Psychology 201: Chapter 7

Variable-Interval Schedule (VI)

*a behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement* Compared to continuous schedules of reinforcement, _____ schedules of reinforcement are more resistant to extinction. Which schedule of reinforcement produces the slowest, most methodical response? Radio stations promotions and giveaways follow this schedule

Habituation

*a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding* When Agnes got ready for work this morning, she put on some perfume. Several hours later Agnes cannot smell her own perfume and is surprised when her colleague remarks that maybe she should not wear so much perfume to work. Agnes no longer smells the perfume because of _____. does not result in long-lasting changes in the learner.

Dopamine

All of the neurons along the medial forebrain bundle secrete the neurotransmitter:

Successive Approximations

B.F. Skinner found that bar pressing in the Skinner box was not a natural behavior for rats, so he reinforced the rats for approaching the bar, getting closer to the bar, touching the bar, etc. Skinner was reinforcing _____ to the desired behavior of bar pressing.

Biological Predisposition

Cats love to chase the light produced by laser pointers. Some people may believe that this behavior shows how dumb cats are but, in reality, it supports the idea of cats' biological _____ to chase moving objects.

Learning

LEARING IS SHORTHAND FOR A COLLECTION OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES *Involves the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner* - based on experience - produces change in the organism - these changes are relatively permanent Early in one's schooling, a student knows to say, "A" when asked to name the first letter of the alphabet. This is because _____ had occurred.

Novel

Learned food aversions are generally acquired from _____ foods; these aversions may be caused by the evolutionary adaptive conditioning of rejecting foods that may be toxic

Novel Foods

Learned food aversions are generally acquired from _____ foods; these aversions may be caused by the evolutionary adaptive conditioning of rejecting foods that may be toxic.

white rat

Little Albert developed a fear of a(n) _____ because it was paired with a loud noise.

Operant Conditioning Chamber OR Skinner Box

allows a researchers to study the behavior of small organisms in a controlled environment In _____conditioning, the consequence of a behavior influences whether it is likely to occur again.

Instrumental Behaviors

behavior that requires the organism to do something

Edward L. Thorndike

examined instrumental behaviors law of effect states that behaviors leading to pleasant situations will be repeated

Aplysia

exhibits habituation and sensitization

B.F. Skinner

expanded on the work of Edward Thorndike by focusing on reinforcement and punishment

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

*a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US* -could make the dogs salivate to neutral stimuli, such as the ringing of a bell The last time that Leona went camping, she found a snake in her tent. She is deathly afraid of snakes. Now, she becomes nervous every time she thinks about camping or watches a movie or television show that involves camping. The conditioned stimulus in this case is *camping* Maceo hated having his diaper changed but he loved cake. So, Maceo's father decided to use classical conditioning to make diaper changes less miserable. Every time he changed Maceo's diaper, he would play the same song and give Maceo a small bite of cake. Now, as soon as Maceo hears the song, he is happy to have the diaper changed. The conditioned stimulus is the *song*

Biological Preparedness

*a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others* The concept of _____ suggests that conditioning has an evolutionary perspective, in that certain associations will be more easily learned if they help the organism's survival.

Conditioned Response (CR)

*a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus* - the dog learns how to associate the bell with food overtime

Unconditioned Response (UR)

*a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an conditioned stimulus* - the dog's salvation

Punisher

*any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior led to it*

Reinforcer

*any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it*

Operant Behavior

*behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment*

Law of Effect

*behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated*

Second-Order Conditioning

*conditioning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure* Ivan Pavlov paired a tone with a black square, and the dogs began to salivate in response to the black square. The black square was able to elicit salivation because of:

Diffusion Chain

*individuals initially learn a behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior*

Observational Learning

*learning takes place by watching in the actions of others* Some common human phobias such as fear of heights may have developed because of:

Shaping

*learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior* Latrenda is trying to teach her 3-year-old son how to dress himself. First she has him put on his pants by himself, and she gives him some candy. The next day she has him put on his pants and his shirt, and she gives him some candy. By the end of the week, her son is dressing himself completely. Latrenda used the principle of _____.

Implicit Learning

*learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition* Daphne knows that she cannot show up to class naked even if she does not know when or how she learned this type of information. That is because this type of learning is _____. Children with dyslexia show deficits in _____ learning of language.

Classical Conditioning

*occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response* Classical conditioning occurs by pairing a neutral stimulus with a(n) unconditioned stimulus to produce a response. Advertisers often use pictures of attractive people with their products, with the expectation that people will respond positively to the product. They believe that this reaction will occur based on_____ conditioning.

Sensitization

*occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus*

Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR)

*reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made* Pieceworkers in a textile factory get paid following this schedule and receive their payment after some set number of shirts have been sewn

Fixed-Invtervial Schedule (FI)

*reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made* Checking one's postal mailbox is generally reinforced on a _____ schedule, because the mail only comes once per day at about the same time. behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement.]] Students cramming for an exam

Latent Learning

*something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future*

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

*something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction to an organism* - dogs are presented with food and they began to salivate Rachel is training her dog, Duke, to bark when there is a knock on the door. She already knows that squeaking a mouse toy will make Duke bark. So, she decides to squeak the mouse and knock on the door at the same time to condition Duke to bark. What is the unconditioned stimulus in this case? *the squeaking mouse* occurring reaction in an organism; consider what automatically elicits barking in Duke. The last time that Etan went camping he found a snake in his tent. He is deathly afraid of snakes. Now, he is nervous every time he thinks about camping or watches a movie or television show that involves camping. The unconditioned stimulus in this case is: *snakes* Angie's always-angry boss wears a particular type of cologne. One day, Angie was at a store when she smelled the same cologne. The smell produced a momentary feeling of uneasiness. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is: *the boss*

Generalization

*the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquistion* Little Albert's fear response to a white rabbit, a fur coat, and a Santa Claus mask are all examples of: Edana, a 6-year-old, was recently bitten by her grandmother's terrier. Edana sees a different kind of small dog in the park a week later and begins to cry. Most likely Edana is exhibiting _____.

Discrimination

*the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli* Cruz, a 6-year-old, was recently bitten by his grandmother's Chihuahua. Cruz sees a different small dog in the park a week later and begins to cry, but he shows no fear when he sees a large dog. Cruz's behavior in response to the large dog indicates that he is showing _____.

Variable-Ratio Schedule (VR)

*the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses* Because they generally result in high, consistent rates of response without pausing, slot machines in casinos use _____ schedules of reinforcement. Slot machines in casinos pay out following this schedule, and this is why some gamblers feel incredibly lucky

Intermittent Reinforcement Effect

*the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement*

Extinction

*the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the CS* Dandrea trained a rat to run up a set of miniature steps whenever she plays the theme song to a specific movie by giving the rat treats at the same time as the song is playing. After acquisition, if Dandrea were to present the song but no longer provide the treats, the rat's behavior would show _____. By repeatedly presenting the rat without the loud noise, one would be using _____ to eliminate Little Albert's fear of a rat.

Acquisition

*the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together* The amount that Ivan Pavlov's dogs salivated gradually increased over several trials of pairing the tone with the food. This is because Pavlov's dogs went through the _____ phase of learning.

Spontaneous Recovery

*the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period*

Intermittent Reinforcement

*when only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement* Broken slot machine that stole money over broken soda machine that stole money.... do you use the same reinforcement for both?

Three-Term Contingency 1. Criminative Stimulus 2. Response 3. Reinforcer

1. classmates drinking coffee together in Starbucks 2. joking comments about a psychology professor's increasing waistline and receding hairline 3. laughter among classmates

Reward Prediction Error

Colton is a Parkinson's disease patient taking the medication called L-dopa. As a result, he has developed a problem with compulsive shopping and has extended his credit cards up to their limits. His behavior is the result of the_____ error.

reward prediction

Colton is a Parkinson's disease patient taking the medication called L-dopa. As a result, he has developed a problem with compulsive shopping and has extended his credit cards up to their limits. His behavior is the result of the_____ error.

Evolutionary Biology

Conditioning alone cannot explain completely why some behaviors are easier to learn than others without taking _____ into account.

Operant Generalization

Paco likes to make tuna sandwiches for lunch. He uses an electric can opener and then usually gives the can with a few bits of tuna left inside to the cat. Paco recently noticed that the cat comes running into the kitchen every time he uses the can opener to open anything. The cat's behavior is a result of operant _____.

Explicit Memory; Implicit Memory

Patients with amnesia usually show deficits in _____ but not in _____. Individual differences are more commonly found in _____ tasks than in _____ ones.

Expectation

Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner proposed that the cognitive process of _____ occurred between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response.

Amygdala

The _____ is the primary brain structure responsible for conditioning based on fearful or anxiety-inducing stimuli Researchers have discovered a woman who shows no fear responses. It is likely that this woman does NOT have a normally functioning _____.

Rescorla and Wagner

_____ proposed that the cognitive process of expectation occurred between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response. Edward Tolman's concept of a means-end relationship is similar to that of _____ model in classical conditioning.

Secondary Reinforcers

derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning EX: money, trophies, verbal approval

Food Aversion

developing an aversion to the smell or sight of the food A person is LESS likely to develop a learned food aversion: if there is a long period of time, such as a day or more, between ingesting the food and becoming ill.

Stimulus Control

develops when a particular response only occurs when an appropriate discriminative stimulus is present Because of _____, a person can differentiate between the men's restroom and the women's restroom, and know which one to use.

Primary Reinforcers

help satisfy biological needs In general, on a daily basis, people experience more secondary reinforcers than _____ ones. EX: food, comfort, shelter, warmth

Pleasure Centers

how specific brain structures might contribute to the process of reinforcement

Discriminative Stimulus

indicates that a response will be reinforced

Medial Forebrain Bundle

neurons go on a pathway that meanders its way from the midbrain thought the *hypothalamus* into the *nucleus accumbens* are the most susceptible to stimulation that produces pleasure these neurons are *dopaminergic*

Positive Reinforcement

rewarding stimulus is presented something is added to the environment.

Negative Punishment

rewarding stimulus is removed, weaken behavior

Edward Tolman

suggested that rats in a maze do not simply produce behaviors without using any previous spatial information but instead develop a cognitive map of the maze. proposed that establishing a stimulus-response relationship was not enough to explain learning. Instead animals learned a means-end relationship.

Mirror Neurons

type of cell found in the brains of primates (including humans) contribute to observational learning through the influence of imitation and the influence of the awareness of intentionality

Positive Punishment

unpleasant stimulus is administered

Negative Reinforcement

unpleasant stimulus is removed