Psychology Chapter 1 - Science of Psychology

Providing research participants with information about the purpose of a study at the study's conclusion is called

Debriefing

Informed consent:

All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop.

Structuralism - About the what? - William Wundt

Focus on identifying the elemental parts or structures of the human mind. "Structures" of mental processes.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in a real-world setting

Evolutionary approach

Uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors. David Buss (2012) argues that just as evolution molds our physical features, such as body shape, it also influences our decision making, level of aggressiveness, fears, and mating patterns. Thus, evolutionary psychologists say, the way we are is traceable to problems early humans faced in adapting to their environment

Sarah's mother forwards her a chain email warning of an association between drinking orange juice and developing arthritis. Her mom tells her that three of her closest friends are big orange juice fans and they recently developed arthritis. Sarah's mother tells her to stop drinking orange juice and to tell her friends to do the same. Rather than forwarding the email to everyone she knows, Sarah should

A) gently explain to her mother the importance of considering the source of scientific information. B) respectfully tell her mother that even if an association between two variables is found, it does C) not imply a causal relationship. kindly ask her mother if the study was published in D) a scientific journal and if so, which one. All of the above.

Debriefing

After the study has been completed, the researchers should inform the participants of its purpose and the methods they used. In most cases, the experimenters also can inform participants in a general manner beforehand about the purpose of the research without leading the participants to behave in a way that they think that the experimenters are expecting. When preliminary information about the study is likely to affect the results, participants must be debriefed after the study's completion.

Amanda is participating in a psychological study as part of her Intro Psychology course. While filling out items on a questionnaire, Amanda finds that some of them embarrass her, and she decides to skip them. As she leaves the study, the experimenter notices these blank questions and asks Amanda to complete them because the research will be ruined without complete data from all participants. Which of the following accurately assesses the ethics of this situation?

Amanda is within her rights to leave any question blank if she chooses, and the experimenter has definitely "crossed a line."

The organization that provides ethical guidelines for psychologists is the

American Psychological Association.

Charles Darwin - Natural selection

An evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and, importantly, produce offspring.

You want to know if getting more exercise will improve your mood. Which research study would be most informative?

An experiment that involves randomly assigning 200 students similar to yourself to either a physical activity condition or a control group, and then measuring mood.

Deception

Another issue is that a study that uses deception inherently violates the principle of informed consent. Even in the case of deception by omission, the participants cannot be fully informed prior to giving consent. This is why participants in studies involving deception should have the option of withdrawing consent after they find out what the study is actually about.

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

Approaches to psychology include biological, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, evolutionary, and sociocultural. All of these perspectives consider important questions about human behavior from different but complementary vantage points.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of the data analyses, scientists then draw conclusions from their research. If the results of a study (or a series of studies) support predictions, then a theory may gain credibility. A theory, however, is always open to revision. Before a theory is accepted or changed, the scientific community must establish that the research can be replicated, or repeated, by other scientists using different methods. If a particular research finding is demonstrated again and again across different researchers and different methods, it is considered reliable—in other words, it is a dependable result.

A study reports that height is surprisingly correlated with lifetime income. Specifically, tall people tend to make more money than short people. April is the shortest women in her class and when she reads about the study she becomes upset. What advice would you have for April?

Correlation does not imply causation and group statistics cannot be assumed to apply to every single case.

Charles Darwin's work is relevant to psychology because?

Darwin's principle of natural selection suggests that human behavior is partially a result of efforts to survive.

Descriptive research

Describing some phenomenon—determining its basic dimensions and defining what this thing is, how often it occurs, and so on. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people's behaviors and attitudes Descriptive research methods include observation, surveys and interviews, and case studies.

Emily, a committed environmentalist, reads a report that among a nationally representative sample, 60 percent of people polled support drilling for oil off the shores of California. The poll includes 1,000 people. Emily scoffs at the results, noting that all of the people she knows do not support offshore drilling. The poll must be flawed, she insists. How do you evaluate Emily's statement?

Emily is likely to be wrong. A representative sample is more likely to reflect the general population than the small sample of Emily's friends.

Humanistic approach

Emphasizes a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's destiny.

Cognitive approach

Emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems. For example, cognitive psychologists want to know how we solve math problems, why we remember some things for only a short time but others for a lifetime, and how we can use our imaginations to plan for the future

Behavioral approach

Emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants. It focuses on an organism's visible behaviors, not thoughts or feelings. The psychologists who adopt this approach are called behaviorists

Psychodynamic approach - Sigmund Freud, the founding father of the psychodynamic approach, theorized that early relationships with parents shape an individual's personality.

Emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences. Practitioners of this approach believe that sexual and aggressive impulses buried deep within the unconscious mind influence the way people think, feel, and behave.

Behavior

Everything we do that can be directly observed two people kissing, a baby crying, a college student riding a motorcycle to campus.

Biological approach

Focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. Some psychologists examine behavior and mental processes through the this.

Conducting Ethical Research

For all kinds of research, ethical treatment of participants is very important. Participants should leave a psychological study no worse off than they were when they entered. Guiding principles for ethical research in psychology include informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing (participants should be fully informed about the purpose of a study once it is over), and explaining fully the use of deception in a study.

Formulating hypotheses and predictions - Hypothesis

Hypothesis -Testable prediction that derives logically from a theory. A theory can generate many hypotheses. If more and more hypotheses related to a theory turn out to be true, the theory gains in credibility

Learning About Psychology Means Learning About You

In your everyday life and in introductory psychology, you will be exposed to psychological research findings. In encountering psychological research in the media, you should adopt the attitude of a scientist and critically evaluate the research as presented. In introductory psychology, you should make the most of the experience by applying it to your life. Psychology is, after all, the scientific study of you—your behavior, thoughts, goals, and well-being.

A study could possibly put participants at risk of harm, but the participants are not told about that risk. The ethical standard that has been violated is

Informed consent

Empirical Method

Involves gaining knowledge by observing events, collecting data, and reasoning logically. For scientists, objectivity means waiting to see what the evidence tells them rather than going with their hunches.

An experiment

It is a carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables that are believed to influence some other variable.

Psychology's Scientific Method

Observing some phenomenon Formulating hypotheses and predictions Testing through empirical research Drawing conclusions Evaluating conclusions

LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS

One way that correlational researchers can deal with the issue of causation is to employ a special kind of systematic observation called a longitudinal design. Longitudinal research involves observing and measuring the same variables periodically over time.

Which of the following statements is correct?

Only experimental research allows researchers to determine causality.

Testing through empirical research - Operational Definition

Operational definition - provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study. Such a definition eliminates the fuzziness that might creep into thinking about a problem.

Of the following, the characteristic that is not at the heart of the scientific approach is

Prejudging

Functionalism - About the why? - William James

Probed the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment.

The approach to psychology that is most interested in early childhood relationships is

Psychodynamic psychology

Psychology's Scientific Method

Psychologists use the scientific method to address research questions. This method involves starting with a theory and then making observations, formulating hypotheses, testing these through empirical research, drawing conclusions, and evaluating these conclusions. The science of psychology is an ongoing conversation among scholars.

Science

Psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions. The goals of psychological science are to describe, predict, and explain behavior. In addition, psychologists are often interested in controlling or changing behavior, and they use scientific methods to examine interventions that might help, for example, reduce violence or promote happiness.

SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS

Sometimes the best and quickest way to get information about people is to ask them for it. One technique is to interview them directly. A related method that is especially useful when information from many people is needed is the survey, or questionnaire. A survey presents a standard set of questions, or items, to obtain people's self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic.

EVALUATING CONCLUSIONS

The final step in the scientific method, evaluating conclusions, is one that never ends. Researchers submit their work for publication, and it undergoes rigorous review. Afterward, the published studies are there for all to see, read, and evaluate continually. Although the published research literature represents the current state of scientific knowledge about various topics and areas, the research community maintains an active conversation about this knowledge and constantly questions conclusions. Inspired by published studies, a scientist might come up with a new idea to be tested, one that will eventually change the thinking on some topic. Steps 3, 4, and 5 in the scientific method are thus part of an ongoing process. That is, researchers go back and do more research, revise their theories, hone their methods, and draw and evaluate their new conclusions.

control group

The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable. in an experiment is as much like the experimental group as possible and is treated in every way like the experimental group except for that change.

Critical thinking

The process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence. Critical thinkers question and test what some people say are facts. They examine research to see how soundly it supports an idea. Critical thinking reduces the likelihood that conclusions will be based on unreliable personal beliefs, opinions, and emotions. Critical thinking also comes into play when scientists consider the conclusions they draw from research. As critical thinkers who are open to new information, scientists must tolerate uncertainty, knowing that even long-held views are subject to revision.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It includes science, behavior, and mental processes.

Neuroscience

The scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system

Observation

This type of scientific observation requires an important set of skills (Jackson, 2015). Unless you are a trained observer and practice your skills regularly, you might not know what to look for, you might not remember what you saw, you might not realize that what you are looking for is changing from one moment to the next, and you might not communicate your observations effectively. Furthermore, it might be important to have one or more others do the observations as well, to develop a sense of how accurate your observations are. For observations to be effective, they must be systematic. You must know whom you are observing, when and where you will observe, and how you will make the observations. Also, you need to know in advance in what form you will document them: in writing, by sound recording, or by video.

Mental processes

Thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly. Although we cannot directly see thoughts and feelings, they are nonetheless real. They include thinking about kissing someone, a baby's feelings when its mother leaves the room, and a student's memory of a motorcycle trip.

Types of Psychological Research

Three types of research commonly used in psychology are descriptive research (finding out about the basic dimensions of some variable), correlational research (finding out if and how two variables change together), and experimental research (determining the causal relationship between variables). In an experiment, the independent variable is manipulated to see if it produces changes in the dependent variable. Experiments involve comparing two groups: the experimental group (the one that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable) and the control group (the comparison group or baseline that is equal to the experimental group in every way except for the independent variable). Experimental research relies on random assignment to ensure that the groups are roughly equivalent before the manipulation of the independent variable.

Research Samples and Settings

Two important decisions that must be made for psychological research are whom to study and where to study them. A sample is the group that participates in a study; the population is the group to which the researcher wishes to generalize the results. A random sample is the best way of ensuring that the sample reflects the population. Research settings include the laboratory as well as real-world, naturalistic contexts. The laboratory allows a great deal of control, but naturalistic settings may give a truer sense of natural behavior.

Two psychologists, Clayton and Sam, are interested in studying emotional expressions. Clayton wants to determine whether emotional expression is healthy and if it has an influence on well-being. Sam is interested in describing the types of emotions people express and building a catalog of all the emotions and emotional expressions that exist. In this example, Clayton is most like and Sam is most like .

William James; Wilhelm Wundt

Jacob wants to study the relationship between falling in love and a person's academic performance. He asks students to fill out a questionnaire in which they answer "true" or "false" to the question, "Did you fall in love this semester?" Then he asks them for their GPA for the semester. Jacob's study is study.

a correlational

The statement "I believe this research will demonstrate that students who study in groups will get better grades than those who study alone" is an example of

a hypothesis.

confederate

a person who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated

Experimental group

consists of the participants in an experiment who receive the treatment that is of interest to the researcher, or a particular drug under study—that is, the participants who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents.

dependent variable

is the outcome—the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable.

A drawback of laboratory research is that

it is hard to conduct without the participants' knowledge that they are being studied.

An independent variable

manipulated experimental factor. The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are; it is a potential cause. Any experiment may include several independent variables or factors that are manipulated to determine their effect on some outcome. In the study of positive mood and meaning in life, the independent variable is mood (positive versus neutral), operationally defined by the type of music participants listened to.

When a researcher decides to study a particular group, such as Latino factory workers, the researcher is specifically determining the study's

sample

Study on obesity had four groups, each with a different assignment. One group of participants read a brochure about diet and nutrition; another group had a 30-minute nutrition counseling session; a third group read the newspaper; a fourth group watched a video about exercise and fitness. The control group is

the group that read the newspaper.

To mirror the population as closely as possible

the researcher uses a random sample, a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected.

Random assignment

Means that researchers assign participants to groups by chance. This technique reduces the likelihood that the experiment's results will be due to any preexisting differences between groups.

Defining Psychology and Exploring Its Roots

Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Psychologists approach human behavior as scientists who think critically and who are curious, skeptical, and objective. Psychology emerged as a science from philosophy and physiology. Two founders of the science of psychology are Wilhelm Wundt and William James.

The entire group of people about whom a researcher wants to draw conclusions is the

population.

correlational research - CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

Tells us about the relationships between variables, and its purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together. That is, correlational research looks at a co-relationship. For instance, if one of the variables increases, what happens to the other one? When two variables change together, we can predict one from the other, and we say that the variables are correlated

Sociocultural approach examines the influences of social and cultural environments on behavior

The sociocultural approach often includes cross-cultural research, meaning research that compares individuals in various cultures to see how they differ on important psychological attributes. Cross-cultural research is important for testing the assumption that findings for one culture

A correlation of −.67 indicates

a strong negative relationship

CASE STUDIES

A case study or case history is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case studies are performed mainly by clinical psychologists when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual's life cannot be duplicated and tested in other individuals. A case study provides information about one person's goals, hopes, fantasies, fears, traumatic experiences, family relationships, health, or anything else that helps the psychologist understand the person's mind and behavior. Case studies can also involve in-depth explorations of particular families or social groups.

In a blog post, a scientist describes a recently completed study in which she found that people who were assigned to an exercise group reported 10 times more happiness than those in a control group. She and her colleagues plan to submit the findings for publication. What would a wise reader of science think about this post?

The jury is still out on the findings because the research has not gone through peer review.

The entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions is the population.

The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study is a sample.

OBSERVING SOME PHENOMENON -Theory

Theory is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations. Theories seek to explain why certain things are as they are or why they have happened. Theories can be used to make predictions about future observations.

Which of the following statements is correct?

There are many controversies in the field of psychology.

OBSERVING SOME PHENOMENON - Variable

Variable is anything that can change.

The last step in the scientific method, and one that never ends, is

evaluating conclusions.

The approach to psychology that views psychological distress as a result of persistent negative thoughts is

the cognitive approach.

The approach to psychology that focuses on self-fulfillment, altruism, and personal growth is

the humanistic approach.

Any changeable phenomenon that a scientist studies is called a

variable.

Paul believes that physically attractive people are selfish. He conducts a study to see if he is right. He goes up to five people he thinks are good-looking and asks them for spare change. They all turn him down. Paul concludes, "Aha! I knew it all along." The operational definition of selfish in Paul's study is

whether people gave Paul spare change