psychology chapter 11

self-regulation

"Self-regulation is the process of identifying a goal or set of goals and, in pursuing these goals, using both internal (e.g., thoughts and affect) and external (e.g., responses of anything or anyone in the environment) feedback to maximize goal attainment"

differences in Adler's ideas vs Freud's

Rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behavior as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation, since he believed that the three fundamental social tasks are explicitly known and pursued. That is not to say that Adler did not also believe in unconscious processes—he did—but he felt that conscious processes were more important.

(T/F) Skinner believed that personality is determined in childhood

F, this was freud. our personalities can change when we become adults

(T/F) Behavorists see personality traits as inborn.

False, they view personality as significantly shaped by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism. In other words, people behave in a consistent manner based on prior learning.

Hippocrates and personality

Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids ("humors") of the body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the lungs)

anal-expulsive personality

If parents are too lenient in toilet training, the child may fail to develop sufficient self-control, become fixated at this stage, and develop an anal-expulsive personality. The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts.

Gall and personality

In 1780, Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person's personality traits, character, and mental abilities. According to Gall, measuring these distances revealed the sizes of the brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good with languages, and so on. Initially, phrenology was very popular; however, it was soon discredited for lack of empirical support and has long been relegated to the status of pseudoscience

castration anxiety

In psychoanalysis, the fear in young boys that they will be mutilated genitally because of their lust for their mothers.

penis envy

Jung also said that girls are angry with the mother for not providing them with a penis—hence the term penis envy

contemporary psychology and temperament

Most contemporary psychologists believe temperament has a biological basis due to its appearance very early in our lives. babies could be categorized into one of three temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. However, environmental factors (family interactions, for example) and maturation can affect the ways in which children's personalities are expressed

anal retentive personality

Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become so fearful of soiling that they over-control and become fixated at the anal stage, leading to the development of an anal-retentive personality. The anal-retentive personality is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist.

personality in collectivist cultures

People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. display more socially oriented personality traits

personality in individualist cultures

People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. display more personally oriented personality traits

what is reactivity and self-regulation

Reactivity refers to how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli; self-regulation refers to our ability to control that response. For example, one person may immediately respond to new stimuli with a high level of anxiety, while another barely notices it.

personality clusters in the united states

Researchers found three distinct regional personality clusters in the United States. People tend to be friendly and conventional in the Upper Midwest and Deep South; relaxed, emotionally stable, and creative in the West; and stressed, irritable, and depressed in the Northeast

Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)

The C-TCB contains 20 color images that show scenes of African-American lifestyles. When the C-TCB was compared with the TAT for African Americans, it was found that use of the C-TCB led to increased story length, higher degrees of positive feelings, and stronger identification with the C-TCB. an example of a personality assessment developed because of the lack of reliability of existing personality tests in assessing the personalities and lifestyles of members of widely divergent ethnic/cultural groups using personality instruments based on data from a single culture or race. For example, when the TAT was used with African-American test takers, the result was often shorter story length and low levels of cultural identification

HEXACO model

The HEXACO model is an alternative to the Five-Factor Model. The HEXACO model includes six traits, five of which are variants of the traits included in the Big Five (Emotionality [E], Extraversion [X], Agreeableness [A], Conscientiousness [C], and Openness [O]). The sixth factor, Honesty-Humility [H], is unique to this model.

the job of the ego (self) according to Freud

The job of the ego, or self, is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.

heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

five factor model (big five)

Trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. (OCEAN)

Erikson Psychosocial Development stage 1 age 0-1

Trust vs. Mistrust. Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met

Maslow and personality

a humanist, studied people who he considered to be healthy, creative, and productive. found that people like albert einstein and abraham lincoln share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of themselves.

Carl Rogers and personality

a humanistic theorist. self-concept, ideal self, real self, congruence

self-report inventories

a kind of objective test used to assess personality. They typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). They often are called Likert scales after their developer, Rensis Likert. Self-report inventories are generally easy to administer and cost effective. There is also an increased likelihood of test takers being inclined to answer in ways that are intentionally or unintentionally more socially desirable, exaggerated, biased, or misleading. For example, someone applying for a job will likely try to present themselves in a positive light, perhaps as an even better candidate than they actually are.

collective unconscious

a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, nine-tenths of our minds. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Moving Toward People (Horney coping style)

affiliation and dependence. Child seeking positive attention and affection from parent; adult needing love

moving against people (Horney coping style)

aggression and manipulation. Child fighting or bullying other children; adult who is abrasive and verbally hurtful, or who exploits others

Kant and personality

agreed with Galen that everyone could be sorted into one of the four temperaments and that there was no overlap between the four categories

cognitive processes

all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics.

culture

all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society. Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are either rewarded or punished

TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test

another tool designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths. TEMAS—standing for "Tell Me a Story" but also a play on the Spanish word temas (themes)—uses images and storytelling cues that relate to minority culture

projection

attributing unacceptable desires to others

Erikson Psychosocial Development stage 2 age 1-3

autonomy vs. shame/doubt. Sense of independence in many tasks develops

indigenous approach

came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings. Because Western-based personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied

Johanna is almost always nasty to people. She talks about others behind their backs, looks for ways to undercut classmates, and intentionally does things to impede other's success. Virtually everyone she knows eventually grows to dislike her, often citing her nastiness as the reason why they don't want to be around her. According to Allport, this negativity seems to be a(n) ________ trait for Johanna.

cardinal

traits

characteristic ways of behaving

conscientiousness

characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior). People who score high on this factor are hardworking and dependable. Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success

openness

characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this factor tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests.

extroversion

characterized by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this factor are usually described as outgoing and warm. Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature

reciprocal determinism

cognitive processes, behavior, and context all interact, each factor influencing and being influenced by the others simultaneously

Id

contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. Freud believed that the id operates on what he called the "pleasure principle," in which the id seeks immediate gratification. Through social interactions with parents and others in a child's environment, the ego and superego develop to help control the id.

Erikson Psychosocial Development stage 3 age 3-6

initiative vs. guilt. Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped

erikson psychosocial development stage 8 age 65-

integrity vs. despair. Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions

erikson psychosocial development stage 6 age 19-29

intimacy vs. isolation. Establish intimacy and relationships with others

rationalization

justifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons

observational learning (and who originally proposed it)

learning by observing others. bandura's key contribution in learning theory)

cardinal trait

not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits.

Adler's three fundamental social tasks

occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship).

conscious

our awareness of ourselves and our environment, only one-tenth of our minds according to Freud

locus of control

our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. In Rotter's view, people possess either an internal or an external locus of control

self-efficacy

our level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through our social experiences. Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals. In observational learning, self-efficacy is a cognitive factor that affects which behaviors we choose to imitate as well as our success in performing those behaviors.

self-concept

our thoughts and feelings about ourselves

Walter Mischel's ideas about personality

people act similarly in similar situations, self-regulation (people with more self-regulation have higher grades, better relationships, and less substance abuse)

trait theorists

personality can be understood via the approach that all people have certain traits, or characteristic ways of behaving. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? Early trait theorists tried to describe all human personality traits.

behaviorism and personality

personality is significantly shaped by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism. we learn to behave in particular ways

two dimensions of temperament in adult personality

reactivity and self-regulation

sublimation

redirecting unacceptable desires through social acceptable channels

reaction formation

reducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs

denial

refusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant

Wundt and personality

suggested that a better description of personality could be achieved by using two major axes - emotional/non-emotions and changeable/unchangeable

repression

suppressing painful memories and thoughts

european culture and personality

tend to score higher on neuroticism

central and south american cultures andpersonality

tend to score higher on openness to experience

neurosis

tendency to experience negative emotions

selective migration

the concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs. For example, a person high on the agreeable scale would likely want to live near family and friends, and would choose to settle or remain in such an area. In contrast, someone high on openness would prefer to settle in a place that is recognized as diverse and innovative (such as California).

context

the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.

personality

the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways.

Gordon Allport's Trait Theory

found 4,500 words in the English language that could describe people. He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.

freudian slip

freud suggested that slips of the tongue (saying a word you did not intend to say) are sexual/aggressive urges accidently slipping out of our unconscious

erikson psychosocial development stage 7 age 30-64

generativity vs. stagnation. Contribute to society and be part of a family

electra complex

A girl desires the attention of her father and wishes to take her mother's place.

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart

A study that found that identical twins whether raised together or apart have very similar personalities-supporting the idea that personality is strongly related to genetics

birth order effect on personality

According to Adler, older siblings, who start out as the focus of their parents' attention but must share that attention once a new child joins the family, compensate by becoming overachievers. The youngest children, according to Adler, may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children. Despite popular attention, research has not conclusively confirmed Adler's hypotheses about birth order.

Freud's theory of personality

According to Freud, unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality. Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they reduced the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was the dominant theory of personality for the first half of the 20th century.

individual psychology

Adler's view that focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority

inferiority complex

An inferiority complex refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler's ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud's. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Lie Scale

Assesses faking, especially on the MMPI. For example, if someone responds "yes" to a number of unrealistically positive items such as "I have never told a lie," they may be trying to "fake good" or appear better than they actually are.

analytical psychology and who developed it

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and protégé of Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own theory, which he called analytical psychology. TheThe focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one's personality. According to Jung, this work is a continuous learning process—mainly occurring in the second half of life—of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness.

Galen and personality

Centuries later, the influential Greek physician and philosopher Galen built on Hippocrates's theory, suggesting that both diseases and personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments. For example, the choleric person is passionate, ambitious, and bold; the melancholic person is reserved, anxious, and unhappy; the sanguine person is joyful, eager, and optimistic; and the phlegmatic person is calm, reliable, and thoughtful. Galen's theory was prevalent for over 1,000 years and continued to be popular through the Middle Ages.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

created in the 1930s by Henry Murray, an American psychologist, and a psychoanalyst named Christiana Morgan. A person taking the TAT is shown 8-12 ambiguous pictures and is asked to tell a story about each picture. The stories give insight into their social world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. The storytelling format helps to lower a person's resistance divulging unconscious personal details. The TAT has been used in clinical settings to evaluate psychological disorders; more recently, it has been used in counseling settings to help clients gain a better understanding of themselves and achieve personal growth. Standardization of test administration is virtually nonexistent among clinicians, and the test tends to be modest to low on validity and reliability. Despite these shortcomings, the TAT has been one of the most widely used projective tests.

moving away from people (Horney coping style)

detachment and isolation. Child withdrawn from the world and isolated; adult loner

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)

developed by Julian Rotter in 1950 (recall his theory of locus of control, covered earlier in this chapter). There are three forms of this test for use with different age groups: the school form, the college form, and the adult form. The tests include 40 incomplete sentences that people are asked to complete as quickly as possible. The average time for completing the test is approximately 20 minutes, as responses are only 1-2 words in length. This test is similar to a word association test, and like other types of projective tests, it is presumed that responses will reveal desires, fears, and struggles. The RISB is used in screening college students for adjustment problems and in career counseling

superego

develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings of guilt.

social-cognitive theory of personality

emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of individual differences in personality. In social-cognitive theory, the concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in personality development.

qualities of introverts

energized by being alone, avoids attention, speaks slowly and softly, thinks before speaking, stays on one topic, prefers written communication, pays attention easily, cautious

qualities of extroverts

energized by being with others, seeks attention, speaks quickly and loudly, thinks out loud, jumps from topic to topic, thinks out loud, jumps from topic to topic, prefers verbal communication, distractible, acts first, thinks later

Karen Horney and her theory of coping styles

highlighted the need to feel secure in relationships, focused on unconscious anxiety due to unmet needs, underlying drive guiding personality development is the desire for security, or unconscious anxiety, believed Freudian theory was biased against women, women not motivated by penis envy but possibly jealous of male privilege, proposed womb envy Horney suggested three styles of coping

humanism

humans passively react to their environments, has been criticized as making people out to be personality-less robots. It does not suggest that psychoanalytic, behaviorist, and other points of view are incorrect but argues that these perspectives do not recognize the depth and meaning of human experience, and fail to recognize the innate capacity for self-directed change and transforming personal experiences. This perspective focuses on how healthy people develop.

erikson psychosocial development stage 5 age 12-18

identity vs. confusion. Experiment with and develop identity and roles

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. therapist interprets any potential unconscious wishes hidden in the client's hesitations, slips of the tongue, and dreams.

temperament

inborn, genetically based personality differences that you studied earlier in the chapter. They believed personality is largely governed by biology.

erikson psychosocial development stage 4 age 7-11

industry vs. inferiority. develop self-confidence in abilities when successful and inferiority when not

biological psychology and personality

inherited predispositions as well as physiological processes can be used to explain differences in our personalities

evolutionary psychology and personality

looks at personality traits that are universal, as well as differences across individuals. In this view, adaptive differences have evolved and then provide a survival and reproductive advantage. Individual differences are important from an evolutionary viewpoint for several reasons. Certain individual differences, and the heritability of these characteristics, have been well documented. David Buss has identified several theories to explore this relationship between personality traits and evolution, such as life-history theory, which looks at how people expend their time and energy (such as on bodily growth and maintenance, reproduction, or parenting). Another example is costly signaling theory, which examines the honesty and deception in the signals people send one another about their quality as a mate or friend

who came up with the humanist perspective

maslow and rogers. we need to find ways to become happier healthier humans

Asian Cultures and Personality

more collectivist, tend to be less extroverted

Raymond Cattell and trait psychology

narrowed down the list created by Allport of 4,500 traits to about 171 traits. However, saying that a trait is either present or absent does not accurately reflect a person's uniqueness, because all of our personalities are actually made up of the same traits; we differ only in the degree to which each trait is expressed. Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension. He developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you are. If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold. A high score on this index signifies you are supportive and comforting.

projective testing

relies on one of the defense mechanisms proposed by Freud—projection—as a way to assess unconscious processes. During this type of testing, a series of ambiguous cards is shown to the person being tested, who then is encouraged to project his feelings, impulses, and desires onto the cards—by telling a story, interpreting an image, or completing a sentence. Many projective tests have undergone standardization procedures (for example, Exner, 2002) and can be used to access whether someone has unusual thoughts or a high level of anxiety, or is likely to become volatile. Some examples of projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks test, the TEMAS (Tell-Me-A-Story), and the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB). Projective tests are less subject to intentional distortion; it is hard to fake "good" because it is not obvious what a "good" answer is.

archetypes

represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams. Jung said that these themes reflect common experiences of people the world over, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. Jung believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same themes and that the same types of symbols—such as the hero, the maiden, the sage, and the trickster—are present in the folklore and fairy tales of every culture. In Jung's view, the task of integrating these unconscious archetypal aspects of the self is part of the self-realization process in the second half of life. With this orientation toward self-realization, Jung parted ways with Freud's belief that personality is determined solely by past events and anticipated the humanistic movement with its emphasis on self-actualization and orientation toward the future. like people changing the way they act around friends versus parents

regression

returning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development

reliability scales

scales test an instrument's consistency over time, assuring that if you take the MMPI-2-RF today and then again 5 years later, your two scores will be similar.

Of the following options, which is not one of the temperaments first proposed by Thomas and Chess (1977)? safe baby, secure baby, difficult baby, slow to warm up baby

secure baby

cultural-comparative approach

seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity

erogenous zones

sensitive areas of the body

combined approach to personality analysis

serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality. compares to western culture as well as the culture within

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. has 567 questions. Responses are scored to produce a clinical profile composed of 10 scales: hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviance (social deviance), masculinity versus femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia (obsessive/compulsive qualities), schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion. There is also a scale to ascertain risk factors for alcohol abuse.

ideal self

the person that you would like to be

real self

the person you actually are

ego

the rational part of our personality. It's what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the "reality principle." The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.

agreeableness

the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on this factor actually earned more money than men who were considered more agreeable

neuroticism

the tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. Watson and Clark (1984) found that people reporting high levels of neuroticism also tend to report feeling anxious and unhappy. In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.

secondary traits

those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders her salad dressing on the side. And you—although not normally an anxious person—feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.

central traits

those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy).

internal locus of control ("internals)

those who have this tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts.

external locus of control ("externals")

those who have this tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control. Externals see their lives as being controlled by other people, luck, or chance.

displacement

transferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target

defense mechanisms

unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality.

eysencks's and temperament

viewed people as having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability. According to their theory, people high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, whereas people high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others. In the neuroticism/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable. Based on these two dimensions, the Eysencks' theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine. Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control (Eysenck, Eysenck & Barrett, 1985). In this dimension, people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control—they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional

Rorschach inkblot test

was developed in 1921 by a Swiss psychologist named Hermann Rorschach (pronounced "ROAR-shock"). It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card, the psychologist asks the client, "What might this be?" What the test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and struggles (Piotrowski, 1987; Weiner, 2003). The Rorschach has been standardized using the Exner system and is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety.

Skinner and personality

we learn to behave in particular ways, personality is shaped by reinforcements and consequences in the environment, personality develops over our entire life, personality can vary as we experience new situations

congruence

when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar - in other words, when our self-concept is accurate

incongruence

when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves