psychology ch 1
theories
*broad explanation and prediction concerning phenomena of interest
observable behavior versus internal mental processes
-some psychologist contend that the only legitimate source of information for psychologists is the behavior that can be observed directly
experimental psychology
1. is the branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world 2. psychologist in every speciality area use experimental techniques -this is how a participant experiences the world -A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people are much more sensitive to pain stimuli than others
behavioral neuroscience
1. is the subfield of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior 2. neuroscientists consider how our bodies influence our behavior *what chemicals are released in the the human body as a result of a stressful event? What are their effects on behavior?
psychologist
1. try to describe, predict, and explain human behavior and mental processes, as well as helping to change and improve the lives of people and the world in which they live in 2. They use scientific methods to find answers that are far more valid and legitimate than those resulting from intuition and speculation, which are often inaccurate
Research
1. what was the purpose of the research? 2. how well was the study conducted? 3. are the results presented fairly?
Origin of Species
Charles Darwin: evolutionary psychology stems from Darwin's arguments -Darwin suggested that a process of natural selection leads to the survival of the fittest and the development of traits that enable a species to adapt to its environment
industrial psychology
Jessica is asked to develop a management strategy that will encourage safer work practices in an assembly plant
structuralism -Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt's approach which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activites
hypothesis
a *narrow prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested
informed consent
a document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are away of that their participation will involve
control group
a group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment
random assignment to condition
a procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or "conditions" on the basis of chance and chance alone
introspection
a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus
trephining
allow evil spirits to escape a person's body, ancient healers chipped a hole in a person's sculle with crude instruments
confederate
an actor that is employed by a researcher who participates in a psychological experiment, pretending to be a participant
gestalt psychology
an approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a "whole" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception -The whole is different from the sum of its parts: meaning that our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our peceptions
functionalism - William James
an early approach to psychology, led by James, that concentrated on what the mind does - the functions of mental activity - and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments -concentrates on what the mind does and how behavior functions
case study
an in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people
experiemtnal group
any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment
psychodynamic perspective
approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
cognitive perspective
approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world
humanistic perspective
approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior
behavioral perspective
approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study
neurosicence perspective
approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, nervous system, and other biological functions
negative correlation
as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases
variables
behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary in some way
John Locke
children were born with blank slates
information processing
cognitive psychologists compare human thinking to the workings of a computer, which takes in information and transforms, stores, and retrieves it
evolutionary psychology
considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors -they argue that genetic inheritance determines certain personality traits and social behaviors
clinical psychology
deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders -a strong fear of crowds leads a young man to seek treatment for his problem
PhD
doctor of philosophy -research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation -take 4-5 years past the bachelor's level
PsyD
doctor of psychology -obtained by psychologists who want to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders
health psychology
explores the relationship between psychological factors and the physical ailments or disease -Janetta's job is demanding and stressful. She wonders if her lifestyle is making her more prone to certain illnesses, such as cancer and heart disease
experiemtnal bias
factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiement
placebo
false treatment, such as a pill, "drug", or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient
cognitive psychology
focuses on higher mental processes, including thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language. *What mental strategies are involved in solving complex word problems
personality psychology
focuses on the consistency in people's behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another -Luis is unique in his manner of responding to crisis situations, with an even temperament and a postive outlook
counseling psychology
focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems -Joan, a college freshman, is worried about her grades. She needs to learn better organizational skills and study habits to cope with the demands of college
diffusion of responsibility
greater the number of bystanders in an emergency situation, the smaller the share of responsibility each person feels
psychiatrists
have a medical degree MD and specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorder, often using treatments that involve the prescription of drugs
individual differences versus universal principles
how much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, the individual differences that differentiate us from other people
conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior
how much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware, and how much is due to the unconscious activity - mental processes that are not accessible to the conscious mind
nature (heredity) versus nurture (environments)
how much of people's behavior is due to their genetically determined nature, and how much is due to nurture (the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised
positive correlation
indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase
cross-cultural psychology
investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functionaing
experiment
investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation
psychology
is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
behavior and mental processes
it encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even biological activities that maintain bodily functioning
double-blind procedure
keeping both the experimenter and participant "blind" to the nature of the drug that is being administered, researchers can more accurately assess the effects of the drug
significant outcome
meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypothesis
17th century Descartes
nerves were hollow tubes through which "animal spirits" conducted impulses in the same way that water is transmitted through a pipe -some knowledge was inborn in humans
participant expectation
participants develop their own hypotheses about what the experimenter hopes to learn from the study -they may act from their hunches, it may be their expectations, rather than experimental manipulation, that produce the results
meta-analysis
permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall conclusion 1. question of interest 2. formulated an explanation 3. communicated their findings
conversion disorder
physical ailment without biological cause
psychological testing
procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group
naturalistic observation
research in which an investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation
archival research
research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, online databases, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis
survey research
research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitude -sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (population)
correlational research
research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or correlated
replicated research
research that is replicated, sometimes use other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings
behavioral genetics
seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavior traits and how the environment influences whether we actual display such traits
determinism
sees behavior as caused, or determined, by things beyond a person's control
developmental psychology
studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death -At what age do children generally begin to acquire an emotional attachment to their fathers?
social psychology
study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others 2. social psychologists concentrate on diverse topics as human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, and conformity
research
systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowlede
free will
the ability to freely make decisions about one's own behavior and life
scientific method
the approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest
experimental manipulation
the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation
participants/subjects
the dependent variable is depending on the actions
treatment
the manipulation implemented by the experimenter
correlation coefficient
the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables are represented by this mathematical statistic -0.1 to +1.0
school psychology
the teachers of 8-year-old Jack are concerned that he has recently begun to withdraw socially and to show little interest in schoolwork
operational definition
the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated by an experienter
Franz Gall MD
trained observer could discern intelligence, moral character, and other basic personality characteristics from the shape and number of bumps on a person's skull
clinical neuropsychoogy
unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology
dependent variable
variable that is measured in an experiment. it is expected to change as a result of the printer's manipulation of the independent variable
WEIRD
western, education, industrialized, rich, and democratic cultures
educational psychology
what teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary school students to successfully accomplish academic tasks
