of aggression later in childhood and adolescence.

dimensions fo grief

-yearning for lost person -separation anxiety from lost person -despair and sadness -desolation -intense and prolonged effects; harder coping, nightmares, flashbacks, sleep problems, etc. -devastating- loss of a child or spouse, in order to grieve loss you must think about trauma (PTSD) and there isn't really a getting over the death of a child or spouse -profound grief, financial trouble, increased physical illness.

caring for a child after a trauma

1) reassure them that they are safe and secure 2) allow child to retell events and be patient in listening to them 3)encourage child to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings, reassure them that they these feelings are normal 4)protect the child from reexposure 5) help children make sense of what happened, keeping in mind that children may misunderstand what took place

Major Functions of Friendship

1. Companionship 2. Stimulation 3.Physical support 4. ego support 5. social comparison 6. affection and intimacy -Developmental advantages occur when children have friends who are socially skilled and supportive. However it is not developmentally advantageous to have coercive and conflict-ridden friendships -no friendships correlated w/ loneliness, emotional distress, prosocial behaviors and grades

Developmental Changes in Middle and Late Childhood

1. Improved emotional understanding- develop an increased ability to understand such complex emotions such as pride and shame 2. Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced at a time. achievement can involve both anxiety and joy 3. increased tendency to be aware of the events leading up to emotional reactions. understands that sadness is influenced by her friend moving away 4. Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions- 5th grader with the ugly sweater 5. The use of self-initaited strategies for redirecting feelings- they become more effective at cognitively managing their emotions such as soothing themselves after an upset 6. A capacity for genuine empathy- a 4th grader feels sympathy for a distressed person and experiences vicariously the sadness the distressed person is feeling

Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind

1. Verbal- the ability to think in words and use language to express meaning 2. Mathematical- the ability to carry out mathematical operations 3. Spatial- the ability to think 3 dimensionally 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic- the ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept 5. Musical- A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone 6. Interpersonal- the ability to understand and interact effectively with others 7. Intrapersonal- the ability to understand one's self 8. Naturalist- the ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human made systems

top causes of death in middle adulthood

1. cancer 2. diseases of the heart 3. accidents (unintentionally injury)

top causes of death in early childhood

1. unintentional injuries/ accidents (ages 1-4) 2. congenital anomalies 3. homicide (ages 5-9) 2. malignant neoplasms/ cancer 3. congenital anomalies - internationally= preventable diseases

Kohlberg Stages

3 levels of moral thinking - 2 stages for each 1) pre conventional reasoning- children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards or punishments stage 1- heteronomous morality- moral thinking is tied to punishment stage 2- individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange- children reason that pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same . what is right is what is equal 2. conventional reasoning- individuals apply certain standards but they are the standards of others stage 3- mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity- individuals value trust caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgements. "good girl" stage 4- social systems morality- moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty 3. Postconventional reasoning- the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options and then decides on personal moral code. stage 5- social contract or utility and individual rights- individuals reason that values, rights, and principles transcend the law stage 6- universal ethical principles- the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. -occur later than Kohlberg thought and stage 6 is rare

romantic relationships in adolescence

3 stages characterize the development of romantic relationships in adolescence 1)Entering into romantic attractions and affiliations at about age 11-13 2)exploring romantic relationships from about 14-16 3)consolidating dyadic romantic bonds age 17-19

Symptoms of Depression

5 or more symptoms for 2 week period 1. Depressed mood- most of day, everyday- full 2 weeks, individual says it or someone else notices (can be irritability as well) 2. diminished interest or pleasure from activities they used to enjoy- anhadonia 3. major change in weight or appetite 4. insomnia or hypersomnia 5. restlessness or being slowed down 6. Fatigue, loss of energy 7.Feeling worthless or excessive or inappropriate guilt 8. inability to concentrate, indecisiveness 9. thoughts of death (suicidal) - can be suicidal without being depressed- hopelessness

Parent monitoring of adolescents

A current interest involving parental monitoring focuses on adolescents' management of their parents' access to information, especially strategies for disclosing or concealing information about their activities. When parents engage in positive parenting practices, adolescents are more likely to disclose information. -trust is super important for monitoring to be effective -Adolescents' ability to attain autonomy and gain control over their behavior is facilitated by appropriate adult reactions to their desire for control.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ADHD

A disability in which children consistently show 1 or more of the following characteristics 1)inattention 2)hyperactivity 3)impulsivity -symptoms must be present in two or more settings -causes clinical impairment- if impulses cannot be inhibited -not due to another disorder or potential reason -many things can look like ADHD

imaginary audience

A key component of adolescent egocentrism- involves adolescents' belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are; attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "on stage" -think everyone is looking at them even when they clearly aren't

direct instruction approach

A structured, teacher-centered approach that is characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on learning tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum.

free-radical theory

A theory of aging proposing that people are because normal cell metabolism produces unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals. These molecules ricochet around inside cells, damaging DNA and other cellular structures

Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

A written statement that spells out a program tailored for a student (child) with a disability

Erikson's second stage

AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT- independence- once they've gone through trust and mistrust, they know they are an individual and they start to figure out if it's ok to be separate from caregiver.

Identity vs. Identity confusion

Adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Also called pervasive development disorders, they range from the severe disorder labeled autistic disorder to the milder disorder called asperger syndrome. The disorders are characterized by problems in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. -autism and asperger syndrome are not valid diagnostic categories they exist on a spectrum and are the same thing just different levels of severity -the current consensus is that autism is a brain dysfunction characterized by abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters. Recent interest has focused on a lack of connectivity between brain regions.

adolescent's cognitive development

Deanna Kuhn discussed some important characteristics of adolescents' information processing and thinking. In her view, in the later years of childhood and continuing in adolescence, individuals approach cognitive levels that may or not be achieved, in contrast with the largely universal cognitive levels that young children attain. By adolescence, considerable variation in cognitive functioning is present across individuals.

self-concept

Domain-specific evaluations of the self

emotional understanding in early childhood

During early childhood emotions such as guilt and pride become more common. Increased understanding of emotions. They have an improved understanding that certain situations evoke particular emotions, facial expressions indicate emotions, and that emotions and behavior can influence others.

Autonomous morality (piaget's theory)

Following a period of transition from ages 7-10 in which children should features of both heteronomous and autonomous morality children show autonomous morality. (10 and older) They become aware that rules and laws are created by people. In judging an action they consider an actors intentions as well as the consequences.

heteronomous morality (piaget's theory)

From ages 4-7 children display heteronomous morality- the first stage in moral development. children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties beyond the control of people.

Depression in adolescence

Genes are linked to adolescent depression. certain family factors place adolescents at risk for developing depression, including have a depressed parent, emotionally unavailable parents, high marital conflict, financial problems. Poor peer relationships are also associated with adolescence depression. Not having close friend, contact with friends who are depressed, experiencing rejection

attachment in adolescence

In the past decade, researchers have found that securely attached adolescents are less likely than those who are insecurely attached to have emotional difficulties and to engage in problem behaviors such as drug abuse and juvenile delinquency.

Cultural-Familial disabilities

Intellectual disability in which there is no evidence of organic brain damage, but the individual's IQ generally is between 50 & 70- linked with appropriate stimulation

NCLB (no child left behind)

Many states have identified objectives for students in their state and created tests to measure whether students were meeting those objectives. critics argue that the NCLB legislation is doing more harm than good. 1 criticism stresses that using a single test as the sole indicator of students' progress and competence presents a very narrow view of students' skills.

initiative vs. guilt

Psychosocial stage of early childhood according to Erikson. Children have become convinced that they are persons of their own; during early childhood, they begin to discover what type of person they will become. They identify

Erikson on infants (first stage)

TURST VS MISTRUST- Erikson proposed that infants learn trust when they are cared for in a consistently nurturant manner. If the infant is not well fed and kept warm on a consistent basis, a sense of mistrust is likely to develop. basically learn to trust caregivers or that caregivers are not worthy of trust. balance of trust and mistrust is good

puberty

a brain- neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that occur in this period of development. kickstarted by increasing hormones, short period of time- major physical changes. puberty does not equal adolescence. The basic genetic program for puberty is wired into the species, but nutrition, health, family stress, and other environmental factors also affect puberty's timing and makeup.

osteoporosis

a chronic condition that involves an extensive loss of bone tissue and is the main reason many older adults walk with a marked stoop. women are particularly vulnerable to this.

Parkinson disease

a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis -unknown cause

nursing home

a classic study found that an important factor related to health, and fever survival in a nursing home is a patient's feelings of control and self-determination. Residents who had been given extra responsibility were healthier, happier, and more alert and active than residents who did not.

attachment

a close emotional bond between two people. In Harry Harlow's studies concluded that feeding/ nourishment is not what promotes closeness between caregiver and child, but rather time spent together and association with comfort and security.

executive functioning

a concept that encompasses many higher-level cognitive processes linked to development of the prefrontal cortex. includes: thoughts, engaged in goal-directed behavior and self control.

Intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional test of intelligence, and has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life. Intellectual disabilities are caused by "organic intellectual disabilities or cultural-familial intellectual disabilities.

dementia

a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning.

constructivist approach

a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher

brain death

a person is brain dead when all electrical activity of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time- different from official death. NIH recommends 30 minutes and lots of tests to be declared brain dead. -higher proportions of the brain often die sooner than lower portions -death of both the higher cortical functions and lower brain stem functions. some argue that death criteria should only include higher cortical functioning because thats where functions associated with human beings- like personality are located

Alzheimer disease

a progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical function -women are more likely to develop it because they live longer than men -age and genes are important factors (ApoE4 allele is a strong risk factor)

identity

a self-portrait composed of many pieces including these: -the career and work path the person want to follow (vocational/ career identity) -whether the person is conservative, liberal, or middle-of-the-road (political identity) -the person's spiritual beliefs (religious identity) -whether the person is single, married, divorced, and so on (relationship identity) -the extent to which is person is motivated to achieve and is intellectually oriented (achievement, intellectual identity) -whether the person is homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual -which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person identifies with his or her cultural heritage -the kinds of things a person like to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies, and so on -The individual's personality characteristics such as being introverted or extraverted, anxious or calm, friendly or hostile, and os on -the individuals body image

internal working model

a simple mental model of the caregiver and their relationship to him or her, and the self as deserving of nurturant care. The infant's internal working model of attachment with caregiver influences the infant's, and later the child's subsequent response to other people. (this is an internalized representation of attachment, sense of self worth.

empty nest syndrome

a term used to indicate a decrease in marital satisfaction after children leave home - for most parents however, marital satisfaction after children leave does not decline

conservation

ability to understand that even when an object or subject's appearance changes that the property doesn't have to

Surgency

activity level, what activities they find pleasurable. High on surgency like high intensity pleasure (big slide)

operations

adding and subtracting with or without physical objects

psychosocial moratorium

aids in the search for identity, Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy.

explicit memory, episodic memory, working memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning tasks

all decline during late adulthood -explicit memory-memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state -episodic memory-the retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings -working memory- linked to short term memory but places more emphasis on memory as a place for mental work -perceptual speed- the amount of time it takes to perform simple perceptual- motor tasks such as how long it takes someone to step on the brakes when the car directly ahead stops -executive functioning tasks- an umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex. -a recent study revealed that age-related slowing in processing speed was linked to a breakdown in myelin in the brain -explanation of the decline in working memory of older adults focuses on their less efficient inhibition in preventing irrelevant information from entering working memory and their increased distractibility. -working an occupation with a high level of mental demands was linked to higher levels of mental demands led to slower rate of cognitive decline after retirement. (continually challenged) -use it or lose it- read books, doing crosswords, going to lectures and concerts -an increasing number of research studies indicate that older adults cognitive skills can be restored to a degree -training can improve cognitive skills of many older adults -however there is a loss of plasticity

perry program results

all positive results unlike the headstart program which had mixed results. 1) more prepared for kindergarten 2)expanded vocabulary and speech 3)reduced likelihood of SE programs

sexual activity in middle adulthood

although the ability of men and women to function sexually shows little biological decline in middle adulthood, sexual activity usually occurs less frequently than in early adulthood. career interests, family matters, diminishing energy levels, and routine may contribute to this decline

juvenile delinquent

an adolescent who breaks the law or engages in behavior that is considered illegal - proposed causes for delinquency include heredity, identity problems, community influences, family experiences, adolescents with a negative identity may find support for their delinquent image among peers, reinforcing the negative identity. -for erikson, delinquency is an attempt to establish an identity, even if its a negative one

contemporary life-events approach

an approach emphasizing that how a life event influences the individual's development depends not only on the life event but also on mediating factors, individual's adaptation to the life event, the life-stage context and the sociohistorical context. -emphasizes that there are many different factors

whole language approach

an approach to reading instruction based on the idea that instruction should parallel children't natural language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge and purge pattern

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation

ethnic identity

an enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership - although children are aware of some ethnic and cultural differences, individuals consciously confront their ethnicity for the first time in adolescence or emerging adulthood. Unlike children, adolescents and emerging adults have the ability to interpret ethnic and cultural information, to reflect on the past, and to speculate about the future

crystalized intelligence

an individual's accumulated information and verbal skills, continues to increase in middle adulthood

temperament

an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding emotionally. Temperament is composed of Effortful control, negative emotionality, and surgency. Temperament can be changed for better or worse due to environment.

sexual orientation

an individual's sexual orientation- same sex, heterosexual, or bisexual- is most likely determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors

strange situation

an observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult strangers in a prescribed order. (used to determine attachment style)

rape

any sexual penetration with out consent -date rape- same exact definition but they knew each other (80%) -effective consent- an affirmative agreement between two people obtained through clear actions or words that they agree to engage in sexual activity when both are able to understand their actions and acting freely or voluntarily

industry vs. inferiority

appears during middle and late childhood. The term industry expresses a dominant theme of this period: Children become interested in how things are made and how they work.. conversely, parents who see they children's efforts at making things as "mischief" or "making a mess" will tend to foster a sense of inferiority in their children.

attachment in adulthood

attachment appears during infancy and plays an important part in socioemotional development. Although romantic relationships differ from those with parents, partners fulfill some of the same needs for adults as parents to children. Young adults who were securely attached to their romantic relationship were more likely to describe their early relationship with their parents as securely attached. -secure attachment style- positive views of relationships, easy to get close to others. trusting, not overly possessive. partner is secure base like parent in infancy. positive outcomes include- less stress, higher levels of physical wellbeing, better relationships -avoidant attachment style- hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships, distance from partner -anxious attachment style- demand closeness, less trusting, more emotional, jealous, possessive. toxic relationships are most common in this style

attachment in middle and late childhood

attachment becomes more sophisticated. As children's social worlds expand to include peers, teachers, and others, they typically spend less time with with parents. They have found that secure attachment during this period is associated with a lower level of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression in children. Also secure attachment was linked to a higher level of children's emotion regulation and less difficulty in identifying emotions.

theory of mind

awareness of one's own mental processes and those of others. Ages 2-3 begin to understand perception, emotion, and desire and from 4 to 5 they begin to understand limited (correct/incorrect) and from 5 on deep appreciation of the minds capabilities.

insecure resistant babies

babies that often cling to the caregiver, then resist her by fighting against the closeness, by kicked or pushing away. sometimes accurate and sometimes not

insecure avoidant babies

babies that show insecurity by avoiding their mothers (caregivers) Knows not to depend on them

insecure disorganized babies

babies that show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented. physical abuse

securely attached babies

babies that use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore their environment. secure attachment in the first year provides an important foundation for psychological development later in life. The securely attached infant moves freely away from the caregiver but keeps track of where she is through periodic glances.

early childhood

between 3 and 5 years of age

bilingual children

bilingualism has a positive effect on children's cognitive development. Children who are fluent in two languages perform better than their single-language counterparts on tests of control of attention, concept formation, analytical reasoning, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive complexity. - recent research indicates that bilingual children have a smaller vocabulary each language than monolingual children

gender stereotypes

broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males. During elementary school years, children have considerable knowledge about which activities are linked with being male or female.

parental employment

can have positive and negative effects on parenting. what matters for children's development is the nature of work not whether they both work or not.

palliative care

care that involves reducing pain and suffering and helping them to die with dignity -hospice emphasizes making the end of life as free form pain, anxiety, and depression as possible

parents of securely attached babies

caregivers are sensitive to their signals and are consistently available to respond to the infant's needs. These caregivers often let their babies take an active part in determining the onset and pacing of interactions in the first year of life.

work during middle adulthood

central during middle adult years, middle adults may reach their peak in position and earnings. saddled with financial burdens. a recent study found that difficulty managing different job demands was associated with poor health in middle adults. -adults in mid-life need to begin preparing psychologically for retirement. developing constructive and fulfilling leisure activities is an important part of that preparation.

increased capacity for self-regulation

characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement -children are much better able to control themselves-because of developments/advances in prefrontal cortex -less behavior problems- less deviance -learned that acting out is bad, so they are better able to control impulses -improved performance in school -better friendships-more socially competent

bullies

children are more likely to be bullies 1. child is angry 2. hold belief that violence is useful/ a good thing 3. hanging out with deviant peers 4. seeing adults around them using violence 5. school climates (teachers look the other way)

preoperational stage

children begin to represent the world with their words and creative drawing. you would know a child is in the pre operational stage based on the characteristics which are ages 2-7, dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs are prominent

step-parents/ families

children often have better relationships with their custodial parents than with stepparents. Also, children in simple families often show better adjustment than complex families. As in divorced families, children in step families shows more adjustment problems than children in never-divorced families. However, it is important to recognize that a majority of children in stepfamilies don't have problems.

children's social cognitive theory of gender

children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of what others say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender- inappropriate behavior.

long-term memory in early childhood

children's long-term memory is fairly accurate for the most part. -influences on children's long-term memory accuracy information given after an event -individual different in susceptibility -distortion of events in a childs report of important events

metacognition

cognition about cognition, knowing about knowing -extremely helpful in academics and studying -can help them think through better way to solve problems -by 5 or 6 children usually already understand that familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar ones. -become aware of mental capacity -understand differences between knowing something and being familiar with it -talk about other peoples memory

cohort effects

cohort is individuals sharing experiences because you are the same age at the same time -things might be due to this rather than chronological age

single adults

common challenges include forming intimate relationships with other adults, confronting loneliness, and finding a niche in a society that is marriage oriented. Advantages include having time to make decisions about one's life course, freedom, opportunities

Sternberg's Triarchic theory of intelligence

consists of analytical intelligence , creative intelligence, and practical intelligence

Adolescent pregnancy

creates risks for both the mother and the bay. Adolescent mothers are more likely to drop out of school or to be depressed than their peers. Although many adolescent mothers resume their education later in life, they generally never catch up economically with women who postpone childbearing until their 20s. Infants born to adolescent mothers are more likely to have low birth weights- a prominent factor in infant mortality- as well as neurological problems and childhood illness.

semantic memory, divided attention, selective attention

decline only slightly and remain the same for easier tasks -semantic memory- A person;s knowledge about the world- including a person's field of expertise, general academic knowledge of the sort learned in school, and everyday knowledge -divided attention- attention on two different things simultaneously remains stable for easy tasks, but becomes more difficult as task becomes harder -selective attention- focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant

Kubler-Ross 5 stages of dying

denial and isolation, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. potential feelings and outcomes not really stages -denial can be beneficial by allowing them to avoid destructive impact of shock

learning disability

describes a child who has difficulty understanding or using spoken or written language or doing mathematics. to be classified as a learning disability, the problem is not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; or due to environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantages.

Peek program

designed to promote executive functioning in kids, primarily done through scaffolding and play: -play plans vs. free play -buddy reading -scaffolded behavioral inhibition games -scaffolded counting and writing activities

inclusion

educating a child who requires special education full-time in the regular classroom

coping with unemployment

emotional support from understanding, adaptable family members helps individuals to cope with unemployment. Job counseling and self-help groups can provide practical advice on job searching, resume writing and interview skills, and can also lend emotional support.

authoritative parenting style

encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions (BEST)

Euthanasia

ending someones life with an incurable disease or severe disability without pain -passive euthanasia is when a person is allowed to withhold treatment to die and active euthanasia is when death is deliberately induced

exercise in adolescence

exercise is linked to a number of positive physical outcomes in adolescence. Regular exercise had a positive effect on adolescents weight status. Other positive outcomes of exercise in adolescence are reduced triglyceride levels, lower blood pressure, and a lower incidence of type 2 diabetes.

remarried adults

experience more stress in rearing children

formal operational stage

formal operational thought is more abstract than concrete operational thought. Adolescents are no longer limited to actual, concrete experiences as anchors for thought. They can conjure up make-believe situations, abstract prepositions, and events that are purely hypothetical, and can to reason logically about them. -more abstract, more idealistic, more logical

friendship in middle adulthood

friendships continue to be important in middle adulthood just as they were in early adulthood. It takes time to develop intimate friendships, so friendships that have endured over the adult years are often deeper than those that have just been formed in middle adulthood. -susan yow vs. ester

generativity vs. stagnation

generativity encompasses adults' desires to leave legacies of themselves to the next generation. By contrast, stagnation develops when individuals sense that they have done little or nothing for the next generation. -supported by research

animism

giving inanimate objects lifelike qualities

motor development in early childhood

gross motor skills become more innate and effortless in early childhood and fine motor skills become more intentional and detailed.

low self-esteem

has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency.

birth order

has limited ability to predict behavior.

Popular Children

have a number of social skills that contribute to their bell well liked. They give out reinforcements listen carefully, maintain open lines of communication with peers, are happy, control their negative emotions, act like themselves, show enthusiasm, concern for others, and are self-confident without being conceited.

gifted

having above-average intelligence and/or superior talent for something

Effortful control

high on effortful control can focus attention and can behave a certain way even if they don't want to. The ability to inhibit the dominant response. How easy it is to pay attention and control behavior.

divorced adults

higher rates of depression, anxiety, physical illness, suicide, motor vehicle accidents, alcoholism, and mortality

indulgent parenting

highly involved in child's life but place few demands or controls. Makes learning respect harder.

Negative Emotionality

how frequently a toddler experiences these emotions, how long they stay upset, how long it takes them to calm down

parenting roles

in general, mothers on average still spend more time in caregiving infants and children than fathers do. Mothers especially are more likely to engage in managerial role with their children, coordinating their activities, making sure their health-care needs are met, and so on. Paternal interactions are more likely to include play, especially rough and tumble play.

growth mindset

in which they believed their qualities can change and improve through their effort. -mastery-oriented attributions and learning goals -so what does praise have to do it- praise effort not the attribute

brain changes in early childhood

include better able to pay attention, action planning, more developed language skills, pruning, and rapid frontal lobe growth

career mystique

includes ingrained cultural beliefs that engaging in hark work for long hours through adulthood will produce a path to status, security, and happiness

relational aggression

includes such behaviors as trying to make others dislike a certain individual by spreading malicious rumors about the person

sexually transmitted infections

infections contracted primarily through sexual contact, including oral-genital and anal-genital contact -every year more than 3 million American adolescents acquire an STI

arthritis

inflammation of the joints that is accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems, especially common in older adults

Organic intellectual disabilities (OID)

intellectual disability that involves some physical damage and is caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage

Flinn Effect

intelligence improving everywhere over time, because of education and availability of knowledge

adolescent's sexual identity

involvees activities, interests, styles of behavior, and an indication of sexual orientation... It is commonly believed that most gay and lesbian individuals quietly struggle with same-sex attractions in childhood, do not engage in heterosexual dating, and gradually recognize that they are gay or lesbian in middle to late adolescence. Many youth do follow this developmental pathway, but others do not.

life review

involves looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating them, integrating them and often reintegrating them.. set in motion by looking forward to death -reminiscing therapy- involves discussing past activities and experiences with another individual, may include use of photographs, familiar items, and video/ audio recordings

a good death

involves physical comfort, support from loved ones, acceptance, appropriate medical care, not feeling like a burden to others

Integrity vs. Despair

involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent -more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives

Adolescence

is a traditional period in the human life span, entered at approx. 10-12 years of age and exited at about 18-22 years of age. Most adolescents negotiate the lengthy path to adult maturity successfully, but too large a group does not. Ethnic, cultural, gender, socioeconomic, age, and lifestyle differences influence the actual life trajectory of each adolescent.

prefrontal cortex

is almost completely developed by early adolescence. -regulates emotions (isn't fully developed)

semantics

is the growing understanding for the meaning of words and sentences; vocab development substantial

phonology

is the sounds used within a language and how they are capable of being combined. allows for their own sound production

syntax

is the way words are combined to make sentences. shows a growing mastery of complex rules for the ordering of words

MAMA

key changes in identity are more likely to take place in emerging adulthood the period from about 18-25 in emerging adulthood. Resolution of the identity issue during adolescence and emerging adulthood does not mean that identity will be stable through the remainder of life. Many individuals who develop positive identities follow what are called "MAMA" cycles; that is their identity status changes from moratorium to achievement to moratorium to achievement.

Concrete operational stage

lasts from age 7-11. In this stage, children can perform concete operations, and they can reason logically as long as logic can be applied to concrete examples. -increased logical abilities, ability to conserve, ability to seriate.

cellular clock theory

leonard Hayflick's theory that the maximum number of times human cells can divide is about 75 to 80. as we age, our cells become increasingly less capable of dividing -cell isn't bad, it's perfectly fine just maxed out

married adults

live longer, less physically and emotionally stressed where a marriage will work: -establishing love maps- understanding each other -nurturing fondness and admiration -turning toward each other instead of away -letting your partner influence you -creating shared meaning -positive spin on relationship when talking to others -power is shared and compromised -talk about future

cohabiting adults

living together, not married, disapproval by parents, difficulty owning property jointly, lower marital satisfaction

triachic theory of love

love can be thought of as a triangle with 3 main dimensions, passion, intimacy, and commitment. -a relationship with all three is consummate love (ginger and david <3) kristen and sandy -love thats only intimacy and passion is romantic love -love that is only intimacy and commitment is companionate love -only passion and commitment is fatuous love (stalkers) -affectionate, or companionate love increases during middle adulthood. That is, physical attraction, romance, and passion are more important in a new relationship. One study revealed that marital satisfaction increased in middle age. Most individuals in midlife who are married voice considerable satisfaction being married.

sex in adolescence

many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence. A recent study confirmed that early engagement in sexual intercourse is associated with high-risk sexual factors (forced sex, using drugs/ alcohol at last sex, not using a condom, having multiple partners in last month, and becoming pregnant or causing a pregnancy, as well experiencing dating violence. -In the united states, 82% of pregnancies to mothers 15 to 19 years of age are unintended -34% didn't think it was possible to get pregnant.

stressors in middle adults

middle adults experience more overload stressors that involve juggling too many things at once -personal control on average peaks in midlife and then declines. -greater sense of control over their finances, work, and marriage, less control over sex life and chidden -women tend to follow tend-and-befriend pattern- seeking social alliances -men tend to fight-or-flight- become aggressive, socially withdrawn, or drink alcohol -sandwich, squeezed, overload- because responsibilities for parents and children - pivoting between the two responsibilities

emotion-coaching parents

monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions are teaching opportunities, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them on how to deal effectively with emotions.

moral behavior

moral behavior is more important than moral reasoning. The process of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior.

children of divorced families

more likely to have academic problems, to exhibit externalized problems and experience internalized problems, to be less socially responsible, to have less competent intimate relationships, to drop out of school, to become sexually active at a young age, to take drugs, to associate with antisocial peers, to have low self esteem, to be less securely attached as young adults. -among the factors that influence an individual child's vulnerability to suffering negative consequences as a result of divorce are the child's adjustment prior to the divorce, their personality and temperament, gender, and custody situation.

advantages of late childbearing

more time to consider and achieve goals, more mature, better parenting

ageism

older adults are discriminated against because they're often perceived as incapable of thinking clearly, learning new things, contributing to the community or holding responsible jobs. this leads to individuals not getting the service they are eligible for, getting pushed out of or not getting jobs, being excluding from family events because of assumptions that they can't do things. -emotional toll caused by prejudice -double jepardy- ethnic minority adults face ageism and racism, older women- ageism and sexism -women of ethnic minority- racism, ageism, sexism

adjustment to retirement

older adults who adjust best to retirement are healthy, have adequate income, are active, are educated, have an extended social network including both friends and family, and usually were satisfied with their lives before retirement

divorce in middle adulthood

on one hand, for mature individuals, the perils of divorce can be fewer and less intense than for younger individuals. On the other hand, the emotional and time commitment to marriage that has existed for so many years may not be lightly given up. Many midlife individuals view a divorce as failing in the best years of their lives. In sum, divorce in midlife may have positive outcomes for some and negative for others. Divorce: -main causes for women- verbal, physical or emotional abuse, alcohol and drug abuse, cheating -main causes for men- no obvious problems just fell out of love, cheating, different values/ lifestyles

body image in adolescence

one psychological aspect of physical change in puberty is certain: Adolescents are preoccupied with their bodies and develop images of what their bodies are like, in general girls are less happy with their bodies and have more negative body images than boys throughout puberty. Body image becomes more positive by the end of adolescent. Adolescents who mature earlier or later than their peers perceive themselves differently.

fluid intelligence

one's ability to reason abstractly, begins to decline during middle adulthood. -also a decline in working memory which leads to a slower pace of learning (use of strategies to improve)

advantages of early childbearing

parents have more physical energy, mom has fewer medical problems, not as high/ built up expectations

markers of adulthood

permanent full-time job, responsibility for oneself, in developing countries- marriage

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about ways to solve problems.

tanner stages

primarily used in medical community to what stage in pubertal development development an individual is in stage 1- prepubertal---> stage 5- adult secondary sexual characteristics

intelligence

problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to the experiences of everyday life

scaffolding

providing assistance to a child to help them master a skill at that level and changing support level which is temporary. Vygotsky's theory emphasizes opportunities being given to children to develop and learn. Piaget's theory emphasizes support is necessary for children's exploration and learning to take to place and development.

metalinguistic awareness

refers to knowledge about language, such as knowledge what a preposition is or being able to discuss the sounds of language. Metalinguistic awareness allows children to think about their language, understand what words are, and even define them. It improves considerably during elementary school years.

mild cognitive impairment

represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early Alzheimer disease and other dementias.

religion in middle adulthood

researchers are increasingly finding positive links between religion and physical health. -studies suggest that individuals who have found a sense of meaning in their life are more physically healthy and happy, and experience less depression than their counterparts who reported that they have not discovered meaning in life.

school readiness

researchers have found that executive functioning is a better predictor of school readiness than general IQ -don't interrupt as much -increasing cognitive control child is who you want to take to the art gallery -working memory- think about past experiences, memorizing phone number, increased use of strategies make it easier to remember.

Authoritarian parenting style

restrictive, punitive style. firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange.

socioemotional development in adulthood

revolves around adaptively integrating our emotional experiences into enjoyable relationship with other on a daily basis.

consequences of bad eating habits in early childhood

short term consequences- risk for lifetime obesity, difficulty in social interactions, risk for two types of diabetes long term consequences- heart diseases, lifespan diseases

gay and lesbian adults

simliar to hetero couples

brain changes in late adulthood

some brain areas shrink more than others with aging. The prefrontal cortex is one area that shrinks, and recent research has linked this shrinkage with a decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities in older adults. Primarily visual cortex, primary motor, and somatosensory cortex are less vulnerable to aging. A general slowing of function in the brain and spinal cord affects physical coordination and intellectual performance. Aging also has been linked to a decline in the production of some neurotransmitters -the brain was remarkable repair capability, neurogenesis- the generation of new brain cells does occur in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb

The Common Core Standards

specify what students should know and the skills they should develop at each level in various content areas... some critics argue that they are simply a further effort by the federal government to control education and that they emphasize "one size fits all" approach and pay little attention to individual variation in students. -set of standards of what a child should achieve in each grade in all areas

fuzzy trace theory

states that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: 1) verbatim memory trace 2) gist In this theory, older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information

selective optimization with compensation theory

states that successful aging is linked with 3 main factors: selection, optimization, and compensation -select what is important, optimize those categories and compensate for loss

sustained attention, implicit memory, and wisdom

stay the same during late adulthood -sustained attention- ability to focus attention on a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. -implicit memory-memory without conscious recollection; involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed -wisdom- expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgement about important matter

benefits of exercise in MLC

studies have shown that exercise results in weight loss, metabolic profile improvement, lowering both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, "benefits children's attention, memory, effortful and goal-directed thinking and behavior and creativity."

parents of avoid ant babies

tend to be unavailable or rejecting. they often don't respond to their babies signals and have little physical contact with them

crisis (in relation to identity)

term for period of identity development during which the adolescent is exploring alternatives.

commitment (in relation to identity)

term for the part of identity development in which adolescents show a personal investment in forming an identity.

transivity

the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

creative thinking

the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems. should foster this because need it in real world

pragmatics

the appropriate use of language in different contexts

self-efficacy

the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes -if the individual believes that they can effect change

top-dog phenomenon

the circumstance of moving from the top position in elementary school to the lowest position in middle or junior high school.

menopause

the complete cessation of a woman's menstruation, which usually occurs in the late 40s early 50s. -menopause overall is not a negative experience for most women that it was once thought to be. Most women do not have severe physical or psychological problems related to menopause.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

the concept that a child w/ a disability should be educated in a setting as similar as possible to the one in which children who don't have a disability are educated.

seriation

the concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length)

immanent justice

the expectation that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately.

centration

the focusing of attention on 1 characteristic to the exclusion of all others

self-esteem

the global evaluative dimension of the self. self-esteem is also referred to as self-worth or self-image

Adolescent egocentrism

the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents. Adolescent egocentrism has two key components- the imaginary audience and personal fable

phonics approach

the idea that reading instructions should teach the basic rules for translating written symbols and sounds

punishment

the infliction or imposition of penalty as retribution for an offense

goodness of fit

the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope. (shy child being forced to hug a relative they don't know- not good fit)

life expectancy

the number of years that will probably be lived by the average person born in a particular year -differences in life across countries are due to factors such as health conditions and medical care throughout life span. Gender can also influence -lifestyle -current life expectancy in united states 78.8

personal fable

the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility (invulnerability) -think their experience is so unique that no one could possibly understand

discipline

the practice of training people to obey rules, using punishment to correct disobedience.

cumulative personality model

the principle that with time and age, people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways that promote stability -extrovert- seeks out social environments, meet more people get invited to more social events- maintain extrovert personality

Androgyny

the same individual having the positive characteristics that are stereotypically of both males (practical, assertive) and females(nurturing) -in general androgynous individual seem to be: - more mentally healthy -more competent -more flexibility

limbic system

the seat of emotions and where rewards are experienced. this matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex. this uneven maturation of the brain leads to bad decisions.

perspective taking

the social cognitive process involved in assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings improves. children also become more skeptical of others' claims . They become increasingly skeptical of some sources of information about psychological traits

hormonal stress theory

the theory that aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resilience under stress and increase the likelihood of disease -exercise is beneficial and slows the process of aging and lowers likelihood of disease

gender schema theory

the theory that gender typing emerges as children gradually develop schemas for what is gender- appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.

morphology

the units of meaning involved in word formation, allows for grammatical structure of correct words

life span

the upper boundary of life, which is the maximum number of years an individual can live. The maximum life span of human beings is about 120 to 125 years of age

evolutionary theory of aging

the view that natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions and nonadaptive characteristics in older adults... we still still age because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness, which is present only in the earlier part of adulthood

Depression in Late Adulthood

there is a misconception that depression in late adulthood is normal. it is not normal and is treatable.

fixed mindset

they believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change -learned helplessness -results in suboptimal or negative outcomes -not want to challenge themselves

critical thinking

thinking reflectively and productively, as well as evaluating the evidence. should foster this because need it in real world

postformal thought

thinking that is reflective, relativistic, and contextual, provisional, realistic, and influenced by emotions

social cognition

thoughts about social situations, this is a tough one for rejected or controversial children. -you walk up and everyone stops laughing

mid-life

today mid-life is about 39 years of age, but most 39 year olds don't want to be called "middle-aged". what we think of as middle aged comes later- anywhere from 40 or 45- 60 or 65 years of age. And as more people live longer, the upper boundary of middle age will likely be nudged higher still.

midlife crises

today, adult development experts are virtually unanimous in their belief that midlife crises have been exaggerated. if a midlife crisis is experienced it is often linked to stressful life events.

egocentrism

trouble understanding someone else's perspective

leading causes of death in adolescence

unintentional injuries, homicide and suicide.

Neglectful parenting

uninvolved in child's life. develop a sense that parents life is more important than theirs.

emotion-dismissing parents

view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions

view of themselves in early childhood

young children are more psychologically aware of themselves and others. become more sophisticated. Improved self-understanding and understanding of others. Young children's theory of mind includes understanding that other people have emotions and desires. They describe themselves unrealistically positively.