Psychology: Chapter 7-9
The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges
Intelligence
A mathematical measure of intelligence
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
A desire to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose
Intrinsic motivation
_________ is the metaphorical lightbulb that goes on in your head when you suddenly realize the solution to a problem.
Insight
A hormone, secreted by the pancreas, that controls glucose levels in the blood
Insulin
When access to newer memories is impaired by older memories.
Proactive interference
Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
Problem solving
A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits.
Procedural memory
Remembering to do something at some future time
Prospective memory
way of thinking about concepts. Within each category, there is a best example—a ??????—for that category
Prototype model
Using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable
Reasoning
How consistently a psychometric test produces similar results each time it is used.
Reliability
Thinking about a problem in a new way in order to solve it
Restructuring
The act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed
Retrieval
Anything that helps a person access information in long-term storage.
Retrieval cue
What processes affect access of memories in long-term storage?
Retrieval cues, forgetting, persistence, and distortion
When access to older memories is impaired by newer memories.
Retroactive interference
A condition in which people lose the ability to access memories they had before a brain injury
Retrograde amnesia
Who proposed the three memory stores?
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
____________ involves thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings
Rumination
Have minimal intellectual capacities in most domains, but at a very early age demonstrate exceptional ability in some "intelligent" process
Savants
Mental structures—collections of ideas, prior knowledge, and experiences—that help organize information and guide thought and behavior.
Schemas
Blends of primary emotions; they include remorse, guilt, shame, submission, and anticipation
Secondary emotions
The ability to direct mental resources to relevant information in order to process that information further, while also ignoring irrelevant information
Selective attention
In ____________ ______ , people are motivated to feel good about themselves
Self-determination theory
_____________ affects achievement
Self-efficacy
In ____________ ______ , we are seldom aware of our specific motives. Instead, we make inferences about our motives according to what seems to make the most sense
Self-perception theory
What does it mean when your brain processes what a word means?
Semantic
A type of explicit memory that includes knowledge about the world.
Semantic memory
A memory storage system that very briefly holds a vast amount of information from the five senses in close to their original sensory formats.
Sensory storage
What are the three memory stores?
Sensory, short-term, and long-term storage
A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness
Short-term storage
External objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors
Incentives
The need, or desire, to attain a certain standard of excellence
Achievement motivation
A psychometric test that is designed to test what knowledge and skills a person has learned.
Achievement test
What does it mean when your brain processes what a word sounds?
Acoustic
_______________—it stimulates us to do something
Activating
People use their current moods to make decisions, judgments, and appraisals, even if they do not know what caused their emotions.
Affect-as-information theory
Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects.
Analogical representations
Finding an appropriate __________ for a problem can help achieve goals.
Analogy
A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories after experiencing a brain injury
Anterograde amnesia
A psychometric test that is designed to test a person's ability to learn—that is, the person's future performance.
Aptitude test
hysiological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate, sweating, or muscle tension)
Arousal
__________ ___________ study the genetic basis of behaviors and traits such as intelligence.
Behavioral geneticists
Emotions and bodily responses both occur simultaneously due to the ways that parts of the brain process information
Cannon-Bard theory
The system for long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally described.
Explicit memory
A desire to perform an activity to achieve an external goal that activity is directed toward
Extrinsic motivation
Who is more likely to develop false memories?
Children
Using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.
Chunking
Your experience of emotions can be categorized by a certain degree of valence
Circumplex model
A mental representation of objects, events, or relations organized around common themes.
Concept
A process by which immediate memories become lasting through long-term storage.
Consolidation
When a person is in the same context where the information was learned, the environment provides cues that aid access to the information.
Context-dependent memory effect
In ______________, we think we have come up with a new idea but really have retrieved an old idea from memory and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source.
Cryptomnesia
Intelligence that reflects both the knowledge a person acquires through experience and the ability to use that knowledge.
Crystallized intelligence
Attempting to select the best alternative among several options
Decision making
_______________—motives will differ in ?????? depending on the person and the situation
Differing in strength
_______________—it guides our behaviors toward meeting specific goals or needs
Directive
Rules that are learned through socialization and that dictate what emotions are suitable in certain situations
Display rules
Human memory is not a perfectly accurate representation of the past; it is flawed. Occurs due to memory bias, flashbulb memories, misattribution, suggestibility, and false memories.
Distortion
A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to engage in a behavior to satisfy a need
Drive
Using working-memory processes to think about how new information relates to ourselves or our prior knowledge (semantic information); provides deeper encoding of information for more successful long-term storage.
Elaborative rehearsal
An immediate, specific, negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts.
Emotion
The processing of information so that it can be stored
Encoding
Sub-categories of Explicit memory
Episodic and semantic memory
A type of explicit memory that includes personal experiences
Episodic memory
___________ _________: A way of thinking about concepts. All concepts in a category are ???????
Exemplar model
Sub-categories of long-term storage
Explicit and Implicit memory
When a person imagines an event happening, he or she forms a mental image of the event. The person might later confuse that mental image with a real memory.
False memories
A theory that attempts to explain how we selectively attend to the most important information
Filter theory
These vivid memories seem like a flash photo, capturing the circumstances in which we first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event.
Flashbulb memories
Intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, particularly in novel or complex circumstances.
Fluid intelligence
is the inability to access a memory from long-term storage.
Forgetting
How information is presented affects how that information is perceived and influences decisions.
Framing
A tendency to think of things based on their usual functions, which may make it harder to solve a problem.
Functional fixedness
The idea that one general factor underlies intelligence.
General intelligence
A hormone, secreted by an empty stomach, that is associated with increasing eating behavior based on short-term signals in the bloodstream
Ghrelin
People with _____ have a deep passion for their goals and a willingness to keep working toward them, even in spite of hardships and pitfalls
Grit
______ strengthens social bonds
Guilt
A shortcut (rule of thumb or informal guideline) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions
Heuristic
Tendency for bodily functions to remain in equilibrium
Homeostasis
Which finding is the best evidence that genetics plays an important role in determining intelligence? a. Siblings raised together have more similar IQs than siblings raised apart. b. Identical twins raised together have more similar IQs than identical twins raised apart. c. Identical twins raised apart have more similar IQs than siblings raised together. d. Adopted children have IQs that are similar to their nonbiological siblings.
Identical twins raised apart have more similar IQs than siblings raised together.
The system for long-term storage of unconscious memories that cannot be verbally described.
Implicit memory
Emotions result from the experience of physiological reactions in the body
James-Lange theory
A hormone, secreted by fat cells, that is associated with decreasing eating behavior based on long-term body fat regulation
Leptin
A memory storage system that allows relatively permanent storage of a probably unlimited amount of information
Long-term storage
Using working-memory processes to repeat information based on how it sounds (auditory information); provides only shallow encoding of information.
Maintenance rehearsal
An assessment of a child's intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age.
Mental age
Include a combination of analogical and symbolic representations
Mental maps
A tendency to approach a problem in the same way that has worked in the past, which may make it harder to solve.
Mental sets
A mnemonic of associating items you want to remember with a physical location you already know.
Method of loci
______________ occurs when we misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory.
Misattribution
The idea that people have many different types of intelligence that are independent of one another.
Multiple intelligences
A state of biological or social deficiency (like water or being with people)
Need
An arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs
Need hierarchy
The need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes
Need to belong theory
The continual recurrence of unwanted memories from long-term storage
Persistence
We directly alter our emotional reactions to events by thinking about those events in more neutral terms
Positive Reappraisal
Having "family, social class, education, cultural beliefs, and our own drug and alcohol use" impacting genetics and intelligence is a sign of
Postnatal factors
Having "parents' intake of drugs and alcohol" impacting genetics and intelligence is a sign of
Prenatal factors
Evolutionarily adaptive emotions that are shared across cultures and associated with specific physical states; they include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possibly surprise and contempt
Primary emotions
Like the environment, when our internal states are the same during both encoding and retrieval, the situation can provide cues that enhance memory.
State-dependent memory effect
Apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to a person's own group
Stereotype threat
Schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people, events, or groups, based on their membership in particular groups
Stereotypes
The retention of encoded representations over time
Storage
In many cases, solving a problem requires breaking the task into ___________.
Subgoals
When people are given misleading information, this information affects their memory for an event.
Suggestibility
_______________—it helps us ?????? behaviors until we achieve our goals or satisfy our needs
Sustaining
Abstract mental representations that consist of words or ideas.
Symbolic representations
When too many options are available, especially when all of them are attractive, we experience conflict and indecision.
The paradox of choice
The mental manipulation of representations of information we encounter in our environments.
Thinking
The idea that people have three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
Triarchic theory
How we experience an emotion is influenced by the cognitive label we apply to explain the physiological changes we have experienced
Two-factor theory
How well a psychometric test measures what it is intended to measure.
Validity
The ____________ hypothalamus is the brain region associated with feeling full. It is like the "off switch" for hunger; when damaged one is constantly hungry.
Ventromedial
What does it mean when your brain processes what a word looks like?
Visual
five senses:
Visual, auditory, smell, taste, and touch
An active processing system that allows manipulation of different types of information to keep it available for current use
Working memory
The ____________ ________ describes the relationship between arousal, motivation, and performance
Yerkes-Dodson law
After you finish a big meal, the level of glucose in your bloodstream increases. What happens next in order for your body to process the glucose? a. Your fat cells release leptin, which tells your hypothalamus to stop producing glucose. b. When glucose reaches a certain level, your hypothalamus stops producing it. c. Your stomach releases ghrelin to counteract the glucose. d. Your pancreas produces insulin to manage the glucose.
Your pancreas produces insulin to manage the glucose
______________ is the inattentive or shallow encoding of events. The major cause of ___________________ is failing to pay attention.
absentmindedness
A person who is unable to process memories with strong emotional content may have poor functioning in the a. temporal lobe. b. amygdala. c. prefrontal cortex. d. cerebellum.
amygdala
A picture of a computer is an example of a(n) ________ representation. The word computer is an example of a(n) ________ representation. a. conceptual; mental map b. analogical; symbolic c. symbolic; analogical d. mental map; conceptual
analogical; symbolic
The ________________________ is the tendency to make a decision based on information that comes most easily to mind.
availability heuristic
___________ often occurs because of interference from words that are similar in some way, such as in sound or meaning, and that are repeatedly experienced.
blocking
When people group several concepts together, such as baseball, basketball, and football, based on the shared property of being so-called ball sports, they are creating a ________ of the concepts. a. exemplar b. prototype c. category d. mental map
category
A string of 16 digits (1776149217872014) is difficult to remember. If a person breaks them up into four groups of four digits (1776, 1492, 1787, and 2014), these numbers are easier to remember, due to the effect of a. maintenance rehearsal. b. chunking. c. dual coding. d. elaborative rehearsal.
chunking
Jenn is daydreaming during class about what she will eat for dessert tonight. She decides she will make chocolate cake, and her mouth begins to water just thinking about how delicious it will taste. Her mouth-watering response is due to a. satiety cues. b. classical conditioning. c. leptin. d. familiarity.
classical conditioning
Sub-categories of implicit memory
classical conditioning and procedural memory
If you study in the same room in which you take an exam, you will probably do better on the exam than if you had studied elsewhere. This outcome occurs because of ________ memory. a. semantic b. context-dependent c. episodic d. state-dependent
context-dependent
When you are reading your textbook, your brain changes the words you are reading into a meaningful neural code that it can use. In memory, this process is called a. storage. b. retrieval. c. attention. d. encoding.
encoding
Cory performs well at the word game Scrabble because he is good at solving problems and rearranging letters quickly to form many words. These skills reveal his ________ intelligence. a. interpersonal b. practical c. spatial d. fluid
fluid
Troy finds it very hard to lose weight. No matter how often he exercises, he keeps gaining weight instead of losing it. He thinks that he has a genetic predisposition to be overweight, which has most likely made him sensitive to the hunger-promoting effects of a. the hypothalamus. b. the gustatory cortex. c. leptin. d. ghrelin.
ghrelin
Robert becomes anxious during exams. He has found that chewing on the eraser on his pencil while he thinks helps him to calm down. Over time, Robert's pencil chewing is likely to become a(n) a. need. b. incentive. c. habit. d. drive.
habit
Donato and Quincy are identical twins who were separated at birth. Donato tends to be fearful of many things. According to the research on genetics and negative emotions, you would expect Quincy to have ________ levels of fear. a. low b. high c. unpredictable d. absent
high
Every morning, Glenda's bathroom scale tells her that she weighs 120 pounds. However, when she go to the doctor's office, the very accurate professional scale says she weighs 130 pounds. Glenda's bathroom scale has ________ reliability and ________ validity. a. high; low b. low; low c. low; high d. high; high
high; low
Though it appears to be negative, guilt can actually serve to protect and strengthen our interpersonal relationships. All of the following are examples of this protective concept EXCEPT when guilt a. discourages people from doing things that harm their relationships. b. encourages people to be honest in their relationships. c. is used to manipulate others. d. demonstrates that people care about their partners.
is used to manipulate others
Nora and Miles are studying for an exam. Nora makes flash cards to memorize new terms and repeatedly reads them to herself. Miles links new terms to the ones he already knows based on their meanings. Nora is using ________ and Miles is using ________ to learn the terms. a. elaborative rehearsal; maintenance rehearsal b. semantic memory; procedural memory c. procedural memory; semantic memory d. maintenance rehearsal; elaborative rehearsal
maintenance rehearsal; elaborative rehearsal
________________ is the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with our current beliefs or attitudes.
memory bias
__________ are learning aids or strategies that use retrieval cues to improve access to memory.
mnemonics
Mr. Griffin has a class full of students with high achievement motivation. To help these students do well on his calculus exam, Mr. Griffin should write questions that are a. variable in their difficulties. b. easy. c. moderately difficult. d. very difficult.
moderately difficult
The meaning of information is organized in long-term storage based on ____________________________.
networks of associations
Antoinette is a real risk taker. She loves to skydive, and she can party all night. Benita dislikes risk taking and prefers quieter activities, such as reading and yoga. These contrasting preferences in the rate of physiological activation they experience suggest that Antoinette and Benita differ in their a. self-actualization. b. extrinsic motivations. c. intrinsic motivations. d. optimal levels of arousal.
optimal levels of arousal
While moving into a new apartment, Avery needed to hold the door open but she did not have a doorstop. Instead, she used her heavy potted plant to prop open the door. Avery solved this problem by a. framing. b. using a mental set. c. overcoming functional fixedness. d. restructuring.
overcoming functional fixedness
The _______ ______ refers to the better memory people have for items presented at the beginning of the list.
primacy effect
Which of the following is a type of implicit memory? a. semantic memory b. facts c. episodic memory d. procedural memory
procedural memory
Jim and Phil are changing the oil in Jim's car. Jim is trying to remember all the actions involved in changing the oil. Phil is trying to remember the first time he ever changed the oil in his car. Jim is trying to recall a ________ memory and Phil is trying to recall a(n) ________ memory. a. procedural; semantic b. semantic; procedural c. procedural; episodic d. semantic; episodic
procedural; episodic
Gwen has always experienced extreme anxiety regarding tests. After seeing a counselor, she learned how to regulate her emotions during exam week. Instead of thinking about the exams as a threat, she thinks of the exams as an opportunity to show how thoroughly she studied and how much she knows. Which strategy is Gwen using to regulate her emotions? a. rumination b. thought suppression c. distraction d. reappraisal
reappraisal
The ________ ______ refers to the better memory people have for the most recent items, the ones at the end of the list.
recency effect
Once memories are activated, they need to be consolidated again for long-term storage; this process is known as ___________
reconsolidation
The ________________________ is the tendency to place people or objects in a category if they are similar to the concept that is the prototype.
representativeness heuristic
A person who has experienced the loss of past memories may be experiencing a. retrograde amnesia. b. anterograde amnesia. c. retroactive interference. d. proactive interference.
retrograde amnesia
Decisions about how to chunk information depend on _________ , ways of structuring memories in long-term storage that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information
schemas
Chris is looking for his friend in a crowd of people at a concert. As he scans the crowd, he often blinks but still retains a brief visual image of many of the faces in the crowd for a very brief time. Chris is able to maintain this visual information due to the function of his a. working memory. b. short-term storage. c. sensory storage. d. long-term storage.
sensory storage
George Miller discovered that short-term memory is limited to ________ plus or minus ________ items, or chunks of information. a. seven; two b. ten; three c. nine; one d. five; three
seven; two
According to _____________________________ of memory, information that is heard or seen activates specific nodes for memories in long-term storage.
spreading activation models
When re-creating Mischel's famous marshmallow delay-of-gratification study, Art finds that children who successfully wait to eat the marshmallow are LEAST likely to a. play with another toy. b. focus on a painting on the wall. c. sing a song. d. stare at the marshmallow.
stare at the marshmallow
Larry wants to see whether he can influence his students' test scores. When he gives his students their English test, he says, "Tall students tend to perform worse than short students on this test." Indeed, the tall students do get lower scores on the test. These results provide support for the existence of a. fluid intelligence. b. crystallized intelligence. c. test validity. d. stereotype threat.
stereotype threat
Some mental shortcuts can cause errors in thinking. For example, simply because you can remember an example of something very quickly and easily does not mean that you should rely on that information in making accurate probability judgments. This error in thinking reflects a. insight. b. the availability heuristic. c. the representativeness heuristic. d. an analogy.
the availability heuristic
A prototype includes ________ in a category. An exemplar includes ________ in the category. a. the least typical concept; the most typical concept b. only stereotypical concepts; the least typical concept c. the most typical concept; all examples of concepts d. all examples of concepts; only stereotypical concepts
the most typical concept; all examples of concepts
Which of the following best describes reasoning? a. choosing between general information and specific information b. using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable c. finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal d. selecting the best option among a set of alternatives
using information to determine if a conclusion is valid or reasonable
