Psychology 390-Psychology of Learning Exam 3
Organization Strategies (Factors that influence Memory)
**Clustering** -You will recall items better if you can recognize there are two or more types of things in a list EX: North Pig Cardinal Cat South Horse **Verbal Mnemonic Techniques** -Here you make your own organization -Many different techniques **Acrostics** -Acrostic are phrases in which the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help you recall information. **Acronyms** -This is a word formed our of the first letters of a series of words ROY G BIV - Are the colors in the visual spectrum. **Rhymes** -I before E except after C **Visual Imagery** -Method of Loci >Involved taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where the images to be recalled are associated with locations along the path. >Walk around the house and associate words with the location in the house. **Pegword** -Relies on a list of integers >1 >2 >3 >4 -Attach a pegword to each of the number with which it rhymes >Bun >Shoe >Tree >Door -Then give a list of words to recall associate the first word of the list (Bee) with the pegword (Bun) -Then try to visualize the bee eating a bun when recalling the word, make the associations. -The more outrageous the association, the better the recall.
Traits (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Alport -Cardinal -Central -Secondary
Neuroticism (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Anxious *Insecure *Guilt-Prone *Self-Conscious
Retrieval Cues (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Are stimuli that open pathways to the memory *Many types of stimuli -words -pictures -sensations -odors -etc.
Overlearning (Factors that influence Memory)
*Continue to study something after you can recall it perfectly
Many Theorists (Second Memory Model-Depth of Processing)
*Craik and Lockhart (Craik and Tulving *Others
Major Implications for Test Taking (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Cram, get test, start with question 1, question 2 by the time you get to question 3 which you had crammed for, the information is gone. *Solution. Write down stuff on the exam as soon as you get it. *Then write the second item, rehearse the list.
Openness (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Daring *Nonconforming *Showing Broad Interests *Imaginative
Central (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Descriptive traits that you would use to describe someone.
How is Memory Studied? (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*Ebbinghaus developed many methods
Visual Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Eidetic (I de Tic) imagery (photographic memory) *Individuals can recall detailed images of visual scenes for long periods of time. -is very rare -5% of kids -less for adults *Kids rely more on imagery than adults.
Conscientiousness (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Ethical *Dependable *Productive *Purposeful
Expectancy (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Generally related to your expectations about what will happen in a particular situation.
The Order in Which You Learn Things (Factors that influence Memory)
*Give a list of words in a free recall task. You will have better recall for words at the beginning and end of the list but not the middle. *Called the Serial Position Effect. *Recall at the beginning is called the Primacy Effect. *Recall at the end called the Recency Effect *Occurs because you can generally only recall 7 plus or minus 2 items in working (short term) memory)
Paired Associate Task (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*Here you present two items at once and later try to recall the item when given the other.
Locus of Control (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*How much control an individual feels they exert over their environment. *External ->Little connection between behavior and occurrence of rewards. *Internal ->The world is responsive to my actions.
Sensory Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*IN sensory memory, sensory impressions are stored in a form similar to the original sensation. Several subgroups.
Organization (Factors that influence Memory)
*If you can organize the material, you can recall it better. * Lots of organization strategies.
Episodic Memories (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Is a memory for a specific event. *What happened, where did it happen, etc.
Thalamus (Brain Structures That are Involved with Memory)
*Is also involved with memory formation *Is thought to give the message to print the memory initially *With damage, memory traces never get created to begin with *So, it isn't stored in either Short Terms Memory or Long Term Memory.
Declarative Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Is memory for items of knowledge. *Is independent of the particular occasion in which one acquired them. *Is the sum of all acquired knowledge. -All words, symbols, facts of words, appearance of objects, principles, schemas, scripts, etc. we have.
Retroactive Interference of Inhibition (Factors that influence Memory)
*Is unlike proactive interference. *Here, learning new material will interfere with your ability to recall old material. -Learn list C, then list D, recall C >D will interfere with your ability to recall C. *Learn Psychology, learn Sociology-Sociology will interfere with your ability to recall Psychology. *Learn Psychology read the argonot, The Argonot will interfere with your ability to recall Psychology RCDC *Do not take similar courses in the same semester. -Take things that are different and don't have a lot of overlap. You will recall them better.
Long Term Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Is where information goes into the system and is retained. *Duration-apparently forever *Penfield Studies
State Dependent Learning (Factors that influence Memory)
*It is best to recall information in the same drug state as you do the learning. *If you smoke, smoke while taking the exam. If you drink coke or coffee while studying, drink coke or coffee while taking the exam. Don't study while not drinking coffee but take the exam on coffee.
Spread Practice and Learning Is Better Than Massed Practice (Cramming) (Factors that influence Memory)
*It's better to spread out studying over a period of time instead of doing it all at once. *Studying three days for one hour is better than three hours all at once. *That is, don't cram WHY? *Recall the serial position curve *Can generally only recall 7 plus or minus 2 items. *If you are cramming, recall the recency effect.
What Internal Variables are Investigated (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Locus of Control *Expectancy *Personality Variable ->Extroversion vs Introversion *Internal vs External Attribution *Traits *Others
Serial Learning Task (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*Look at a list of words for a few seconds, then try to recall the words in the order they were listed.
Conclusion (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Lots of internal events are examined with cognitive models of learning *Focus is on things inside the organism *Harder to measure
Cortex (Brain Structures That are Involved with Memory)
*Lots of locations related to memory * Tends to be related to the type of memory involved. *Mostly in the frontal lobe in a variety of structures.
Types of Long Term Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Many Types -Episodic Memories -Declarative Memory -Visual Memory -Procedural Memory Sensory Memory TO Short Term Memory TO Long Term Memories TO Procedural Memory OR Declarative Memories Then from DM to Semantic Memory OR Episodic Memory.
Once information is in long term memory, how do we get it out? (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Many theories -Retrieval cues -Memory searches
Personality Variable (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Many variables are examined *The Big Five ->Extroversion -> Agreeableness ->Conscientiousness ->Neuroticism ->Openness
Procedural Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Memory for physical things *riding a bike
Memory Decay
*Memory traces decay as time passes *Problem, little evidence
7 Plus or Minus 2 (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Miller *You can generally only store 7 plus or minus 2 items in short term memory. *Lasts a short period of time (10-20 seconds)
Memories are Processed
*Not held in storage by some brain structure *Craik and Lockhart contend of STM, but the amount of information that can be processed at one time. *Is a processing limitation *Similar to RAM limitations
Retrieval Stage (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*One tries to recall a particular memory trace among all other memory traces that we being stored. *All are aspects of the memory process *All three areas of the process are studied.
Strategies to use for Semantic Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Parallel Searches *Network Models
Proactive Interference of Inhibition (Factors that influence Memory)
*Past learning will interfere with your ability to recall new material. -learn list a, Then learn list b, finally, recall b. >A will interfere with your ability to recall b *Learn Sociology then learn Psychology -Sociology will interfere with your recall of Psychology (PABB) NOTE: Sometime past learning will help you because you organize it better.
Second Theory Memory Searches (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*People engaging in memory searches -Two types of searches -Serial Searches >Check one item, if no, go to the next item. -Parallel Searches >Compare many items at once.
Many Theorists (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Plato *Tolman *Hull *Chomsky *Underwood *Broadbent *Anderson
Hippocampus (Brain Structures That are Involved with Memory)
*Plays a major role in encoding and storing information *With damage, you have difficulty storing and recalling information. Generally, the information is not appropriately coded due to insufficient elaboration. *With damage, new information is not stored, but old information remains intact. *Called Anterograde Amnesia
Echoic Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Related to the auditory system -Auditory sounds that last in the Cochlea and Temporal Lobe. -Lasts 2 seconds or less, can last longer -Why? Waves occurring in the cochlea
Iconic Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Related to the visual system -Are visual images in the retina and the brain -lasts approximately .25 seconds, can last longer. -Why? Processing in bipolar, ganglion, amacrine, and horizontal cells.
Different Approach (Second Memory Model-Depth of Processing)
*Relies on a computer model of memory *In many ways is similar to stage theory *Major difference is the way researchers view the storage process *Believe it is more active process
Major Components (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Semantic Memory *Is memory for words, meanings of words, and concepts.
Summary (Brain Structures That are Involved with Memory)
*So with damage to the Hippocampus memory is formed but due to elaboration problems, it is not properly encoded. *With the Thalamus, the memory never gets formed at all.
Agreeableness (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Sympathetic *Warm *Trusting *Cooperative
Extroversion (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Talkative *Sociable *Fun Loving *Affectionate
Self-Efficacy (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*The belief you have in your own ability. *The confidence you have that you will succeed.
Similarity of the learning and recall condition (Factors that influence Memory)
*The more similar the recall condition is to the learning condition, the better the recall. *Ideal place to study for an exams, is the room where you will take the exam.
Encoding Specificity (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*The more specific the context where the item was learned is to where the item is to be recalled, the higher the probability of recall. -The more similar the context of learning and recall, the better the learning. *Is like State Dependent Learning.
Elaborative Rehearsal (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Think of new information and relate it to information already stored in long term memory. *Think of what things mean and how they relate. *The better you organize the information, the easier it is to relate, and thus, store the information.
Cerebellum (Brain Structures That are Involved with Memory)
*Thompson *Conditioned a eye blink response and a leg movement response. *Lesioned the area that disrupted the eyeblink response. Result, the leg response was unaffected. *Then moved 1 millimeter closer to the middle of the brain and lesioned. *Result, found the conditioned leg response was affected but the eyeblink was not. CONCLUSION *Isolated procedural memories have unique pathways in the Cerebellum *Also get the same response when you remove the Hippocampus.
Secondary (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Traits that are not obvious *Show up in particular situations
Cardinal (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
*Traits that dominate an individual's life. -Passion to serve others -Acquire wealth
Free Recall Task (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*Try to recall items without hints *Is not the same as a serial learning task *Is difficult *e.g., - Name the 50 states - Name every brain structure - Don't worry about the order.
Encoding Stage (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*Two Phases *Acquisition Phase ->When you first encounter the term *Memory Trace -> The relevant experience leaves some record in the memory system
Short Term Memory (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
*Two components -Events that just occurred are still in consciousness -Are different from events that need to be brought back by recall from Long Term Memory.
Test Anxiety (Factors that influence Memory)
*While studying, you tend to be relaxed, but when taking the exam you tend to get tense due to the stress. When you tense, your blood pressure increases, different hormones are secreted, etc. *Result-Mind goes blanks -After the exam, you relax and can recall the information again. ADVICE *Take a test anxiety workshop. Learn to stay relaxed when taking the exam.
Studying Memory (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*You can examine memory at several different phases or stages. -Encoding Stage -Storage Stage -Retrieval Stage
Active Participation (Factors that influence Memory)
*You recall more information the more active you are during the learning. *Quizzing yourself while reading. *Determining how the material relates to other sections *Using Study guides. *Outlining book chapters or notes is better than highlighting or reading.
Storage Stage (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
*memory traces are held in some enduring form for later use.
Information STM can do One of Three Things (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
1- It can be rehearsed and remain in the STM 2- Is it not rehearsed and is forgotten 3- It can go into the next stage (LTM)
Attributes
A feature of an object or event that varies from one instance to another.
Mnemonics
A set of techniques the enhance the storage and retrieval of information.
Stage Theory
Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage model: The view that an experience is sequentially stored in the sensory register, short-term store, and long-term store. -Per Wiki Developmental stage theories are theories that divide child development into distinct stages which are characterized by qualitative differences in behaviour. There are a number of different views about the way in which psychological and physical development proceed throughout the life span.
Paired Associate Task Example (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
Book-Light Ice-Chalk Phone-Clip Stapler-Floor Knob-Plant Couch-Moon Button-Carpet etc...
Organizational Strategies we use to store information
Clustering • You will recall items better if you can recognize there are two or more types of things in a list. Verbal Mnemonic Techniques • Here you make your own organization. • Many different techniques. Acrostics • Acrostic are phrases in which the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help you recall information.
Describe problems that occur with eyewitness testimony and false memory syndrome.
False memory syndrome: The creation of an inaccurate record of childhood sexual abuse -The creation of an inaccurate record of childhood sexual abuse is now called the false memory syndrome. Many individuals have reported realizing that their therapists have created inaccurate memories; they then often feel victimized by their therapists. These individuals have formed a support group, called the False Memory Syndrome Foundation, to help with their recovery. Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony -Elizabeth Loftus -Relationship between memory reconstruction process and the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. -Trial witnesses recall what they think they saw or heard. -Lit suggests that their recollections may not always be accurate -In all likelihood, the incident they are recalling occured months or years earlier and the witnesses may have forgotten some aspects of the even. To create a logical and realistic account, the witnesses will fill in information consistent with aspects they actually remember. -Research on eyewitness testimony (Chandler, 1991; Schooler, Gerhard, & Loftus, 1986) also indicates that an individual witnessing an accident and then receiving misleading information cannot discriminate between the real and suggested events.
Describe various brain structures that are involved with memory.
Hippocampus *Plays a major role in encoding and storing information *With damage, you have difficulty storing and recalling information. Generally, the information is not appropriately coded due to insufficient elaboration. *With damage, new information is not stored, but old information remains intact. *Called Anterograde Amnesia Thalamus *Is also involved with memory formation *Is thought to give the message to print the memory initially. *With damage, memory traces never get created to begin with. *So, it isn't stored in either short term memory or long term memory. Cerebellum *Thompson *Conditioned a eye blink response and a leg movement response. *Lesioned the area that disrupted the eyeblink response. Result, the leg response as unaffected. *Then moves 1 millimeter closer to the middle of the brain and lesioned. *Result, found the conditioned lef response was affected but the eyeblink was not. Cortex *Lots of locations related to memory. *Tends to be related to the type of memory involved. *Mostly in the frontal love in a variety of structures
Brain structures involved with memory retrieval
Hippocampus • Plays a major role in encoding and storing information. • With damage, you have difficulty storing and recalling information. Generally, the information is not appropriately coded due to insufficient elaboration. • With damage, new information is not stored, but old information remains intact. • Called Anterograde Amnesia Thalamus • Is also involved with memory formation. • Is thought to give the message to print the memory initially. • With damage, memory traces never get created to begin with. • So, it isn't stored in either Short Term Memory or Long Term Memory. Cerebellum • Thompson • Conditioned a eye blink response and a leg movement response. • Lesioned the area that disrupted the eyeblink response. Result, the leg response was unaffected. • Then moved 1 millimeter closer to the middle of the brain and lesioned. • Result, found the conditioned leg response was affected but the eyeblink was not
How fast can you forget information?
Iconic .25 seconds Echoic 2 Seconds 7 plus or Minus 2- 10-20 seconds
Levels of Processing
Levels of Processing The levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) was put forward partly as a result of the criticism leveled at the multi-store model. Instead of concentrating on the stores/structures involved (i.e. short term memory & long term memory), this theory concentrates on the processes involved in memory. Unlike the multi-store model it is a non-structured approach. The basic idea is that memory is really just what happens as a result of processing information. Psychologists Craik and Lockhart propose that memory is just a by-product of the depth of processing of information and there is no clear distinction between short term memory and long term memory. Craik defined depth as "the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it." (1973, p. 48) We can process information in 3 ways: Shallow Processing - This takes two forms 1. Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look. 2. Phonemic processing - which is when we encode its sound. Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information. This is the only type of rehearsal to take place within the multi-store model. Deep Processing - This involves 3. Semantic processing, which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning. Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge. Summary Levels of processing: The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall.
Parallel Distributed Processing
Parallel distributed processing (PDP) The prevailing connectionist approach today was originally known as parallel distributed processing (PDP). It was an artificial neural network approach that stressed the parallel nature of neural processing, and the distributed nature of neural representations.
Example of Serial Learning Task (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
Pencil Wallet Bookcase Chair Pen Automobiled Hanger Elephant Place Suitcase Hat Bathroom Paper Towel Briefcase Ramp
The Order in Which you Learn Things (Factors that influence Memory)
Primacy starts out okay and as you get to the further items on the list recency kicks in and the percent correct goes up.
Provide an example of proactive and retroactive interference.
Proactive- Old information interferes with the new information *You are trying to remember new information but the old information takes over. Retroactive-New information interferes with the old information *You are trying to remember old information but the new information takes over.
Recognition Task (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
Recall information that you have seen before -Multiple choice exam
Focus (Cognitive Models-A Return to Examining Internal Events)
S - O - R --> S S back to O
Compare and contrast Semantic Memories with Procedural memories.
Semantic Memory: More structured record of the facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge about the external world that we have acquired. It refers to general factual knowledge shared with others and independent of personal experience and of the spatial/temporal context in which it was acquired. Semantic memories may once have had a personal context, but now stand along as a simple knowledge. Includes such things as types of food, capital cities, social customs, functions of objects, vocab., understanding of mathematics, etc. Much of semantic memory is abstract and relational and is associated with the meaning of verbal symbols. **Semantic refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn fro personal experience. Includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts acquired over a lifetime. Procedural Memory- Part of the long-terms memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills. As the name implies, procedural emery stores information on how to perform certain procedures, such as walking, talking and riding a bike.
Uses a Computer Analogy (Second Memory Model-Depth of Processing)
Sensory Memory->STM->LTM Data Input->RAM->Hard Drive Data Retrieval RAM <-Hard Drive
Spreading Activation Theory
Specifically, concepts are represented in memory as nodes, and relations between the concepts as associative pathways between the nodes. When part of the memory network is activated, activation spreads along the associative pathways to related areas in memory.
Describe Stage Theory and its components. How does the Rehearsal Systems Model and Levels of Processing model add to Stage Theory?
Stage theory- going through one stage to get to another. Shallow Processing *Structural processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of something *Phonemic Processing is when we encode the sound. Involves maintenance rehearsal (repitition to help us hold something in the STM) and leads to short-terms retention of information. Deep Processing *Semantic processing- Happening when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning. *Involves elaboration rehearsal which involves more meaningful analysis of information and leads to better recall. EX: Giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge. Levels of processing: The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remember. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall. Structural>Look like-Shallow Phonetic>Sounds like- STM->Long Term Memory Semantic>Means-Deep Examples: Reworking-putting information in your own words or talking about it with someone else. Method of Loci-When trying to remember a list of items, linking each with a familiar place or route. Imagery-By creating an image of something you want to remember; you elaborate on it and encode it visually. Strengths The theory is an improvement on Atkinson & Shiffrin's account of transfer from STM to LTM. The levels of processing model changed the direction of memory research. It showed that encoding was not a simple, straightforward process. This widened the focus from seeing long-term memory as a simple storage unit to seeing it as a complex processing system. Craik and Lockhart's ideas led to hundreds of experiments, most of which confirmed the superiority of 'deep' semantic processing for remembering information. It explains why we remember some things much better and for much longer than others. This explanation of memory is useful in everyday life because it highlights the way in which elaboration, which requires deeper processing of information, can aid memory. Weaknesses Despite these strengths, there are a number of criticisms of the levels of processing theory: • It does not explain how the deeper processing results in better memories. • Deeper processing takes more effort than shallow processing and it could be this, rather than the depth of processing that makes it more likely people will remember something. • The concept of depth is vague and cannot be observed. Therefore, it cannot be objectively measured.
Memory Reconstruction
The alteration of a memory to provide a consistent view of the world.
Echoic Memory
The auditory memory of an event stored in the sensory register.
Chunking
The combining of several units of information into a single unit.
False Memory Syndrome
The creation of an inaccurate record of childhood sexual abuse.
Von Resterhoff Effect Graph (Factors that influence Memory)
The graph starts out at an ok % then dips down the further down the list you go then you remember that "odd" word and others around it which makes your % spike up again, then it dips back down and the % goes back up towards the end of the list.
Interference
The inability to recall a specific memory due to the presence of other memories
Sensory Register
The initial storage of memory for a very brief time as an exact duplicate of the event.
Semantic Memory
The memory of knowledge concerning the use of language and the rules for the solution of problems or acquisition of concepts.
Rehearsal Systems Model
The view that information is retained in several sensory systems for analysis by working memory.
Iconic Memory
The visual memory of an event stored in the sensory register.
Describe methods to enhance memory.
Types of Memory Cues *Context and state dependent cues and mnemonics *Acronym-A mnemonic device that involved composing a pronounceable word from the first letters of a sequence of words to be remembered. *Acrotic- A mnemonic device that involves making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing phrases containing words that begin with the first letters of the information to be remembered in order. *Context Dependent Cue-A cue for memory retrieval based on environmental factors in the specific situation in which a memory was formed. *Encoding-The process of converting information into a useable form that can be represented and stored in memory. *Mnemonic-Device a technique for enhancing or improving memory *Narrative Chaining-Mnemonic device that involves connecting otherwise unrelated items to one another in a meaningful way.
How does Information get into Long Term Memory? (Early Theories of Memory, Stages or Multiprocess Theories. Best described by Atkinson and Shiffrin)
We use *Rehearsal *rehearsal holds information is STM long enough for transfer to take place
Von Resterhoff Effect (Factors that influence Memory)
When a word in the middle of the list of words is surprising, funny, or dirty, you will usually recall that word and some around it.
Problem (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
Words often have meaning Solution -Use nonsense syllables CCC CVC
Memorize in Order (Memory-Early Studies of Cognition)
XLR PJV RFG MZC etc.
