Psychology 101 Exam 1

Describe hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events and how they influence intuition and common sense.

"I knew it all along phenomena" The tendency to believe that after learning an outcome that one would have forseen it Knowing the answer makes us more confident Random sequences often don't seem random All three of these things tempt us to overestimate our intuition but scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion

Describe the Atkinson & Shiffrin three-stage processing model of memory

1. we first record to be remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory 2. from there we process information into short term memory where we encode it through rehearsal 3. final information moves into long term memory for later retrieval

Strong, moderate, weak R values

1.0 perfect .7-.9 strong .4-.6 moderate .1-.3 weak

Describe the characteristics of REM sleep, including its length and EEG signature

10 minutes rapid saw toothed brain waves, eye movements every 30 seconds like following the dream that is playing out genitals become aroused. The motor cortex is active but the brain stem blocks it

Perceptual illusions

2d distal stimulus gives a 2d proximal stimulus and a 3d percept

NREM to REM cycles last how many mins.

90

Humanism

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers new view opposing psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism because they were deumanizing behavirorists too focused on animals psychoanalytic too focused on primitive urges emphasis on unique qualities of human experience: freedom and personal growth, optimistic view growth occurs unless blocked by the environment individual thoughts and feelings are primary

Describe the main ideas underlying each of these schools of thought: behaviorism, Freudian psychology, humanistic psychology

Behaviorism: the view that psych. should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes most psychologists agree with obj. science but not the reference to mental processes. (B.F. Skinner and Watson) Freudian psychology: emphasized the way that our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior Humanistic Psychology: rejects the behaviorist position, Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow found both behaviorism and Freudian psychology too limiting; focus on our needs for love and acceptance and on environments that nurture or limit personal growth.

Be familiar with the difference between monocular (based on one-eye) and binocular (based on two-eyes) depth cues and be able to describe/recognize examples of each type of cue

Binocular: see with two eyes the depth difference used to judge the distance of nearby objects - retinal disparity-because the eyes are 2 in apart they get different images and the brain can judge how close the obj. is to you. The greater the difference in the images the closer the object used in movies monocular: depth cues available to each of the eyes separately Relative height: we perceive objects higher in our field as further away and that becomes the ground Relative size: if we assume that 2 obj. are closer in size most people perceive the othe that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away Interposition: if one object blocks another we perceive it as closer Light and shadow: assumption that light comes from above Linear Perspective: parallel lines appear to meet in the distance the sharper the angle the greater the perceived distance relative motion: as we move objects that are actually stationary may appear to move if you focus on something objects in front will appear to move back the farther from the fixation point the faster it will move

Describe psych. three levels of analysis and be able to recognize the kinds of questions related to each

Biological influence: genetic predispositions, mutations, natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations, genes responding to the environment Psychological influences: learned fears and other learned expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations Social-cultural influences: presence of others cultural, societal, and family expectations, peer and other group influences, compelling models (such as in the media)

Describe the organization of the nervous system including the peripheral versus central systems and the main divisions within each.

CNS and PNS CNS (brain and spinal cord) PNS - Autonomic (self regulated) Somatic (voluntary movement of sensory input and motor output) Autonomic - Sympathetic (arousing) and Parasympathetic (calming)

Distinguish between central tendency and variability.

Central tendency - mean, median, mode a single score that represents a whole set of scores variability - range and standard deviation - how similar or diverse the scores are

Describe the role of the cerebellum and basal ganglia play in formation of implicit memory.

Cerebellum: by classical conditioning - damage here causes a lack of associating a tone w a puff of air so they don't wince in anticipation BG: deep brain structures that facilitate motor movement and formation of our procedural memories for skills - they get input from the cortex but dont send info to the cortex in return riding a bike

Describe how context, motivation, and emotion influence perception.

Context - When you're holding a gun, the other person is also holding a gun. Bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli Motivation - bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli someone that loses weight will make it seem like stairs are less steep; softball players appear bigger when they are hitting well Emotion - hearing sad music will push people toward the sad homonym like mourning instead of morning

Describe what is meant by dual-processing and the two-track mind.

DP: the princople that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks Two Track Mind: we know more than we know we know she could see things even though she couldn't consciously recognize them

who popularized structualism

E.B. Tichner

Describe these methods, including what kind of information they provide: EEG, MRI, fMRI.

EEG: electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons MRI: people sit or lie down in a chamber that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to provide a map of brain structures fMRI: measure blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans

Describe what is meant by extra-sensory perception including distinguishing among telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

ESP: the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy: mind to mind communicaiton clairvoyance: perceiving remote events such as a house on fire in another state prerecognition receive future events such as an unexpected death in the next month

Describe the difference between effortful and automatic processing and between explicit and implicit memory

Effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort like learning to read Explicit memories: declarative memories are the fact and experiences that we can consciously know and declare automatic processing; unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency and of well learned information like word meanings implicit memories: retention of learned skills or classically conditions associations independent of conscious recollection (

Where did Freud have a strong influence, Where did he not have a strong influence?

Europe; US because of lack of emperical evidence but he became a major force in the way that educated people viewed human behavior and motivation

Discuss the basic ideas of evolutionary psychology and how they relate to the nature-nurture issue.

Evolutionary Psychology: the study of the evolution of behavior of the mind using principles of natural selection Help answer many questions like: are gender differences biologically predisposed or socially constructed, is grammar innate of formed by experience, how are intelligence and personality differences influenced by heredity and by environment? Should we treat depression as a disorder of the brain or thought? NURTURE WORKS ON WHAT NATURE PROVIDES

Name and locate the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and describe their key functions.

Frontal - behind the forehead (speaking, muscle movements, and in making plans and judgements) parietal - top rear of the head receives sensory input for touch and body position Occipital - back of the head, areas that receive info from the visual fields Temporal - roughly above the ears; each receiving information from the opposite ear

Describe the role of the frontal lobes and hippocampus in formation of explicit memory.

Frontal lobe - working memory processing Hippocampus: a neural centere located in the limbic system helps process explicit memories of facts and events for storage - like a save button, damage disrupts the recall of of explicit memories

Describe the phenomena of inattentional blindness and change blindness.

IB: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere basketball players with the lady in the umbrella CB: failing to notice changes in the environment

Three types of variables in an experiment

IV, DV, extraneous (other)

Describe how research on cerebral specialization is done in normal subjects and what generalizations have been drawn based on this research.

Injecting a sedative into different sides makes different sides of the body go limp and different parts of the brain stop like when injected into the left artery the right arm goes limp and speech stops left hemisphere makes quick literal interpretations the right hemisphere specializes in inference, helps us modulate our speech helps orchestrate our self awareness

Describe what a synapse is and describe how communication occurs at synapses via neurotransmitters.

Is a gap between neurons and communication happens when an AP reaches the synapse this triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the gap and these attach to receptors allowing charge molecules to enter the new neuron and continue or inhibit the new AP leftover neurotransmitter is taken up or broken down by enzymes

Behaviorism

John. B. Watson - Psychology was defined as the scientific study of behavior rejected all mental concepts focused on animal behavior because it could be controlled and because consciousness was not important goal - prediction and control of behavior

Describe the difference threshold, or JND, and Weber's law.

Just noticeable difference - the min. difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time - that detectable difference increases with the strength of the stimulus because if we increase 40 to 45 decibels you could hear that vs. 100 -105 decibels Weber's Law the principle that to be perceived as different two stimuli must differ by a constant min. percentage rather than a constant amount Depends on the stimulus for light it needs to be 8% for weight its 2% tones need to 0.3%

Two track mind system 1

LTM (everything that you know) activated by sensory information (BU and proximal stimulus) activation spreads quickly and in parallel no voluntary control

Describe Mary Calkins' and Margaret Washuburn's roles in early psychology.

Mary Calkins worked at Harvard, but they denied her the degree, she became a memory psychologist, and the first woman to be the president of the American Psychology Association Washburn - the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind

Distinguish among the mean, median, and mode.

Mean - arithmetic average Median - midpoint (50th percentile) Mode - most frequently occurring scores

Describe the relationship between sleep and athletic performance.

More sleep = better performance faster reaction times more energy long sleep makes neural connections for muscle memory

Describe the construct of encoding failure.

Much of what we sense we never notice and what we fail to encode we will never remember like drawing a coin or the apple logo

can you prove theories

NO

Can you make causal statements with correlational studies

NO because they are only descriptive cannot infer because variable 1 could be affecting variable 2 2 could cause changes in 1 there is a 3rd variable causing changes in both can only conclude that there is a relationship (related, associated, linked)

Is there evidence for subliminal effects?

NO changes were in the perceived rather than actual memory changes matched the tape label - producing a placebo effect

Is the absolute sensory threshold abrupt?

NO it's function is given in an S shape

Describe the three levels of NREM sleep, including their length and EEG signatures.

NREM 1 - hallucinations, falling, irregular brain waves 10 minutes NREM 2 - sleep spindles clearly asleep, can still be awoken easily, bursts of rapid rhythmic brain wave activity 20 minutes NREM 3 - slow wave sleep emits large slow delta waves, hard to awaken, children may wet the bed. 30 minutes

What stages of sleep are needed for rebound

NREM 3 and REM

Describe a double-blind procedure, including why it is necessary.

Neither the administrator or the recipient knows the treatment they are getting helps with the placebo effect

Describe the requirements for using human subjects.

Obtain participants informed consent before the experiment, protect participants from greater than usual harm and discomfort, keep information about the participant confidential and fully debrief the participant after ward

Be able to explain the two memory systems as shown in Figure 24.4.

Page 311

Describe what is meant by perceptual set and how perceptual set influences perception.

Perceptual set - a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another ABC or 12, 13, 14

Distinguish between positive and negative correlations, and be able to recognize from a scatterplot whether a relationship is positive or negative.

Positive - as one goes up the other goes up Negative- inversely related as one goes up the other goes down

Two broad sleep classes

REM and NREM

paradoxial sleep

REM sleep the brain acts as if awake and physiological processes speed up but the sleeper is paralyzed (no muscle tone) the brain stem blocks signals from the motor cortex dream sleep

Describe the "to make sense of neural static" view, or activation-synthesis view, of why we dream. Describe the cognitive development view of dreams.

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories which our sleeping brain weaves into stories making sense of this static cognitive development - dream content reflects dreamers level of cognitive development their knowledge and understanding dreams simulate our lives including worst case scenarios

Describe the characteristics of an experiment that make it possible to isolate cause and effect, including independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, and confounding variables.

Random assignment allows experiments to determine cause and effect because everything is the same except for that one factor by manipulating one of the factors and holding all the other factors constant. The factor they vary by is the IV the response is the DV the experimental group receives the treatment the control group does not confounding variables are controlled by this random assignment

Describe how the type of sample, the sample size, and variability in the sample affect the reliability of an observed difference.

Representative samples are better than biased samples Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable More cases are better than fewer

Describe what the research on restored vision, sensory restriction, and perceptual adaptation reveals about the effects of experience on perception, including the concept of the critical period.

Restored vision: they are unable to recognize objects visually that they were able to by touch because they never learned to see the difference they remain functionally blind to shape perceptual adaptation: the ability to adjust to changed sensory input including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. chicks cannot adapt to dramatic changes but humans can they can even turn the world upside down and adapt after 8 days and readapt quickly when its reversed critical period: an optimal period when exposure to certain stimuli is required (when researchers cover an adults animal eye when the patch is removed its fine, when cataracts are removed in adult life vision is fine) we constantly adjust to sensory input, early nurture sculpts what nature has provided (critical period research)

Distinguish between retrograde and anterograde amnesia, including the implications for the two-track mind.

Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember info from ones pase anterograde amnesia an inability to form new memories they can be classically conditions without remembering that they learned it = 2 memories track

Describe the difference between sensation and perception and between bottom-up processing and top-down processing.

Sensation - the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment Perception - the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events Bottom-up processing - starts at your sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing (enables the sensory systems to detect the lines angles and colors that form the flower) Top-down processing - constructs perceptions from this sensory input by drawing on your experience and expectations (interpret what the senses get)

Describe five theories about the functions of sleep.

Sleep protects - safer to sleep at night out of the way then wander around helps us recuperate - restore the immune system and repair and make connections get ride of toxins restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day - consolidates our memories by replaying recent learning and strengthening neural connections feeds creative thinking - come to us in dreams boost to thinking and learning, supports growth - during slow wave sleep which occurs mostly in the 1st half of the night the pituitary gland releases a hormone for muscle development

Describe the action potential, including why it is described as an all-or-none response and why there is a refractory period.

Sodium Ions flood in and depolarize the neuron - its all or none it either happens or it doesn't the strength is affected by how often and how many neurons are firing not by the AP strength a refractory period is needed so that the membrane can return to resting potential before another AP can fire.

Distinguish between the structuralist and functionalist schools of thought in psych.

Structuralism: early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind (required smart verbal people, results varied from person to person and experience to experience) functionalism: early school of thought promoted by James and Darwin, explored how mental processes function, how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Critically discuss phrenology.

Studying bumps on the skull and depressions a bump you were good at it a depression you lacked it

How can TD lead to misperceptions

TD adds to BU to produce the percept and expectancies can be wrong

Normal perception is effortless because

TD and BU work together

perception is constructed from

TD processing and BU processing

Percept

TD+BU = (expectancy & knowledge) + (proximal stimulus)

Describe Wilhelm Wundt's contribution to establishing psychology as a science.

Tested how long it took people to respond to hearing a ball hit a platform when asked "as soon as the sound occurred (.1 sec) and when they were aware that they had heard the sound (.2 sec) was seeking to measure the atoms of the mind the fastest and simplest mental processes

Describe how the sleep cycle evolves through the night and how sleep patterns are related to age and culture.

The sleep cycle repeats itself about every 90 minutes as the night goes on less time is spent in NREM 3 until it disappears, REM and NREM 2 periods get longer newborns sleep 2/3 of the day adults no more than 1/3 Austrailians get more sleep than us

Describe the different points of view in the controversy over "repressed" memory for childhood sexual abuse.

Their memory is somewhat not reliable, but if you direct with neutral questions and no suggestion they are more reliable

Describe how a psychologist would respond to a statement like the following: "Experiments don't re-create real life, so they aren't useful to understand behavior."

They are useful because they can give insights to how things are done in a controlled environment so we know that there is a cause and effect going on.

Describe the role of selective attention in accidents.

They cause about 28% of the accidents on the road 25% of people admit to being on their phone while driving even though 60% do it

Describe the process of transduction, the three steps that are basic to all our sensory systems.

Transduction - conversion of one form of energy into another in sensation the transforming of stimulus energies such as sights sounds and smells into neural impulses our brain can interpret All of our senses: receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells transform that stimulation into neural impulses deliver the neural info to our brain

T/F scientists are ignorant

True. the lack some knowledge and they fill it in using the scientific menthod

Describe the energy that we see as visible light.

We can see visible light between the wavelengths of 380 -720 each color is a different wavelength

Who had the 1st University research lab.

Wilhem Wundt - 1879 - goal was to descirbe the elements of conscious experience

Functionalism

William James describe the function of the mind what it does, influenced by Darwin's writings on evolution Principles of Psychology

WHY DO WE DREAM

Wish fufillment Activation synthsis Information processing

Be able to distinguish between the trichromatic and opponent-process theories of color vision, and describe how both are correct

Young-Helmholtz tricomatic (three-color): the retina contains three different types of color receptors one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue which when stimulation in combination can produce the perception of any color. Opponent process theory-that opposing retinal processes (red-green) (yellow-blue) (white-black) enable color vision for example some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green Color processing occurs in two stages: the retina's red green and blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli as the YHT says and the cones responses are then processed by Opponent process cells as OPT suggest.

Real world perceptual illusions

a 3D distal stimuls gives a 2D proximal stimulus and a 3D percept

Describe blindsight and how it supports the dual-processing idea of a visual action track and a visual perception track.

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Define what is meant by a brain lesion and why lesions are useful.

a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue help with mapping the brain

Describe the process of reuptake.

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Describe what is meant by reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again

Describe the relationship between a sample and a population, including why random sampling is important.

a sample is supposed to represent a population, it will only do this though if it is random because each member has an equal chance of being included.

Describe the Scientific Method, including the role of a theory, an hypothesis, an operational definition, and replication.

a self correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis theory is an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events a good theory produces testable hypothesis hypothesis a testable prediction ofter implied by a theory specifies what results would support theory Operational definitions: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study for example human intelligence my be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures - keeps us from seeing what we want to see (preventing bias) this allows other scientists to repeat the experiment and replication is conformation of the theory making it stronger.

REM behavior disorder

a sleep disorder in which there is no paralysis during REM may act out part of dreams mostly males over the age of 50 also associated with some neurological diseases

Describe the SQR3 method of studying and how it relates to the phenomena of the testing effect the distribution of study time, thinking critically, active processing, and overlearning

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Questions, Read, Retrieve, Review. This allows for the testing effect which says that you study better when testing yourself and not giving yourself false confidence, do better after RETRIEVING the information for yourself rather than re-reading, spacing out the time allows for better retention than cramming, thinking critically and questioning can help study, process the information actively to help learn there is no reception without reaction, relate what you already know to what you are learning, Over learning helps to also improve retention can be done by testing!!

Describe the relationship between accidents and the change to and from daylight savings time.

accidents increase after the spring forward accidents decrease after the fall back

Describe Baddeley's model of working memory.

active scratchpad where your brain actively processses information by making sense of new input and linking it with long-term memories a central executive handles this processing that is focused.

Summarize research findings on dream content.

after a trauma people commonly report nightmares which help to extinguish day time fears, musicians dream 2x as much about music, studies in 4 countries found that blind people dream with the other senses paralyzed people will dream of being active

Differentiate between what it means for a drug or other chemical to be a neurotransmitter agonist versus a neurotransmitter antagonist.

agonist - a molecule that increases a NT action - may increase their release or prevent their reuptake ex. opioids antagonist - decrease an NT effect by blocking production or release Botulin - stops ACh release and causes paralysis

Describe the phi phenomenon.

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession stoboscopic movement like lights look like a moving arrow christmas in the park

Describe what is meant by long-term potentiation.

an increase in a cells firing potential after brief rapid stimulation a neural basis for learning and memory drugs that block LTP interfere with learning drugs that mimic what happens during learning increase LTP rats given a drug that enhanced LTP learned a maze with half the usual number of mistakes

Cognitive psychology

another reaction against behaviorism and psychoanalytic view, inferences about mental events from observations of behavior and information processing approach Human-computer metaphor computers process info, operate on it, store it, and retrieve it. (software and hardware) Humans mind - and body/brain is anti behaviorist, information processing occurs in real time, information symbols or mental representations of the environment cognitive neuroscience examines how information is represented in the brain

Ponzo illusion

apparent distance if who objects produce the same size retinal image and one is perceievd as farther away it is also perceived as larger

source amnesia

attributing a memory to the wrong source or remembering as real as event that read about or heard or imagined

echoic memory

auditory memory lasts 2-3 sec

Retroactive interference

backward acting new information blocks access to the old information

Why is perception effortless

because TD and BU converge accurately on the same percept

When 12 things flash quickly you cannot name them how come when told to look for something then can you see it?

because TD cue aids your selective attention

Why is memory not 100% accurate

because it is constructed

Why is testimony under hypnosis not allowed?

because more incorrect than correct items are reported, and it can be easily influenced by suggestion

source monitoring

being able to determine where a memory came from

temporal lobe

below lateral fissure, contains many primary auditory cortex

What does subliminal mean

below the threshold

Waking beta

beta - desyncronous 15-30 cps (fast)

the deeper the semantic meaning based processing the __________ the LTM

better

Describe how the experience of pain is biopsychosocial.

biological: activity in spinal cords large and small fibers, genetic differences in endorphin production, the brains interpretation of CNS activity pyschological: attention to pain, learning based on experience, expectations Social-cultural influences: presense of others, empathy for other's pain, cultural expectations

How is explicit memory assessed

by asking questions therefore there is a feeling of conscious retrieval

Describe the various parts of the neuron and the functions of those parts.

cell body - contains the nucleus - cells life support center dendrites - a neurons often bushy branching extensions that receive and integrate messages conducting impulses toward the cell body axon - the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands myelin sheath - a fatty tissue layer that encases axons and increases speed of transduction glial cells - cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning thinking and memory

Descriptive statistics includes

central tendency: mean, median, mode Variability: range, SD

steps of correlational research

choose 2 variables of interest measure the variables in a sample determine if there is a relationshiop look at direction and strength - graph the data and get the correlation coefficient - r

Describe these effortful processing strategies: chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice.

chunking: organizing terms into familiar manageable units often occurs automatically mnemonics: memore aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices hierarchies: composed of a few broad subjects subdivided into narrower concepts and facts (outline format) distributed practice: we retain more information when our encoding is distributed over time - spacing effect

Define circadian rhythms and the difference between owls and larks.

circadian rhythms - our biological clocks regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle owls - performance bettering throughout the day larks - performance decreasing throughout the day

Describe the role of cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience in contemporary psychology.

cognitive psych. is the science of the mind (studying mental processes such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think communicate and solve problems Cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception thinking memory and language) studies the brain activity underlying mental activity Todays Psychology now builds on things done in the past

Survey

collect existing info. describe current situation Surveys can be used to determine the existance o a relationship through correlation

How did Wilhelm Wundt describe psycology?

conscious science

Information processing perspective

consolidation/strengthening of memory traces SWS and REM sleep work together SES reinstants brain activity to novel stimuli during REM memory consolidation processes occur Problem solving is an information processing view focusing on day residue spillover which is common allows more creative thinking to find solutions

Frontal lobe

contains motor cortex anterior to central fissure; voluntary movement; planning and judgement and what makes us human

Occipital lobe

contains primary visual cortex

Parietal lobe

contains the somatosensory cortex posterior to the central fissure both motor and SS info crosses over left brain = right body and right brain = left body

Describe the structure of the cerebral cortex in terms of hemispheres and the corpus callosum.

contains the two hemispheres with four lobes each the hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum

Radical behaviorism

continued to fight agains the return of consciousness and Freud's unconciousness, emphases on ENVIROnMEnTAL control of behavior - the environment provides the consequenses which directly control behavior

attention

control process that selects information for STM and awareness examples If there is no attention there is no memory all info not attended to quickly is forgotten

How are the 2 hemispheres joined?

corpus callosum

Describe why correlations enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation (LOQ 2-6).

correlation suggests a possible cause effect relationship but does not prove it because one could be causing the other and vice versa also there could be a third party variable that triggers the behavior.

Phantom limbs

created by input to adjacent regions of the SS cortex, illustrate brain placticity

Describe what is meant by a retrieval cue.

cues that help retrieve the memory such as sights smells sounds

Describe the key elements of taking a scientific attitued

curiosity, skepticism, humility (the rat is always right) skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible

1st half of the night has more

deep (SWS) (NREM 3)

NREM 3

delta 1-4 cps high amplitude slow wave sleep restorative stage

Structualism

describe the elements that comprise conscious experience like it is a molecule and you want to know the atoms that make it up

2 main types of systematic observations

descriptive and experimental

How do you determine if the groups are different?

descriptive statistics Inferential statistics (due to chance?)

Describe what it means when an observed difference is described as significant.

differences observed is probably not due to chance

Describe the meaning and significance of sensory adaptation.

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation we become less away because the neurons fire less quickly, the eyes don't do this because they are always flitting and changing their stimulation so things done disappear from view. our sensory receptors are sensitive to novelty bore them with repetition and they free our attention for more important things we perceive the world not how it is but how it is useful to us.

central and lateral fissure

divide each hemisphere into three of the four lobes

Know which of these events is associated with which stage of sleep: dreaming, sleepwalking, bedwetting, sexual arousal, and difficulty wakening.

dreaming - REM sleepwalking - NREM 3 bedwetting - NREM 3 Sexual arousal - REM difficulty wakening - NREM 3 and REM

Waking alpha

drowsy, alpha, synchronous 8-12 cps

duration neglect

duration doesn't matter

memory for pain does not take into account the _____

durations

Describe where the false statement that humans only use 10% of their brain came from.

electronically probing an association are leads to no observable response

Describe how the Gestalt psychologists thought about perceptual organization, including the concepts of figure-ground and grouping.

emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaning wholes Figure and ground separate faces from their backgrounds, it continually reverses, grouping: tendency to organize stimuli into meaningful groups (proximity: six lines look like 3 groups of 2) Continuity (wavy line w line drawn through not a bunch of half lines) (closure: fill in the gaps to create a complete whole object triangle with the circles)

Describe the three basic human memory processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

encoding: get information into our brain for example extracting meaning storage: retaining that encoded information over time retrieval: later get the info back out

study trials enhance _______ and test trials enhance _____

encoding;retrieval

how can you counteract both types of forgetting

enhance encoding and practice retrieval get the information in then practice getting the information out

Describe the difference between episodic and semantic memory.

episodic memories: explicit memory of personally experienced events one of our two conscious memory systems semantic:explicit memory of facts and general knowledge on of our 2 conscious memory systems

Top-down information

expectancy, goal and prior knowledge information in the mind

People with anterograde amnesia have problems forming

explicit memories but can form new implicit memories (they just won't remember doing it)

Explicit memory

factual information that you can describe

The Deese Effect

false memory

Symptoms of sleep restriction

fatigue, imparied concentration, depressed immune system, increase in accidents

Describe the role of the sensory store in memory, including how Sperling was able to study it.

feeds our active working memory recording momentary images of scenes or echoes of sounds flashed nine letters and after they flashed they could name half of them but with a tone of high medium or low that was associated with the row of letters they could recall them all

anterograde amnesia

forgetting events that occur after the trauma

retrograde amnesia

forgetting events that occur before the trama

longitudinal fissure

forms 2 hemisphers

Wish fufillment on why we dream

freudian unacceptable wishes/desires hidden from consciousness whishes are fufilled in dreams manifest content remembered story line latent content hidden or underlying meaning expressed in symbolism needed interpretation by analyst no empirical support

Describe the function and location of the association areas.

functioning with higher mental function prefrontal cortex - judgment, planning, personality functions with learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Describe storage decay and the shape of forgetting curves.

gradual fading of the physical memory trace forgetting curves are rapid at first and then they level off

Working memory

has replaced STM for some - focuses on the active nature of processing on conscious controlled processing

Sensory memory

high capacity; rapid decay

Explicit memories require this part of the brain

hippocampus

Describe the requirements for using animal subjects.

humane care and healthful conditions, testing should minimize discomfort, places are screened by animal ethics committees and are regulated and inspected

Describe the social influence theory of how hypnosis works to control pain.

hypnosis is a by-product of normal social and mental processes hypnosis works by focusing the attention on something else

Describe the dissociation theory of how hypnosis works to control pain.

hypnosis is a special dual processing state of dissociation a split between different levels of consciousness people's brains may show activity where the pain is being sensed but no activity where the pain is being processed for pain

Convex concave illusion

illusion based on shadow, visual system uses shadow to infer direction of light source and this affects perception visual system adjusts for the expected brightness difference

Brocha's area

in frontal lobe - motor programs for speech expressive aphasia slow labored speech

Describe Freud's construct of repression.

in psychoanalytic theory the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts feelings and memories protects us

misinformation effect

incorporating newly presented information into memory for an earlier event - loftus with the broken glass

Bottom up processing

information distal/proximal stimulus information in the world

forgetting as a storage failure or decay

information doesn't fall out of LTM in a healthy brain

Forgetting as encoding failure

information never enters the LTM - never undergo effortful processing so they are not ENCODED

Differentiate among the sleep disorders of insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, and sleepwalking.

insomnia - ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy - sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness sleep apnea - stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping night terrors - appearing terrified talking nonsense sitting up walking around during NREM 3 sleep different from nightmares Sleepwalking - doing normal waking activities while asleep sleep talking can happen at any stage sleep walking occurs during NREM -3

percept

interpretation of the proximal stimulus what is perceived or experienced by the person

What method did Tichner use

introspection - only you can directly observe your experiences but assumed the atoms were the same required training to prevent contamination from meaning

Induction

is creative - have different theories for the same data

deduction

is understanding what must happen if a theory is correct it can be wrong but method is a self correcting process

Forgetting as retrieval failure

it's there stored but cannot get it out something is interferring

What happens if sensory memory doesn't make it into short term memory

its gone, attended items make it into short term memory

Implicit memory

just do it assess indirectly through performance Motor and cognitive skills learned through practice (bike riding/reading)

profession

knowledge is used to help individuals cope to help designers build, to help businesses selsecet

science

knowledge through basic research and applied research

Left hemisphere specialized in

language production (frontal lobe) comprehension (temporal lobe)

Large or small samples are better

large - more equal to begin with

sleep restriction

less sleep over and extended period a condition

2nd half of the night has more

less/no SWS and more REM sleep

Describe the role of light and melatonin in determining sleep patterns.

light activates sensitive retinal proteins that send a signal to stop producing the sleep induction hormone melatonin

Describe how the eye transforms light energy into neural messages, including a description of the fovea, the blindspot, and the organization of the retina

light enters the eye through the cornea that bends the light to help focus, then through the pupil that is constricted by the iris, light hits the lens that focuses the image on the retina that is a tissue on the eyeball inner surface, the fovea on the retina contains a cluster of cones, and the blind spot is where the optic nerve is located, the retina contains rods and cones at the back then a layer of bipolar cells then a layer of gnaglion Light that enters triggers a chemical reaction in rods and cones at the back of the retina, chemical reaction activate the bipolar cells, the bipolar cells then activate the ganglion cells whose combined axons make up the optic nerve this then transmits info to the brain.

Short term capacity

limited 7 +/- 2 chunks a meaningful unit

Example of how TD can lead to misperceptions

loaf of bread and mailbox experience hunting accidents and then shooting a human because you thought they were a deer

How long does LTM last

long or permanent duration

How long does short term memory last

maintained for a long time with rehearsal if rehearsal is prevented within 10-30 seconds for unrehearsed meaningless material

What disciplines did psych emerge from?

medicine, physiology, philosophy

What helps regulate sleep

melatonin - a photopigment

When did psychology emerge as a science?

mid 19th century

Absolute sensory threshold

minimal amount of energy needed for detection intensity needed to detect 50% of the time (subliminal is below this point)

If intensity of a stimulus is high ______ change is needed to detect the JND

more

Describe the normal curve, including the role of the standard deviation.

most cases fall near the mean and fewer cases fall to the extremes - bell shaped distribution - 68 percent of cases fall within 1 SD of the mean, 95 fall within 2 SD of the mean

change blindness

must attend to the change to notice it

How do you enhance encoding

must do active processing - create meaning during encoding dont cram spacing out study time

Describe what is meant by a feature detector.

nerve cells in the brain (occipital region) that respond to specific features of that stimulus such as shape angle or movement

Do you have to actively update LTM

no

Is there evidence for a completely accurate memory

no

Can we learn while we sleep

no because the information is not being encoded into LTM because it doesn't undergo effortful processing

What are the effects of staying up all night on the ability to think

no sleep group had significantly higher ratings

Van Dogen Multi -day experiment with restricted sleep

no sleep group shoed deterioration in memore and attention tests over three days but the didnt realize how poorly the performed

What are the effects of staying up all night on the critical thinking test

no sleep group significantly lower performance

What are the effects of staying up all night on mood

nothing

Describe what is meant by descriptive research and be able to distinguish among the three methods: case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys.

objectively observing people does not explain behavior it describes it! Case study: examines an individual or group in hopes of revealing things true of us all ex. brain damage studies, children mind studies, animal behavior Naturalistic observation: a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring settings without trying to manipulate and control the situation (the internet enhances the ability to reach more people with this research) survey: a descriptive technique for obtaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group

experimental research

observations are made in at leaset 2 situations under the experimenter's conditions

descriptive research

observations of existing variables

Describe the misinformation effect, including the role of imagining.

occurs when misleading info has corruption ones memory of an event - if someone has imagined it they may think they have experienced it - especially little kids

proactive interference

old information blocks access to new information

Figure-ground

organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Describe what we know about the capacity and location of our long-term memories.

our capacity is essentially limitless, brain networks encode store and retrieve information that forms our complex memories

Describe what is meant by consciousness.

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Describe the serial position effect in memory

our tendency to recall best the last (due to it still being in the working memory) and first items in a list (due to rehearsal)

Automatic processes seem to be unconscious but they are better described as

overlearned

TD and BU operate in

parallel

Describe the distinction between parallel and sequential processing.

parallel and sequential processing: processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously generally used to process well learned information or to solve easy problems sequential processing: processing one aspect of a problem at a time generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

Describe what is meant by parallel processing and how it is related to visual phenomena like blindsight

parallel processing: doing many things at once, does this for many processes, including vision, shown a series of sticks after damage to the visual cortex, they couldn't see the sticks but when asked to guess horizontal or vertical they would get it right showing that there is a dual processing system a second mind is parallel processing

proximal stimulus

pattern of sensory information sent to the brain

Describe the phenomenon of context-dependent memory.

people recall more words when tested in the same environment that they learn them in the environment is a retrieval cue

Evidence for context affecting retrieval

people tested in the same place they learned in the info did better than those tested in a different environment than when they learned it

Describe what is meant by perceptual constancies (color, brightness, shape, & size).

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color brightness, shape and size) even as illumination and retinal images change no matter what angle we see it at

Gestalt group

perception is more than assembling sensations the whole is greater than the sum of its parts perception is not passive its constructed proximity, continuity, closure

Narcolepsy

persistan daytime sleepiness may produce sudden onset of REM sleep including catoplexy - triggered by excitement, loss of muscle tension, brain lacks neurons that produce orexin a brain chemical that regulates wakefulness

insomnia

persistant difficulty falling and staying asleep

Describe what is meant by plasticity of the brain with a focus on its role in reorganization and neurogenesis after brain damage.

plasticity - the brains ability to change especially during childhood by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons strongest in childhood

How do you enhance retrieval

practice it with testing yourself use contexts effects to mentally situation and mood at study use mneumonic devices

Describe claims that have been made about ESP and what most research psychologists have concluded after putting these claims to the test.

predicting where an erotic scene would flask on the screen and they were right 53.1 percent of the time which was statistically significant

Prefrontal cortex

prefrontal association areas also underlie personality and inhibatory control of emotion and action as shown by the case of Phineas Gage - rod took out the L eye and prefrontal cortex and he was dishonest, and loss control of his emotions

Distinguish between retroactive and proactive interference

proactive - the forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information retroactive - the backward acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

Summarize the effects of sleep deprivation, including the health ramifications of sleep loss.

problems in relationships, depression, obesity, bad immune system, slow reaction time, hard concentration

Describe the types of information that appear to be processed automatically.

procedural memories for automatic skills (riding a bike tensing at a dog if attacked by one at a young age) space while studying you encode where the info was on the page so that you can help visualize its location time while going about the day you un intentionally notice the sequence of events allows for retracing steps frequency: effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen

Activation synthesis theory

processing neural static - dreams are side effects of the fact that the brainstem sends pulses to cortex why activate or exercise because no sensory input mammal cortex tries to make sense of the static might incorporate some senosory events like the alarm dreams have no hidden meaning

Phrenology

psuedo-science in which identified a person's strengths and weaknesses by mapping the bumps and depressions on the head

Sigmund Freud's theory

psychoanalytic theory - the interpretation of dreams Emphasis not on what conciousness is made up of but rather unconcious mental processes priamrily sexual and aggressive personality development, mental illness and therapy NOT a RESEARCHER

_______ decrease a behavior

punishments

B.F. skinner promoted

radical behaviorism

When listening to subliminal tapes, how was the perceived memory change for the self esteem and memory tapes

radical increase

How do you make groups in experiments equal

random assignment (differences will be due to chance)

The trend of forgetting is that we forget a a _____pace and then

rapid pace then it levels off

Describe the three measures of retention: recall, recognition, and relearning.

recall: retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time (fill in the blank tests recall) Recognition: identifying items previously learned a multiple choice question tests this relearning: learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time like studying for a final exam

_______ increase a behavior

reinforcements

Describe the way in which values influence science.

researcher values influence the topic they want to study, learning to enhance learning, creativity and passions

REM

return of beta waves - looks like you're awake

Left visual field goes to the ______ hemisphere and right visual field goes to the ________ hemisphere

right, left

Psychology examines human behavior through the

scientific method

Describe what is meant by selective attention and how the cocktail party phenomenon indicates that the selection is not complete.

selective attention: the focusing of concisous awareness on a particular stimulus cocktail party phenomenon: your ability to attend to one voice in a sea of voices - when an unattended voice speaks your name your cognitive radar on your mind's other track brings that voice into consciousness

two types of explicit memory

semantic - general knowledge vs. episodic - memory of personal past

Deep processing

semantic or meaning based

What is mostly stored in our LTM

semantic or meaning based information that is organized by content

Rank the processings in order of effectiveness

semantic>sound>visual

Perception is constructed from __________ and _________

sensory input (BU) and prior knowledge (TD) occur in parallel

Describe what is meant by cognitive neural prosthetics including how they work.

severely paralyzed patients or people that have lost limbs can move a robotic arm because of a chip inside their head with microelectrodes that record the activities of his motor cortex

Summarize split-brain research including what has been learned about differences between the two hemispheres.

severing of the corpus callosum so that the hemispheres no longer communicate verbally reports seeing the portion of the word transmitted to her left hemisphere however, if asked to indicated with her left hand what she saw, she points to the portion of the word transmitted to her right hemisphere

Describe what is meant by levels of processing and the relation of depth of processing to later memory.

shallow processing encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words deep processing encoding semantically based on the meaning of the words tends to yield the best retention

NREM 2

sleep spindles occur rapid but short bursts of E (20 mins) asleep - easy to wake still

confounding variable

some variable amongst the 2 experimental groups differs

shallower processing

sound based

Describe source memory and the role that source amnesia (source misattribution) might play in phenomena like the misinformation effect and déjà vu.

source amnesia - faulting memory for hw when or where info was learned or imagined - heart of many false memories in addition with the misinformation effect deja vu - a feeling of familiarity like we have been there before - familiarity without conscious recall

Randy Gardner

stayed up 264 hours didnt have any breakdown sleepy irritable some disorientation, slurred speech especially after a week

Describe the role of the amygdala in memory processing, including flashbulb memories.

stress provokes the amygdala hormones released increase brain activity and tell it to save the memory for later use

Describe the SQ3R method of improving memory and other variables that lead to better memory.

survey, question, read, retrieve, review Rehearse repetedly - spacing effect and distribution practivce make the material meaningful - don't just memorize activate retrieval centers minimize proactive and retroactive interference sleep more test your won knowledge bothe to rehearse it and to find out what you dont yet know.

The scientific method requires ________ observations of ___________ variables

systematic, emperial

Wernicke's area

temporal lobe comprehension of speech wernickes receptive aphasia conprehension deficits

Describe the phenomenon of priming and what it reveals about memory.

the activation often unconsciously or particular association in memory hear rabbit think hare later instead of hair

Difference threshold

the amount of changes in intensity needed to be detected 50% of the time aka the JND

Describe the concept of plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience ex. London bus drivers re member all of the streets after 2-4 years and have an enlarged hippocampus

why doe mneumonic devices work

the encourage effortful processing and provide organization/retrieval cues they help storage and retrieval

Two track mind system 2

the executive consious system limited in capacity slow and sequential there is a sense of voluntary control - believes its in control

Describe what is meant by embodied cognition.

the influence of bodily sensations gestures and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

Describe what cognitive neuroscience has contributed to the study of consciousness.

the interdiciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language) cortex function mapping,

Priming

the interplay between LTM and STM/WM whatever is active in WM/STM influences what is retrieved from LTM

Describe what is meant by the cerebral cortex.

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres the body's ultimate control and information processing center, covers the brain hemispheres

confabulation

the left brain creates a reason for the actions

Describe the nature of the absolute threshold and how it might relate to so-called subliminal stimuli.

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time subliminal - below the absolute threshold

Three rules of science

the only allowable data are empirical observations (principle of public observability) - the data in principle must be observable by anyone (thought can be observable by agreeing or disagreeing with a statement) all concepts terms or phenomena must be operationally defined - describe the observations that will define the phenomena only solvable questions can be addressed by science

Describe what is meant by sensory interaction and be able to give an example.

the principle that one sense may influence another as when the smell of food influences its taste

peak-end rule

the rating is predicted by the average of the peak and the end and duration did not matter

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

Psychology Definition

the science of behavior and mental processes

Define parapsychology.

the study of paranormal phenomena including ESP and psychokinesis

Describe REM rebound and what it says about the biological need for REM sleep

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation fits the information processing theory because only mammals do this says that it is deeply biological because all mammals do this

Define what is meant by regression to the mean.

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average like if someone did very good but usually does bad on a test they probably would do very good again. (fluctuating behavior will return to normal)

Describe the gate-control theory of pain.

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain the gate is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Two basic assumptions of science

there is a physical universe, our experience is subjective but many aspects reflect input from this physical or real world events are governed by some lawful order

NREM 1

theta 4-7 cps slow eye movements stage where you're just falling asleep jerk awake, hallucinations

When listening to subliminal tapes, how was the memory change for the self-esteem and memory tapes

they all improved by the same amount

Describe potential problems with children's recall of an event.

they cannot separate real memories from fake ones so they wrongly accuse innocent people

Distal stimulus

think event that exists in the real world

Describe what is meant by critical thinking.

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions rather it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions. How do they know that, what is this person's agenda, is the conclusion based on evidence, NOT I feel statements. Look at the credibility of sources. curiosity, skepticism, humility

what items make it into WM and STM and are remembered

those that are attended to

how do tasks become automatic

through repeated effortful processin

Describe the construct of retrieval failure.

tip of the tongue forgetting retrieval cues can help occasionally can stem from interferences like motivated forgetting

Describe the information processing view of why we dream, including the relationship between dreams and memory.

to file away memories, help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories - students that sleep less do worse than students that sleep more

Describe the Freudian view of why we dream, including the difference between latent and manifest content.

to satisfy our own wishes manifest content - the apparent and remembered story line as a censored version of the latent content - the unconscious drives and wishes (often erotic) that would be threatening if expressed directly, (gun = penis) inner conflicts

Context is ______ processing

top down

How much sleep do we need

tremendous variability

Context can affect retrieval T/F

true

Perceptual systems are built to find good gestalts true or false

true

Describe the difficulty in distinguishing between true and false memories.

unreal memories feel like real memories we more remember the gist rather than details after retellings the guessed details become more and more real

Long term memory capacity

vast, functionally unlimited

There is a cross over of _______ fields not eyes

visual

iconic memory

visual sensory memory less than 1 sec

shallow processing

visual structual

Right brain specializes in

visuospatial analysis - layout of the world visual patterns (including faces) Damage to the right pariental lobe produces sensory neglect of the left half of the body and the left half of the visual world

Sleep paralysis

walking nightmare wake up by cant move heavy weight on ribcage so feels like cannot breathe feeling of treat from evil presences spirit alien - some hallucinations but they seem real

Describe the characteristics of short-term memory including capacity in terms of amount and duration.

we can store plus or minus 2 of seven pieces of things 3 seconds = half 12 seconds = almost none six letters five words

Describe what it means to say that memory is constructed.

we often replace the original with a slightly different version

Describe the phenomenon of state-dependent memory.

what we learn in one state - be it drunk or sober - may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state