Psychology-Basic Research Methods Chapter 1-4

Descriptive research

Research designed to describe in an accurate and systematic fashion the behavior, thoughts, or feelings of a group of participants

Correlational research

Research designed to examine the nature of the relationship between two measures variables

Applied research

Research designed to investigate real world problems or improve the quality of life

Experimental research

Research designed to test whether certain variables cause changes in behavior, thoughts or feelings; in an experiment the researcher assigns participants to conditions and manipulates at least one independent variable

Basic research

Research designed to understand psychological processes without regard for whether that understanding will be immediately applicable in solving real-world problems

Archival research

Research in which data are analyzed from existing records, such as census reports, court records, or personal letters

Quasi-experimental research

Research in which the researcher cannot assign participants to conditions or manipulate the independent variable

Content analysis

Procedures used to convert written or spoke information into data that can be analyzed and interpreted

Scales of measurement

Properties of a measure that reflect the degree to which scores obtained on that measure reflect the characteristics of real numbers (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio)

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A brain imaging technology that allows researchers to view the structure and activity of the brain; used to study the relationship between brain activity and psychological phenomena

Unobtrusive measure

A dependent variable that can be measured without affecting participants' responses

Predictive validity

A form of criterion-related validity that reflects the extent to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish between respondents at some time in the future

Concurrent validity

A form of criterion-related validity that reflects the extent to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish between respondents at the time a measure is take

Narrative record

A full description of a participant's behavior as it occurs

Empirical generalization

A hypothesis that is based on the results of previous studies

Physiological measure

A measure of bodily activity

Duration

A measure of the amount of time that a particular reaction lasts from its onset to conclusion

Interval scale

A measure on which equal distances between scores represent equal differences in the property being measured

Self-report measure

A measure on which participants provide information about themselves

Nominal scale

A measure on which the numbers assigned to participants' characteristics are merely labels

Ordinal scale

A measure on which the numbers assigned to participants' responses reflect the rank order of participants from highest to lowest

Neuroscientific measure

A measure that asses processes occurring in the brain or other parts of the nervous system

Psychophysiological measure

A measure that assess processes occurring in the brain or other parts of the nervous system

Radio scale

A measurement on which scores possess all of the characteristics of real numbers, including a true zero point

Range

A measures of variability that is equal to the difference between the largest and smallest scores in a set of data

Checklist

A measuring instrument on which a rater indicates whether particular behaviors have been observed

Experience sampling methods (ESM)

A method of collecting data in which participants record info about their thoughts, feelings, emotions, or behaviors as they occur in everyday life

Diary methodology

A method of data collection in which participants keep a daily record of their behavior, thoughts, or feelings

Participant observation

A method of data collection in which researchers engage in the same activities as the participants they are observing

Questionnaire

A method of data collection in which respondents provide written answers to written questions

Interview

A method of data collection in which respondents respond verbally to a researcher's question

Observational measure

A method of measuring behavior by directly observing participants

Observational method

A method of measuring behavior by directly observing patients

Variance

A numerical index of the variability in a set of daga

a priori prediction

A prediction made about the outcome of a study before data are collected

Hypothesis

A proposition that follows logically from a theory; a prediction regarding the outcome of a study

Single-item measure

A questionnaire or interview item that is intended to be analyzed and used by itself

Field notes

A researcher's narrative record of a participant's behavior

Fixed-alternative response format

A response format in which participants answer a questionnaire or interview item by choosing one response from a set of possible alternatives

Multiple choice response format

A response format in which participants answer a questionnaire/interview items by choosing one response from a set of possible alternatives (fixed-alternative response)

Free response format

A response format in which the participant prices an unstructured answer to a question (open-ended)

Rating scale response format

A response format on which participants rate the intensity or frequency of their behaviors, thoughts, or feelings

Multi-item scale

A series of questionnaire or interview items that are intended to be used and analyzed as a set

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure used to analyze and integrate the results of many individual studies on a single topic

Statistical notation

A system of symbols that represents particular mathematical operations (s^2=variance)

Conceptual definition

An abstract, dictionary-type definition

Hypothetical construct

An entity that cannot be directly observed but that is inferred on the basis of observable evidence (intelligence, status, anxiety)

Model

An explanation of how a particular process occurs

Post hoc explanation

An explanation offered for a set of findings after the data are collected and analyzed

Cronbach's alpha coefficient

An index of interitem reliability

Correlation coefficient

An index of the direction and magnitude of the relationship between two variables; the value ranges from 21.00 to 11.00

Neuroscience

An interdisciplinary field involving chemistry, biology, psychology, and other disciplines that studies biochemical, anatomical, physiological, and developmental processes involving the nervous system (in psychology they study how processes occurring in the nervous system are related to sensation, perception, thought, emotion, and behavior)

Pseudoscience

Claims of knowledge that are couched in the trappings of science but that violate the central criteria of scientific investigation, such as systematic empiricism, public verification, and testability

Operational definition

Defining a construct by specifying precisely how it is measured or manipulated in a particular study

Strategy of strong inference

Designing a study in such a way that it tests competing predictions from two or more theories

Convergent validity

Documenting the validity of a measure by showing that it correlates appropriately with measures of related constructs

Discriminant validity

Documenting the validity of a measure by showing that it does not correlate with measures of conceptually unrelated constructs

Null finding

Failing to obtain a statistically significant effect in a study

Inferential statistics

Mathematical analyses that allow researchers to draw conclusions regarding the reliability and generalizability of their data (t-tests and f-tests)

Descriptive statistics

Numbers that summarize and describe the behavior of participants in a study (mean and standard deviation)

Naturalistic observation

Observation of ongoing behavior as it occurs naturally with no intrusion or intervention by the researcher

Undisguised observation

Observing participants with their knowledge of being observed

Disguised observation

Observing participants' behavior without their knowledge

Theory

Set of propositions that attempts to explain the relationships among a set of concepts

Knowledgable informant

Someone who knows a participant well enough to report on his/her behavior

Neuroimaging

Techniques such as fMRI and CAT, that allow researchers to see images if the structure and activity of the brain

Task completion time

The amount of time it takes a research participant to complete a test, problem, or other task

Latency

The amount of time that elapses between a particular event and a behavior

Test bias

The characteristic of a test that is not equally valid for different groups of people

Reliability

The consistency of dependability of a measuring technique; inversely related to measurement error

Interitem reliability

The consistency of respondents' responses on a set of conceptually related items; the degree to which a set of items that ostensibly measure the same concept are intercorrelated

Test-retest reliability

The consistency of respondents' scores on a measure across time

Item-total correlation

The correlation between respondents' scores on one item on a scale and the sum of their responses on the remaining items; an index of interitem reliability

Split-half reliability

The correlation between respondents' scores on two halves of a single instrument; an index of interitem reliability

Construct validity

The degree to which a measure of a particular construct correlates as expected with measures of other constructs

Interbehavior latency

The degree to which a researcher draws accurate conclusions about the effects of an independent variable

Variability

The degree to which scores in a set of data differ or vary from one another

Interrater reliability

The degree to which the observations of two independent raters or observers agree

Measurement error

The deviation of a participant's observed score from his/her true score

Criterion-related validity

The extent to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among respondents on the basis of some behavioral criterion

Validity

The extent to which a measurement procedure actually measures what it is intended to measure

Face validity

The extent to which a measurement procedure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure

Psychometrics

The field devoted to the study of psychological measurement

True score

The hypothetical score that a participant would obtain if the attribute being measured could be measured without error

Response format

The manner in which respondents indicate their answers to questions

Mean

The mathematical average of a set of scores

Contrived observation

The observation of behavior in settings that have been arranged specifically for observing and recording behavior

Reactivity

The phenomenon that occurs when a participant's knowledge that he/she is being studied affects his/her responses

Error variance

The portion of the total variance in a set of data that remains unaccounted for after systematic variance is removed; variance that is unrelated to the variables under investigation in a study

Systematic variance

The portion of the total variance in a set of scores that is related in an orderly, predictable fashion to the variables the researcher is investigating

File-drawer problem

The possibility that studies that failed to support a particular hypothesis have not been published, leading researches to overestimate the support for an effect based only on the published evidence

Public verification

The practice of conducting research in such a way that it can be observed, verified, and replicated by others

Empiricism

The practice of relying on observation to draw conclusions about the world

Methodological pluralism

The practice of using many different research approaches to address a particular question

Deduction

The process of reasoning from a general proposition to a specific implication of that proposition

Induction

The process of reasoning from specific instances to a general proposition about those instances

Falsifiability

The requirement that a hypothesis must be capable of being falsified

Interview schedule

The series of questions and accompanying response formats that guides an interviewer's line of questioning during an interview

Effect size

The strength of the relationship two or more variables, usually expressed as the proportion of variance in one variable that can be accounted for by another variable

Social desirability response bias

The tendency for people to distort their responses in a manner that portrays them in a positive light

Nay-saying

The tendency for some participants to disagree with statements on questionnaires or in interviews regardless of the content

Acquiescence

The tendency for some people to agree with statements regardless of their content

Reaction time

The time that elapses between a stimulus and a participant's response to that stimulus

Total variance

The total sum of squares divided by the number of squares minus 1

Total sum of squares

The total variability in a set of data; calculated by subtracting the mean from each score, squaring the differences and summing them

Evaluation research

The use of behavioral research methods to assess the effects of programs on behavior

Computerized experience sampling methods

The use of small, portable computers, personal digital assistants, or smartphones to allow participants to record information about experiences in their daily lives soon after they happen

Converging operations

Using several measurement approaches to measure a particular variable