Psychology 101 Unit 3

Autism Spectrum Disorder

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

anxiety

Freud believed that defense mechanisms are unconscious attempts to distort or disguise reality, all in an effort to reduce our ________.

unconsciously; anxiety

Freud believed that our defense mechanisms operate ______ (consciously/unconsciously) and defend against ________.

repression

Freud believed that we may block painful or unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, or memories from consciousness through an unconscious process called __________.

superego

Freud proposed that the development of the "voice of conscience" is related to the ________ which internalizes ideals and provides standards for judgements.

Deindividuation

In a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity, a person sometimes loses self-consciousness and self-control. This phenomenon is called __________.

Before these studies, many psychologists believed that infants became attached to those who nourished them

In a series of experiments, the Harlows found that monkeys raised with artificial mothers tended, when afraid, to cling to their cloth mother, rather than to a wire mother holding the feeding bottle. Why was this finding important?

Chromosome from both her father and her mother

Natalia is a genetically normal baby girl, which means that she received a(n):

Object permanence for the sensorimotor stage, pretend play for the preoperational stage, conservation for the concrete operational stage, and abstract logic for the formal operational stage.

Object permanence, pretend play, conservation, and abstract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages?

11; 12

On average, girls begin puberty at about the age of _____, boys at about the age of ______.

c

One famous personality inventory is the A) Extraversion Introversion Scale B) Person situation inventory C) MMPI D) Rorschach

Maturation

The biological growth process, called _____, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.

spotlight effect

The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance, and blunders is called the _________ ________.

Self serving bias

The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failure is called _____ _____ _____.

Continuity/stages

The three major issues that interest developmental psychologists are nature/nurture, stability/change, and _______/_______.

Social facilitation

When we perform better on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others, this is called:

Y

A fertilized egg will develop into a boy if it receives a(n) ______ chromosome from its father.

Yes, if that self-love is the secure type. Secure self esteem promotes a focus beyond the self and a higher quality of life. Excessive self-love may promote artificially high or defensive self-esteem, which may lead to unhappiness if negative external feedback triggers anger or aggression.

A fortune cookie advises, "Love yourself and happiness will follow." It this good advice?

Social loafing

A person in a group tends to exert LESS effort when he is individually accountable that when he is working with others toward a common goal (such as tug-of-war or a group project) with no individually accountability. This is known as:

Establishing formal operations

According to Erikson's psychosocial stages, what is the PRIMARY task during adolescence?

Ego; id; superego

According to Freud's ideas about the three-part personality structure, the _______ operates on the reality principle and tries to balance demands in a way that produces long term pleasure rather than the pain; the ______ operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification; and the _____ represents the voice of our internalized ideals (our conscience).

c

According to Freud's view of personality structure, the "executive" system, the ______, seeks to gratify the impulses of the ______ in more acceptable ways. A) id;ego B) ego;superego C) ego;id D) id;superego

Preconventional, postconventional, conventional

According to Kohlberg, _____ morality focuses on self interest, _____ morality focuses on self defined ethical principles, and _____ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules.

Even ordinary people, who are not usually hostile, can become agents of destruction.

According to Milgram, the most fundamental lesson to be learned from his study of obedience is that:

formal operational stage

According to Piaget, a person who can think logically about abstractions is in the _______ _______ stage.

b

According to the psychoanalytic view of development, we all pass through a series of psychosexual stages, including the oral, anal, and phallic stages. Conflicts unresolved at any of these stages may lead to: A) dormant sexual feelings B) fixation at that stage C) preconscious blocking of impulses D) a distorted gender identity

Accommodation

Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Social-cognitive; reciprocal determinism

Albert Bandura proposed the ____-_____ perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of people with their environment. To describe the interacting influences of behavior, thoughts, and environment, he used the term _____ _____.

A

Although Piaget's stage theory continues to inform our understanding of children's thinking, many researchers believe that: A) Piaget's stages begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized. B) Children do not progress as rapidly as Piaget predicted. C) Few children progress to the concrete operational stage D) There is no way of testing much of Piaget's theoretical work

B

Although development is life long, there is a stability of personality over time. For example: A) most personality traits emerge in infancy and persist throughout life. B) Temperament tends to remain stable throughout life C) Few people change significantly after adolescence D) People tend to undergo greater personality changes as they age.

Stranger anxiety

An 8-month-old infant who reacts to a new babysitter by crying and clinging to the father's shoulder is showing ________ ________.

disorder of sexual development

An individual who is born with sexual anatomy that differs from typical male or female anatomy has a ____ ____ ____ _____.

Frontal

Between ages 3 and 6, the human brain experiences the greatest growth in the ________ lobes, which enable rational planning and aid memory.

C

Body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the ________; within 6 months, during the period of the ________, the organs are sufficiently functional to allow a good chance of survival. A) Zygote; embryo B) Zygote; fetus C) Embryo; fetus D) Placenta; fetus

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

peripheral

Celebrity endorsements in advertising often lead consumers to purchase products through _________ (central/peripheral) route persuasion.

Teratogens

Chemicals that pass through the placenta's screen and may harm an embryo or fetus are called ______.

social cognitive

Critics say that _______-_______ personality theory is very sensitive to an individual's interactions with particular situations, but that it gives too little to the person's enduring traits.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Habituation

Developmental psychologists use repeated stimulation to test an infant's ______ to a stimulus.

Nature; nurture

Developmental researchers who consider how biological, psychological, and social-cultural forces interact and focusing on ______ and _____.

Continuity; stages

Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting ______; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting _____.

By attributing the other person's behavior to the person ("he's a terrible driver") and his own situation ("these roads are awful") Marco has exhibited the fundamental attribution error.

Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. "Slow down! What a terrible driver," he thinks to himself. Moments later, Marco himself slips through an intersection and yelps, "Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get out here." What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated?

c

Females and males are very similar to each other. But one way they differ is that: A) Females are more physically aggressive than males B) Males are more democratic than females in their leadership roles C) Girls tend to play in small groups, while boys tend to play in large groups D) Females are more likely to commit suicide

A reflex

For class, you watched a video that showed infants rooting for a nipple after an adult stroked its cheek or curling their toes when an adult stroked the bottom of their feet. These behaviors both illustrate:

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

A child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. Parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning.

From the perspective of Vygotsky, how does a child's mind develop?

Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development more continuous, than he believed.

From the perspective of today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?

Temperament

From the very first few weeks of life, infants differ in their characteristic emotional reactions, with some infants being intense and anxious, while others are easygoing and relaxed. These differences are usually explained as differences in ___________.

Preoperational stage.

Having difficulty taking an other's point of view Ex: Enjoying imaginary play (such as dress up); when blocking someone's view of the TV

This movement sought to turn psychology's attention away from drives and conflicts and toward our growth potential. This focus on the way healthy people strive for self determination and self realization was in contrast to Freudian theory and strict behaviorism.

How did humanistic psychology provide a fresh perspective?

Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in terms of group identification.

How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ?

Children are very resilient, but those who are severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments at an early age, may be at risk for attachment problems.

How does childhood neglect or abuse affect children's attachments?

Rogers might assert that the criminal was raised in an environment lacking genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), and empathy, which inhibited psychological growth and led to a negative self-concept.

How might Rogers explain how environment influences the development of criminal?

Our scores on personality tests predict our average behavior across many situations much better than they predict our specific behavior in any given situation.

How well do personality test scores predict our behavior?

A

If we encounter a person who appears to be high on drugs, and we make the fundamental attribution error, we will probably attribute the person's behavior to A)Moral weakness or an addictive personality B) Peer pressure C) the easy availability of drugs on city streets D) society's acceptance of drug use

B

In Erikson's stages, the primary task during adolescence is: A) attaining formal operations B) Forging an identity C) Developing a sense of intimacy with another person D) Living independent of parents

A

In Milgram's experiments, the rate compliance was highest when A) the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher" B) the "learner" was close to hand C) Other "teachers" refused to go along with the experimenter D) the "teacher" disliked the "leaner"

The interactive influence of persons and situations

In atrocious situations, such as Philip Zimbardo's simulated prison experiment, some people succumb to the situation and others do not. The difference best illustrates:

d

In general, neo-Freduians such as Alder and Horney accepted many of Freud's views but placed more emphasis than he did on: A) development throughout the life span B) the collective unconscious C) the role of the id D) social interactions

Fixation

In the psychoanalytic view, conflicts unresolved during one of the psychosexual stages may lead to _____ at that stage.

b

Individualist cultures tend to value _________; collectivist cultures tend to value _________. A) interdependence; independence B) Independence; interdependence C) Solidarity; uniqueness D) duty; fulfillment

Cognitive dissonance theory best supports this suggestion. If Jamal acts confident, his behavior will contradict his negative self-thoughts, creating cognitive dissonance. To relieve the tension, Jamal may realign his attitudes with his actions by viewing himself as more outgoing and confident.

Jamal's therapist has suggested that Jamal should "act as if" he is confident, even though he feels insecure and shy. Which social psychology theory would best support this suggestion, and what might the therapist be hoping to achieve?

Deindividuation

Lessened self awareness and self restraint

Assimilation

Liam was at the park with his father and excitedly pointed to a squirrel and exclaimed, "kitty, kitty". His father pointed out that this was a squirrel, not a kitty. Liam's labeling of the animal best illustrated the process of:

The fundamental attribution error

Marilyn thinks her professor's strict class attendance policy is an indication of her overly controlling personality, not a necessity given that the class meets only once a week. Her judgement best illustrates:

d

Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that we must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before we seek ultimate physiological needs, such as self-actualization. Maslow based his ideas on A) Freudian theory B) his experiences with patients C) a series of laboratory experiences D) His study of healthy, creative people

1. G 2. H 3. C 4. F 5. E 6. D 7. A 8. B

Match the psychosocial development stage (1-8) with the issue that Erikson believed we wrestle with at that stage (a-h). 1. Infancy 2. Toddlerhood 3. Preschool 4. Elementary school 5. Adolescence 6. Young adulthood 7. Middle adulthood 8. Late adulthood a) generativity vs stagnation b) integrity vs despair c) initiative vs guilt d) intimacy vs isolation e) identity vs role confusion f) competence vs inferiority g) trust vs mistrust h) autonomy vs shame/doubt

a

Modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists agree with Freud about: A) the existence of unconscious mental processes B) the Oedipus complex C) the predictive value of Freudian theory D) the superego's role as the executive part of the personality

b

Our scores on personality tests best predict A) Our behavior on a specific occasion B) Our average behavior across many situations C) behavior involving a single trait, such as conscientiousness D) behavior that depends on the situation or context

Social loafing

People tend to exert less effort when working with a group than they would alone, which is called _____ _____.

Seven; puberty

Prenatal sexual development begins about ____ weeks after conception. Adolescence is marked by the onset of _____.

D

Primary sex characteristics relate to _________; secondary sex characteristics refer to _________. A) ejaculation; menarche B) breasts and facial hair; ovaries and testes C) emotional maturity; hormone surges D) reproductive organs; nonreproductive traits

sex; gender

Psychologists define _____________ as the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females. The socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women is _________.

Stanley Milgram

Psychology's most famous obedience experiments, in which most participants obeyed an authority figure's demands to inflict presumed painful, dangerous shocks on an innocent person were conducted by _____ ______.

C

Researchers have found that a person is most likely to conform to a group if A) the group members have diverse opinions B) the person feels competent and secure C) the person admires the group's status D) No one else will observe the person's behavior

b

Researchers have found that low self-esteem tends to be linked with life problems. How should this link be interpreted? A) Life problems cause low self esteem B) The answer isn't clear because the link is correlational and does not indicate cause and effect C) Low self esteem leads to life problems D) Because of the self-serving bias, we must assume that external factors cause low self esteem

group polarization

Sharing our opinions with like minded others tends to strengthen our views, a phenomenon referred to as ______ ______.

Authoritarian

Shonda's father demands total obedience from his children. When he speaks, he expects his children to listen. There is no discussion and no arguing. He has zero tolerance for breaking the rules he has set forth. Shonda's father has which type of parenting style?

Children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating others and through that rewards and punishments they receive for their imitation.

Social learning theory assumes that:

emerging adulthood

Some developmental psychologists now refer to the period that occurs in some Western cultures from age 18 to the mid-twenties and beyond (up to the time of full adult independence) as _____ _____.

emerging adulthood

The period from age 18 to the mid 20s, when many young people are not fully independent. But, observers note that this stage is found mostly to today's Western cultures.

Pruining

The process of shutting down unused synaptic links in the brain during development is called:

A two-way street; actions influence attitudes and attitudes affect actions

The relationship between attributes and actions can best be described as:

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

a

The social cognitive perspective proposes our personality is shaped by a process called reciprocal determinism, as personal factors, environmental factors, and behaviors interact. An example of an environmental factor is A) the presence of books in a home B) a preference for outdoor play C) the ability to read at a 4th grade level D) the fear of violent action on TV

The authoritarian style would be too hard, the permissive style too soft, and the authoritative style just right. Parents using the authoritative style tend to have children which high self esteem, self reliance, and social competence.

The three parenting styles have been called "too hard, too soft, and just right." Which one is "too hard", which one "too soft", and which one is "just right"? Why?

unconditional positive regard

The total acceptance Rogers advocated as part of a growth-promoting environment is called ________ _____ ______.

Formal operational stage

Thinking about abstract concepts, such as "freedom"

Peripheral route persuasion

This occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

Concept of conservation

Two sealed, pyramid-shaped beakers contain what are clearly identical amounts of a liquid. However, a child judges them as holding different amounts of liquid after seeing one of the beakers inverted. The child apparently lacks a:

Concrete operational stage

Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when object change form. Ex: having the ability to reverse math operations

Sensorimotor stage

Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sight. Ex: When mom "disappears" behind the shower curtain

Deindividuation

University students charged the field after the game in response to their team's loss. They vandalized the opposing team's field and the police has to be called in. This behavior is best understood in terms of:

Infants in Piaget's sensorimotor stage tend to be focused only on their own perceptions of the world and may, for example, be unaware that objects continue to exist when unseen. A child in the preoperational stage is still egocentric and incapable of appreciating simple logic, such as the reversibility of operations. A preteen in the concrete operational stage is beginning to thing logically about concrete events but not about abstract concepts.

Use Piaget's first three stages of cognitive development to explain why young children are not just miniature adults in they way they think.

foot-in-the-door

We tend to agree to a larger request more readily if we have already agreed to a small request. This tendency is called the _______-_______-_______-________ phenomenon.

Authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative; reflect varying degrees of control; Children with high self esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect in this relationship is not clear. Child raising practices reflect both individual and cultural values.

What are 3 parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them?

People who feel confident in their abilities are often happier, have greater motivation, and are less susceptible to depression. Inflated self esteem can lead to self-serving bias, greater aggression, and narcissism.

What are positive and negative effects of high self esteem?

conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs instability) , openness, extraversion ((CANOE)). These factors may be objectively measured, they are relatively stable over the life span, and they apply to all cultures in which they have been studied.

What are the Big Five personality factors, and why are they scientifically useful?

Nature and nurture, continuity and stages, stability and change

What are the three main issues examined by developmental psychologists?

Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs only in certain animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner.

What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?

To be empathetic is to share and mirror another person's feelings. Carl Rogers believed that people nurture growth in others by being empathetic. Abraham Maslow proposed that self-actualization is the motivation to fulfill one's potential, and one of the ultimate psychological needs (the other is self transcendence).

What does it mean to be empathetic? How about self-actualized? Which humanistic psychologists used these terms?

Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with autism spectrum disorder struggle with this ability.

What does theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?

Culture represents our shared behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions which we transmit across generations by way of our language ability. Culture, with its language and efficient division of labor, allows us to preserve innovation.

What is culture, and how does its transmission distinguish us from other social animals?

Examine the person's past behavior patterns in similar situations

What is the best way to predict a person's future behavior?

Adolescents tend to select similar others and to sort themselves into like minded groups. For an athletic teen, this could lead to finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together.

What is the selection effect, and how might it affect a teen's decision to join sports teams at school?

Puberty

What marks the onset of adolescence?

The Milgram studies showed that people were most likely to follow orders when the experimenter was nearby and was a legitimate authority figure, the victim was not nearby, and there were no models for defiance.

What situations have researchers found to be most likely to encourage obedience in participants?

Finding the group attractive

What strengthens conformity to a group?

Group think

When a group's desire for harmony overrides its realistic analysis of other options, ______ has occurred.

gender identity

When children have developed a _______ _______ they have a sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.

Group polarization

When like minded groups discuss a topic, and the result is the strengthening of the prevailing option, this opinion is called:

Secure; insecure

When parents are consistently warm and responsive to their infant, the infant is likely to develop a(n) ______ attachment to the parents; when parents neglect the infant, are inconsistent, or are insensitive to the infant's needs, the infant is likely to develop a(n) ____ attachment to the parents.

cognitive dissonance

When people act in a way that is not in keeping with their attitudes, and then change their attitudes to match those actions, ____ ____ theory attempts to explain why.

b

Which of the following is NOT one of the Big Five personality factors? A) Conscientiousness B) Anxiety C) Extraversion D) Agreeableness

a

Which of the following is NOT part of the contemporary view of the unconscious? A) Repressed memories of anxiety-provoking events B) Schemas that influence our perceptions and interpretations C) Stereotypes that affect our information processing D) Instantly activated emotions and implicit memories of learned skils

B

Which of the following is true of motor-skill development? A) It is determined solely by genetic factors B) The sequence, but not the timing, is universal. C) The timing, but not the sequence, is universal. D) It is determined solely by environmental factors

Introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability

Which two primary dimensions did Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck propose for describing personality variation?

We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3.5 in part because major brain areas have not yet matured

Why can't we consciously recall how we learned to walk when we were infants?

The anonymity provided by the masks, combined with the arousal of the contentious setting, might create deindividuation (lessened self-awareness and self restraint)

You are organizing a meeting of fiercely competitive political candidates and their supporters. To add to the fun, friends have suggested handing out masks of the candidates' faces for supporters to wear. What phenomenon might these masks engage?

Group think

You are the expert on psychological testing and assessment. However, three clinicians disagree on your choice of scales. You decide to change your opinions for the good of the group. This best illustrates:

Getting a foot in the door

You are trying to convince your parents to finance your planned trip to Europe. First, you ask them for a small favor (a bus ticket to a local city), hoping that they will be more willing to send you on the longer trip. This technique is known as:

trait

______ theories of personality focus on describing characteristic behavior patterns, such as agreeableness or extraversion

Attributions

_______ are feeling that are based on beliefs. They predispose people to react in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Menarche

_______ is a girl's first menstrual cycle and is a marker in sexual development.

Nurture

_______ is the lines in a coloring book while nurture in the crayons.

Women; men

________ (men/women) are more likely to commit relational aggression, and ______ (men/women) are more likely to commit physical aggression.

Defensive; secure

________ (secure/defensive) self-esteem correlates with more anger and greater feelings of vulnerability. ________ (secure/defensive) self esteem is a healthier self image that allows us to focus beyond ourselves and enjoy a higher quality of life.

projective

________ tests ask test-takers to respond to an ambiguous stimulus, for example, by describing it or telling a story about it.

Women

_________ (men/ women) have tended to express more personal and professional interest in people and less interest in things.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

disorder of sexual development

a condition present at birth that involves unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

self serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females

Empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

self actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

norms

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

spermarche

first ejaculation

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

Assimiliation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

Peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

self esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

self efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

Social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Sex

the biological differences that distinguish males from females

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

menarche

the first menstrual period

Reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

deinviduation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

humanistic theories

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Psychodynamic theories

view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

Social cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.