Psychology MIDTERM 1

Symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and dementia (3)

1. Decreased ability to recall things 2. Emotional unpredictability: flat→uninhibited→angry 3. Confusion/disorientation/inability to think or communicate

Lawrence Kohlberg's level of moral thinking: *ADOLESCENCE AND BEYOND (2+ex)*

POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY → actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles I.E.→ "people have a right to live"

Lawrence Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning: *before age 9 (2+ex)*

PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY → self interest: obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards I.E.→ "if you save your wife you'll be a hero"

Gender (2)

The biological and social characteristics by which people define male or female → The product of the interplay among our biological dispositions/developmental experiences/current situation

Sex

The biological characteristics by which people define males and females

Social intelligence

ability to *understand* and *navigate* social situations

self-control (5)

ability to control impulses and delayed short-term gratification for greater long-term reward → better grades → higher income → predicts good health → requires attention/energy

Emotional intelligence

ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Fluid intelligence (1+ex)

ability to reason quickly and abstractly; tends to *decrease* during *late adulthood* i.e. poets depend on fluid intelligence, reach peak output earlier

The Wechsler Intelligence scale is set so that about 2% of the pop is...

above 130 (*Very High Intelligence, Gifted*) and below 70 (*Intellectual Disability*)

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Crystallized intelligence (1+ex)

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to *increase with age* i.e. scientists produce most creative work during thirties

Self-disclosure

act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others → in experiment those experiencing intimacy felt closer to conversation partner than those with small talk

Cruel acts shape the self but so do... (3)

acts of good will → act as though you like someone and you might soon like them → changing behaviour change how we think about others and how feel about ourselves

Conformity (1+3)

adjusting our behaviour or thinking to fit with a group standard 1. *Automatic Mimicry* 2. *Social Norms* 3. *Normative and Informational Social Influence*

Researchers have compared intelligence test scores of *adopted kids* to those of their... (2)

adoptive/biological parents → with age, intelligence test score of adoptees looks more and more like that of their *biological* parents

Pessimism and Heart Disease (3)

assumption that negative outcomes *will* happen and facing them by complaining/giving up → *more likely* to develop heart disease within ten years than optimists → helpful to anticipate negative events that *may* happen and plan how to prevent/cope with them

Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through red light yells "Slow down! What a terrible driver." Moments later he slips through intersection says "Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get out here!" *what social psychological principle has Marco demonstrated?* RP

by attributing stranger's behaviour to the person and his own to the situation demonstrates *fundamental attribution error*

psychosexual stages (2)

childhood stages of development (*oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital*) where id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct *erogenous* zones → people feel shame about needs get *fixated* at one stage, never resolve how to manage zone's needs

1. Peripheral route persuasion

changing attitudes by going around rational mind and appealing to fears, desires, associations i.e. people who buy more product are happy and attractive

trait

characteristic pattern of behaviour to feel and act as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Equity

condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it → sharing responsibility ranked 3rd on list of successful marriage

Intellectual Disability

condition of limited mental ability (score of *70 or below*) and difficulty adapting to demands of life

Down Syndrome (1) U.S Supreme Court (2014) (2)

condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 → recognized arbitrariness of fixed cut-off scores of 70 → required states w death row inmates w score above 70 to consider *other evidence*

To cope with stress we tend to use _____-focused strategies when we feel in control of our world and _____-focused strategies when we believe we cannot change situation. RP

problem; emotion

1. id (3)

reservoir of *unconscious* psychic energy (according to Freud) strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives → operates on *pleasure principle* demanding immediate gratification → survive, reproduce, aggress i.e. toddler crying out for satisfaction

Albert Bandura believes personality is: (4)

result of interaction between person and *social context* involving how think about ourselves and our situation → proposed social-cognitive perspective → social-cognitive theorists believe learn behaviours through *conditioning or observing* → emphasize how we and enviro. interact

How did humanistic psychology provide a fresh perspective? RP

sought to turn psychology's attention *away* from → drives/conflicts *towards* → growth potential → focus on healthy people striving for self-realization

Albert Bandura proposed the _____-____ perspective on personality which emphasizes interaction of people with their enviro. To describe interacting influences of behaviour, thoughts and enviro he used the term ______

social-cognitive; reciprocal determinism

Social roots of prejudice: 1. Social Inequalities (3+ex)

some groups have fewer resources and opportunities than others → breeds *contempt* for people better of & *disrespect* for people less well off → used to justify people as deserving their position i.e. *rich* done something *right*; *suffering* done something *wrong*

Stressor

event or *condition* that triggers stress response bc viewed as threatening or overwhelming

what is the best way to predict a person's future behaviour? RP

examine the person's past behaviour patterns in similar situations

Narcissism (def +5)

excessive self-love and self-absorption → 1980, song lyrics more focused on us → empathy scores/skills *decreasing* → rise in *narcissism* → narcissists see selves having special place in world → self-esteem threatened, *trigger* defensive aggression

pessimists

expect things to go badly/blame others

social-responsibility norm

expectation that people will help those needing their help (even if costs outweighs benefit)

reciprocity norm (2)

expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them → give as much as we recieve

Effects of social scripts: Studies (3)

exposure to one aggressive story increases other forms of aggressive behaviour 1. watchers of TV crime see world as more threatening 2. randomly assigned to watch pornography → participants who watch suggested *shorter sentence* for rapists and accepted myth that victim enjoyed rape

3. Validity

extent to which a test measures or predicts *what it's supposed to* i. *content validity* → extent to which a test samples the *behaviour* of interest ii. *predictive validity* → success with which a test *predicts behaviour* it's designed to predict

i. Content validity (1+ex)

extent to which a test samples the *behaviour* of interest i.e. road test samples tasks that a driver would normally face

2. Reliability (3)

extent to which a test yields *consistent results* on alternative forms or test or retesting → assessed by consistency of scores on 2 halves of test (better scores on odd or even questions?) → if two tests *correlate* then test is reliable (higher correlation higher reliability)

delusion

false belief that may accompany psychotic disorder

Stereotype

generalized *belief* about a group of people

DNA

genetic info that makes up chromosomes

How do heredity and environment work together? RP

genetics and environment interact → Life experiences in the womb lay down epigenetic marks (often organic methyl molecules) that can affect the expression of any gene in the associated DNA segment

Collectivism (3+ex)

giving priority to the *goals of one's group* and defining one's identity accordingly →value Interdependence → in collectivist culture group identifications provide a sense of belonging/values I.E. → South Korea → place less value on expressing a unique self-concept/more on tradition and shared practises

Psychodynamic theorists: Carl Jung (2)

highlighted *universal theme* in unconscious as source of creativity/insight → opp. for personal growth by finding meaning in moments of coincidence

Internet relationships are more likely to... (2)

last and be satisfying compared with those formed in person → nearly 1/4 of heterosexual and 2/3 of homosexual couples meet online

When we validate a measure using a wide range of scores but then use it with a restricted range of scores it...

loses much of its predictive validity

mental age

measure of intelligence test performance devised by *Binet*; the age that most typically corresponds to given level of performance i.e. a child does as well as average 8-year-old *has the mental age of 8*

People tend to marry someone who lives or works nearby. This is an example of the __________ RP

mere exposure effect

free association

method of exploring unconscious in which person relaxes/says whatever comes to mind

Behavioural medicine research provides a reminder of contemporary psychology's overriding themes:

mind and boy interact; everything *psychological* is simultaneously *physiological*

Anxiety Disorder: Panic disorder (3)

minutes-long episodes of *intense dread* person experiences terror and chest pains, choking/other sensations → feeling need to escape → fear of next attack/object/situation

Group Behaviour: 5. Groupthink

mode of thinking that occurs when *desire for harmony* in decision-making group overrides realistic assessment of options *fed by*: → overconfidence → conformity → self-justification → group polarization

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most widely used intelligence test; contain *verbal* and performance (*non-verbal*) subtests

Depressed mood develop when person with a...

negative outlook experiences repeated stress *Cycle* 1. stressful experience 2. negative explanatory style 3. depressed mood 4. cognitive behavioural changes

A person with schizophrenia who has ____ symptoms may have an expressionless face and toneless voice. These symptoms are most common with ______ schizophrenia and are not likely to respond to drug therapy. Those with _____ symptoms are likely to experience delusions and be diagnosed with_____ schizophrenia, more likely to respond to drug therapy

negative; chronic positive;acute

Neural Influences on Aggression (5)

no one spot in brain controls aggression → neural system *inhibits* or *facilitates* aggression *EVIDENCE* → money learned to subdue aggression of leader by turning on *electrode* in aggression-inhibiting brain area → women became rude/violent after stimulation of amygdala by doctor → underactive frontal lobes (which control impulses) are linked to aggression/violence

Biology of Aggression (4)

not one genetically universal style or amount of aggressiveness in human behaviour → Genetic Influences → Neural Influences → Biochemical Influences

Social relations: Social psychologists study psychological components of how...(6)

people relate to each other 1. prejudice 2. aggression 3. alturism 4. attraction and love relationships 5. social conflict

conflict

perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas

External locus of control

perception that change or outside forces beyond personal control determine our fate

internal locus of control

perception that we control our own fate

The Flynn effect (2)

performance on intelligence has *improved* over the years world wide → Flynn says performance increase is due to need to develop new mental skills to cope with modern enviro.

Anxiety Disorder: Phobia Agoraphobia Social phobia

persistent, *irrational fear and avoidance* of specific object, activity or situation *A* → avoidance of situation bc fear of panic attack *S* → fear of being watched/judged by others

Antisocial personality disorder diagnostic criteria (1+8)

person (usually man) exhibits *lack of conscious for wrongdoing* *violating the rights of others since age 15* including three of these: → aggressivness → deceitfulness → disregard for safety of self/others → failure to conform to social norms → impulsivity → irritability → irresponsibility → no remorse

Anxiety Disorder: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (5)

person is *continually* tense, apprehensive and in state of autonomic nervous system arousal → free-floating anxiety to with no attachment to any subject → trembling → sweating → sleep disruption

Personality psychologist

personal traits that explain why diff. peeps act diff. in given situation

What was Freud's view of personality?

personality result from *conflict* arising from interaction between mind's 3 systems: 1. *id* (pleasure-seeking) 2. *ego* (reality-oriented) 3. *superego* (conscience)

Projective test and criticism

personality test *ambiguous stimuli* (open to interpretation) designed to trigger projection of one's unconscious motives → Rorschach test has low reliability and validity except in few areas (i.e. hostility and anxiety)

Mere exposure effect

phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Biomedical therapies ii. psychopharmacology

physically changing brain's functioning by *altering chemistry with medication* or affecting circuitry with electrical/magnetic *impulses or surgery* ii. study of drug effects on behaviour, mood and mind

Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid...

placebo effect and researcher's bias

How might the placebo effect bias clients' and clinicians' appraisals of the effectiveness of psychotherapies? (2)

placebo effect→ healing power of belief in a treatment Patients/therapists expect a treatment to be effective *may believe it was*

psychological disorder

syndrome marked by clinically significant *disturbance* in person's cognition, emotion regulation or behaviour *maladaptive* → interferes with everyday life

Social identity (3)

the "we" aspect of our self-concept → part of our answer to "who am I" that comes from our group memberships → formed by how we differ from those around us

Intimacy (2)

the ability to form close, loving relationships → in Ericksons theory primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Gender typing (3)

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role → more than imitation is involved children gravitate toward what feels right → Learning to be male or female involves feeling and thinking

Assessment refers to...

the activity and the instruments used to measure intelligence → challenge is to make these instruments *valid* (measure what they are supposed to measure) and *reliable* (yield the same score if administered again, even by someone else)

Cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early critical period of life

Heritability

the proportion of *variation* among individuals that can be attributed to genes → heritability of a trait may vary, depending on range of pops. and enviro. studied → does not tell us the *proportion* that genes contribute

Y chromosome (2)

the sex chromosome found only in males → paired with X-chromosome from mother → produces a male child

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using natural selection

terror-management theory

theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional/behavioural responses to reminders of impending death

behaviour therapy

theory that applies learning principles to elimination of unwanted behaviours

scapegoat theory

theory that prejudice offers outlet for anger by *providing someone to blame*

Social roots of prejudice: 2. Us vs them: ingroups and outgroups (3)

through *social identities* associate with certain groups and contrast with others → natural drive to belng to group leads to *ingroup bias* → misjudging/ categorizing other groups

Freud believed defence mechanisms operate _______ and defend against_____

unconsciously;anxiety

tend and befriend

under stress people (especially *women*) often provide support (*tend*) and seek support (*befriend*)

Brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia (4)

→ too many dopamine/D4 receptors → poor coordination of neural firing in *frontal lobes* impairs judgement/self-control → *thalamus* fires during hallucinations → *shrinking* of many *brain areas* and connections

Cognitive dissonance

when our actions are not in harmony with our attitudes

3. Communication (3)

when real-life conflicts become intense, *third party mediator* facilitate communication → mediators help each group to voice viewpoint/understand others' goals → replace *competitive* win-lose to *cooperative* win-win

Person-Situation Controversy(2)

→ trait theory assumes we have traits that are function of personality, not situation → evidence that some traits linked to roles/personas use in diff. cultures, environments

How did Sigmand Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of unconscious mind? (3)

→ treating patients with no phys. explanation to disorder → concluded problems reflected unacceptable thoughts/feelings hidden away in *unconscious mind* → used *free association* and dream analysis to explore hidden part of mind

Groupthink is prevented when a leader...(3)

→ welcomes opinions → invites critiques of developing plans → assigns peep to identify problems

Nature and Nurture interact to shape synapses (4)

→ well-used brain pathways work better unused connections are pruned away → certain abilities not used will fade → Brain development *does not end with childhood* → plasticity allows neural tissue to change and re-organize in response to new experiences

Responding to social norms

→ when with others and perceive a social norm, our behaviour may follow *the norm rather than our own judgement*

Genetics & Environmental influence on intelligence: Environment effects evidence (3)

→ where enviro. varies, enviro. differences are more predictive of intelligence scores → adoption enhances intelligence scores of mistreated/neglected kids → intelligence scores of *"virtual twins"* (same-age, unrelated siblings adopted as infants/raised together) correlate +.28

How are Belyaeb and Trut's breeding practices similar to and how do they differ from the way natural selection occurs(3)

→B/T selecting/breeding foxes that exhibit desired traits of TAMENESS SIMILAR→n.s. selects for traits DIFF→n.s. (including mutations) favours traits leading to reproductive success where breeders seeking tameness

PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCES on individual development (4)

→affects of early experiences on neural networks → gene-environment interaction's →personal beliefs/feelings and expectations →responses evoked by characteristics

SOCIAL CULTURAL INFLUENCES on individual development (3)

→cultural traditions/values (individualism or collectivism) →cultural gender norms →parental/peer influences

Aaron Beck's therapy for depression (3)

→helped peep see how depression is worsened by errors in thinking such as *catastrophizing* i. interpreting current events as signs of worst outcome → Beck's therapy helps clients notice/challenge errors in thinking

B lymphocytes

white blood cells mature in *bone* marrow and release antibodies that fight *bacterial infections*

T lymphocytes

white blood cells mature in *thymus* and other lymphatic tissue and attack → *cancer cells* → *viruses* → *foreign* substances

Baby memory: learning skills (2)

→ infants can learn skills (procedural memories) → three-month-old can learn/recall months later that at specific foot movements move specific mobiles

How do culture and values influence therapist-client relationship? (2)

→ therapists *differ in values that influences goals in therapy* and views of progress → differences problem if client/therapist differ in cultural/religious perspectives

3. Authoritative parenting style 👌 (4) +CHILD (4)

"Just right" → parents both demanding/responsive → exert control by setting rules and enforcing them/explain reasons for rules → encourage open discussion when making rules/allowing exceptions CHILD → high self-reliance → high social-competence → high self-esteem → low aggression

1. Authoritarian parenting style (2) 😠 + CHILD (2)

"Too hard" → impose rules and expect obedience "why? Because I said so" CHILD → less social skills/self-esteem

2. Permissive parenting style (2) 😬 + CHILD(2)

"Too soft" → parents submit to their child's desires make few demands/use little punishment CHILD → more aggressive/immature

outgroup

"them"-those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup (2+ex)

"us"-people whom we share common identity → discrimination not outgroup hostility but *ingroup networking* i.e. hiring friend's child over others

1. Automatic mimicry (1) + (5)

(*the chameleon effect*) tendency to unconsciously imitate other's → expressions → postures → voice tones → accents/vocab → contagious yawning/arm folding/ face rubbing

Basic trust (3)

(Eric Erickson) sense that the world is predictable/trustworthy formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers → early attachments form the foundation for our adult relationships/comfort with affection and intimacy → associated with MOTIVATION💪 securely attached people exhibit less fear failure/greater drive to achieve

Psychiatrist

(MD, DO) prescribe medicine and sometimes do psychotherapy

Natural Killer Cells

(NK cells) pursue disease cells i.e. those affected by cancer/virus

When are people most (a-c+2)/least (1) likely to help?

(a) notice an *incident* (b) interpret it as *emergency* (c) assume *responsibility* for helping → mood → similarity to victim *less likely* if bystanders are present

Macrophages

(big eaters) identify, pursue, ingest *harmful invaders* and worn out cells

Critiquing Humanist Perspective

*1. What about evil?* → Rogers didn't appreciate human capacity for evil → R. saw "evil" as social phenomenon not trait *2. Too much self-centeredness* → pursuit of self-concept encourages NOT self-transcendence but self-centeredness

3 main eating disorders Anorexia Nervosa (3) Bulimia Nervosa (2) Binge-eating Disorder (2)

*AN* → compulsion to *lose weight* → certainty about being fat despite 15% being underweight → 0.6% meet criteria at some point in life *BN* → compulsion to *binge* then *purge by losing food* → 1.0 % meet criteria at some point in life *BED* → compulsion to *binge* followed by guilt/depression → 2.8% meet criteria at some point in life

What distinguishes and imprinting from attachment RP (2)

*ATTACHMENT* → normal process which we form emotional ties with important others *IMPRINTING* → in animals that have critical period very early in development which they form attachments and do so in inflexible manner

What is the selection affect and how does it effective teens decision to join sports teams at school? RP

*Adolescents tend to select similar peers* →this could lead to a teen who is athletic finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together

Which kids may develop antisocial personality disorder as adults? Psychological (3) Biological (4+2 risk)

*B* → antisocial/unemotional biological relatives → fear conditioning impaired → reduced *frontal cortex tissue* leads to impulsivity → substance dependence likely *risk factors* → body-based fearlessness → lower levels of stress hormones/physiological arousal in stress *P* → impulsive, inhibited, unconcerned with social rewards, low anxiety *in preschool* → child abuse → unavailable caretaking

Biological (3) / Psychological (3) / Social (4) Influences on Personality

*B* → autonomic nervous system reactivity → brain activity → genetically determined temperament *P* → expectations/interpretations → learned responses → unconscious thought processes *S* → childhood experiences → cultural expectations → influence of situation → social support

Traits: Rooted in Biology? brain (1) body (1) genes (2)

*Brain* → *extraverts* low levels of brain activity (hard to repress impulses) leading to seek stimulation *body* → trait shyness appears related to *high autonomic* system reactivity *genes* → selective breeding of animals makes diff. in traits like aggression → suggests genetic roots for traits

4. Conciliation (4+ex)

*Charles Osgood* and *GRIT* (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction) *Applying GRIT* → one side recognizes mutual interests/intent to reduce tension → initiates conciliatory acts → opens door for reciprocity by other party i.e. JFK stopping atmospheric nuclear tests began reciprocated conciliatory acts in *1963 atmospheric test-ban treaty*

How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis? Credit (6) Criticize (4)

*Credit* → attention to unconscious → struggle to cope with sexuality → conflict between biological impulses and social restraint → some forms of defence mechanisms and unconscious terror-management defence i. projection ii. reaction formation *Criticize* → concept of repression → views of unconscious as collection of repressed/unacceptable thoughts/wishes → after-the-fact explanations (hard to test) → development fixed in childhood (lifelong)

Biological vs adoptive relatives(3)

*ENVIRO* shared by family's children has virtually *no impact* on personalities → adoptive children e more similar to genetic relatives then nurture relatives I.E.→ 2 adopted children raised in same home are no more likely to share personality traits with each other then with children down the block

Alternate Therapies EMDR (4) LET (2)

*Eye movement Desensitization and Reprocessing* → therapist attempts unlock/reprocess frozen traumatic memories → waves finger/light in front of client eyes to integrate past/present → when not effective critiqued by founder as being done without training → *effective from exposure therapy nature of treatment* *Light exposure therapy* → research supports daily exposure to light (blue tint) effective in treating depression symptoms (*seasonal affective disorder*) → activates brain region influences arousal/hormones

Jean Piaget adolescents are in _____ stage (5)

*FORMAL OPERATIONAL* → Think about how reality compares to ideals → Think hypothetically about different choices/consequences → plan how to pursue goals → Think about minds of others including "what do they think of me?"

Family Therapy (2) Group Therapy (4) Self-help groups (3)

*FT* → sessions with whole family at home or in office to work on *family system* (pattern's of alliances, authority and communication) → related modality is *couples/marital therapy* *GT* → 6-9 people with related needs to work on therapeutic goals benefits like: i. less cost per person ii. more interaction/support iii. clients realize share problems/not alone *SHG* → self-help groups led by members instead of theapist → much larger than group therapy, less interaction → focus on *support* rather than working on goals

Even as newborns we prefer sights and sounds that... (5)

*Facilitate social responsiveness* → turn heads in direction of human voices → gaze longer at a drawing of a face like image → prefer to look at objects 8 to 12 inches away (approximate distance between a nursing infant eyes/its mothers) → smell of mother ( mothers using chamomile scented bomb to prevent nipple soreness/kids prefer chamomile-scented toys)

Body's Stress Response system: Phase 1 (4)

*Fight or Flight* sympathetic nervous system responds: → reduces pain/increases heart rate/respiration → core of *adrenal glands* produces norepinephrine and epinephrine (identified by Walter Canon)

unconscious (2)

*Freud* reservoir of unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories *Contemporary psych.* → information processing of which we are unaware

attribution theory: we explain other's behaviour with two types of *attribution*

*Fritz Heider* 1. *situational * → factors outside person doing the action 2. *dispositional* →stable, enduring traits → personality/emotion

Psychoanalysis: Goal (2) Techniques (2) Freud found that...

*G* →bring patient's repressed feelings to conscious awareness → release energy devoted to *ig-ego-superego* conflicts *T* → historical reconstruction (through hypnosis then free association) → interpretation of resistance, transference ... unusual symptoms of patients sometimes *improved when repressed conflicts* brought to conscious awareness

What are gender roles and what do variations tell us about our human capacity for learning/adaptation RP (2)

*Gender roles* → social rules for excepted/expected behaviours for females and males → norms associated with roles *vary widely in different cultural* is proof that we are capable of learning/adapting to social demands of diff. environments

Humanistic psychotherapy vs Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy Goal How to improve Role of Therapist Content of Therapy Time Focus

*H* →promote growth *P* →cure mental illness *H* → take responsibility for feelings/actions *P* → bring unconscious conflicts to conscious *H* → provide enviro for growth *P* → provide interpretations *H* → conscious feelings *actual and ideal self) *P* → unconscious conflicts *H* → present and future *P* → past

How do you individualist (3) and collectivist (3) cultures influence people

*INDIVIDUALISM* → value personal independence/achievement → define identity in terms of self-esteem/personal rights and liberties I.E.→ North America *COLLECTIVISM* → Value interdependence/tradition/harmony → define identity in terms of group goals/belonging to one's group I.E. → Asia

II. Implicit Prejudice (experiments) 1. I (1) 2. U (2) 3. R (3) 4. R (1)

*Implicit racial associations* → test results: even people who deny racial prejudice carry negative association *Unconscious patronization* → lower expectations based on race → inflated praise/insufficient criticism for minority student achievement *Race-influenced perceptions* → automatic racial bias → shoot or not shoot men on screen (more shot black) → fatigue increases automatic reactions/amplifies racial bias *Reflexive bodily responses* → unconscious responses when looking at faces

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood RP (5+3)

*In mid 20s we reach a peak in natural physical abilities which come with biological maturation:* → muscular strength → cardiac output → reaction time → sensory sensitivity → fertility ends with menopause (50) → immune system weakens → chromosome ends wear down reducing chances of normal genetic replication

Cognitive roots of prejudice: 3. Belief that the World is Just (3)

*Just-World Fallacy*→ believing Justice happens and people get benefits/punishment they deserve → Hindsight bias promoted blame-the-victim mentality → believing world is just and own/culture's way of doing things is right

An alternative viewpoint to Jean Piaget (4+ex)

*LEV VYGOTSKY* → how child's mind grows through interaction with social environment → principal: children learn thinking skills by *INTERNALIZING LANGUAGE* from others and developing in her speech I.E.→ parent scolds with "no no " → when child needs to resist temptation he might say "no no" → development as building on a scaffold of mentoring/language and cognitive support from parents and others

Cognitive dissonance theory

*Leon Festinger* we act to *reduce* discomfort* (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are *inconsistent* i.e. when aware that attitudes and actions clash → reduce dissonance by changing attitudes

Early and Modern Tests of Metal Abilities: Stanford-Binet

*Lewis Terman* widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test → extended age range into adulthood → tested California resid. to develop new *norms* about how people performed on tests → felt intelligence was unchanging and innate (genetic) → later saw how scores can be *affected* by people's level of *education*/ familiarity with *language and culture* used in test

Similarities and differences: men versus women (3v3)

*MEN* 1. 4 times more likely to die by suicide/develop alcohol dependence 2. More likely to have child diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder/colour-blindness/ADHD 3. More at risk for antisocial personality disorder *WOMEN* 1. enter puberty sooner/live 5 years longer 2. Carry 70% more fat/20% less muscle/5 inches shorter 3. Twice the risk of developing depression/10 times the risk of developing an eating disorder

The male answer syndrome

*MEN* are likely than women to hazard answers rather than *admit they don't know*

Enviro influences on intelligence: Slowing normal development (Person +3) (Person +2)

*McVicker Hunt (1982)* → Iranian orphanage study found extreme deprivation had negative effects → poor enviro. conditions can depress cognitive development → *tutored human enrichment* has larger impact on compensating for deprivation than boosting intelligence under normal conditions *Mani and colleagues (2013)* → poverty can impede cognitive performance/deplete cognition capacity → malnutrition, sensory deprivation and social isolation slowed normal brain development *enviro. has more influence on extreme conditions*

Secondary sex characteristics

*Non-reproductive* sexual traits (such as female breasts and hips/male voice quality and body hair)

Freud's Psychosexual stages O A P L G

*ORAL* → 0-18 months → pleasure centres on mouth *ANAL* → 18-36 months → pleasure on bowel/bladder elimination → coping with demands for control *PHALLIC* → 3-6 years → pleasure zone gentilas → coping with incestuous sexual feelings *LATENCY* → 6-puberty → dormant sexual feelings *GENITAL* → puberty on → maturation of sexual interests

Body's Stress Response system: Phase 2 (3)

*cerebral cortex* secretes cortisol/other stress hormones → focus on planning adaptive coping strategies and ressintig defeat by stressor *Hans Selyve* → identified this resistance phase is stress response followed by *Phase 3: exhaustion*

Psychodynamic therapy (5) Interpersonal therapy (3)

*PT* → less intensive version of *psychoanalysis* i. fewer sessions ii. less theory about sex, id, superego → focus on *improved self-awareness* and *insight in unconscious thoughts* rooted in past relationships → therapists suggest changes in *patterns of thinking/relating to others* *IT* → extension of psychoanalysis → less focus on insight more on *relational behaviour change* and *symptom relief* → focus *less on past* more on current feelings/relation and interaction with therapist

Nature of gender our biological sex: adolescent puberty/sexual development NOTES (5)

*PUBERTY* → mature sexually → surge of hormones triggers a 2-year period of rapid physical development → primary/secondary sex characteristics develop dramatically

Emerging adulthood (5)

*Period late teens to mid 20s bridging gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adult hood* → added years of education/later marriage delay full adult independence beyond traditional adolescence → average interval first menstrual menstrua period/marriage 1820: 7yrs 1995: 12.5yrs

What historically significant and current theories inform our understanding of personality? (4 theories +1 each)

*Personality* → individual's characteristic pattern of thinking/feeling/acting 1. *psychodynamic theory* → behaviour is dynamic interaction between conscious/unconscious mind → origin from Sigmund Freud theory of *psychoanalysis* 2. *humanistic approach* → inner capacities for growth/self-fulfillment 3. *Trait theories* → characteristic patterns of behaviour (traits 4. *Social-cognitive theories* → interaction between people's traits and social context

The Power of Individuals (5)

*Power of the situation and power of the individual interact* → small minority expresses it views may sway majority → some *resists* obeying and conforming → individuals can *start* social movements/forces not just get caught up in them → groupthink prevented if individuals *speak up* when group decision wrong

What is the difference between preventive mental health and psychological or biomedical therapy? RP

*Psychological and biomedical therapies* attempt to relieve people's suffering from psychological disorders *Preventive mental health* attempts to prevent suffering by identifying/eliminating conditions that cause disorders

Defence Mechanisms (1+ex) R R P R D D

*Regression* → retreating to infantile psychosexual stage (psychic energy remains fixated) I.E. boy reverts to oral comfort (thumb sucking) in car on first day of school *Reaction Formation* → switching unacceptable impulses into opposites I.E. repress anger show exaggerated friendliness *Projection* → disguising threatening impulses by attributing them to others I.E. "thief thinks everyone else is thief" *Rationalization* → self-justifying explanations in place of real threatening unconscious reasons for actions I.E. drinker says she drinks w friends to be social *Displacement* → shifting sexual/aggressive impulses toward acceptable object/person I.E. kick dog after mom sends to room *Denial* → refusing to believe painful realities I.E. partner denies evidence of wife's affair

Researcher A is well-funded to learn about *how intelligence changes over the life span*. Researcher B wants to study *intelligence of people who are now at various life stages*. Which researcher should use cross-sectional and which use longitudinal method? RP

*Researcher A* use longitudinal study *Researcher B* use cross-sectional study

Puberty timing (3)

*SEQUENCE* of sexual maturation is *predictable* but *TIME* of ONSET *VARIES* from person to person → Maturing early can have social advantages (in boys)/increased expectations and risks → GIRLS puberty earlier bc increase body fat/increase hormone-mimicking chemicals/stress related to family

Variations on sexual development: disorder of sexual development (3)

*SEXUAL REASSIGNMENT SURGERY* → males born without penis/small paediatricians recommended surgery to create a female identity for these children → describe themselves as either male or female or unclear sexual identity

The impact of stress on catching a cold experiment (3)

*Sheldon Cohen* → people with high stress in life were most vulnerable when exposed to cold virus → tradeoff between stress response and immune response may help our bodies focus energy on managing stress

How do conformity experiments reveal power of social influence? (1) (a-g) I 3 A A N O C

*Solomon Asch* found most likely to adjust behaviour or thinking to coincide with group standard when: (a) feel *incompetent* or insecure (b) group has *at least 3* people (c) everyone else agrees (d) *admire* group's status/attractiveness (e) not already committed to another response (f) we are being *observed* (g) *culture encourages* respect for social standards

How does Type D differ from Type A? RP

*TYPE D* experience *distress* rather than anger → suppress negative emotions to avoid social disapproval

Bystanders are most likely to help when: (4 + 4)

*The person* might be: → in need/deserving of assistance → a women → similar to us → in a small town or rural area *Meanwhile, upon encountering person*: → feel guilt → saw someone trying to help → not in a hurry → in a good mood (*strongest predictor*)

How do we explain poverty or unemployment? (2)

*US/Britain/AUS* → blame on personal dispositions → attribution of poverty/homelessness to social or personal dispositions affects/reflects our political views

In what ways is our genetic legacy problematic? (1+ex 2)

*We are biologically prepared for world that no longer exists* I.E.→ Love the taste of sweets and fats which prepared our ancestors to survive famines → famine rare in western cultures obesity a growing problem

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) (4)

*William Stern* defined originally as the ratio of *mental* age (ma) to *chronological* age (ca) multiplied by 100 (IQ=ma/ca) → worked well for children but not for adults

David Napolitan and George Goethals

*Williams College study* → women paid to act friendly to some students/ rude to others *friendly* → students said she was a warm person *unfriendly* → students said she was a cold person → attributed behaviour to *personal disposition* even when told her behaviour was situational

2. Prenatal development 3 stages (3 each)

*ZYGOT STAGE (first 10 to 14 days)* → after nuclei of egg and sperm fuse cell divides → *Milestone→ begin to differentiate into specialized locations/structures* *IMPLANTATION: the embryo 2 to 8 weeks* → multicellular cluster implants in the uterine wall → inner cells EMBRYO/ outer cells PLACENTA → *Milestone → differentiated cells develop into organs/bones* *FETUS (9weeks)* → hands and face have developed/the embryo is called a fetus → four months more features develop → *Milestone → six months the foetus might be able to survive outside womb*

Are intelligence test inappropriately biased? (5)

*aptitude tests* aim to predict how well "test-taker" will perform in given situation → "biased" in that sensitive to performance of diff. based on culture *inappropriately biased* → test predicts less accurately for one group than another → most experts consider major aptitude tests *unbiased*

Passionate love (5)

*aroused state of intense positive absorption in another* → present at beginning of love relationship *COMPONENTS* → Physical arousal (sweating) → flattering appraisal of other → intense desire for others' presence

behaviour therapy: aversive conditioning

*associates unpleasant state with unwanted behaviours* → condition aversion to something a person should avoid i.e. nail biting by putting on nail polish

Early and Modern Tests of Metal Abilities: Francis Galton (4)

*belief in hereditary genius* → attempted to assess intellectual intelligence (1884) based on: *body proportion* *muscular power* *reaction time* *sensory acuity* → found *no correlation* between measures but provided statistical techniques → persisted in belief of inheritance of genius (*Hereditary Genius* book)

2. ego (3+ex)

*conscious* executive of personality mediates demands of id, superego and reality → *reality principle* satisfying id's desires in ways that realistically bring pleasure rather than pain → at 4/5 ego recognizes demands of superego i.e. Jane sexually attracted to John, satisfy both by joining volunteering that John attends

Companionate/compassionate love (3)

*deep affectionate attachment we feel fort hose with whom our lives are intertwined* → oxytocin supports feelings of trust, calmness, bonding → lowered divorce rate in Non-Western culture with love as not important for marriage

Some researchers propose two types of self-esteem d(3) s(3)

*defensive* → fragile → threatened by failure/criticism → vulnerable to threats which feed anger *secure* → less fragile → less contingent on external evaluation → likely to achieve greater quality of life

Which of Freud's Ideas did his followers (neo-Freudians) accept or reject? (2) (3)

*differ* → more emphasis on conscious mind → social motivations more than sex and aggression *Contemporary psychodynamics theorists* → reject emphasis on sexual motivation → stress mental life unconscious and child experiences influence adult personality/attachement → species shared evolutionary history shaped universal predispositions

Group Behaviour: 4. Group Polarization (3)

*enhancement* of group's views through discussion within the group → different groups become *more* different in their views → by connecting/magnifying inclinations of like-minded peep, Internet can be *bad* or *good*

Levels of Aggression influenced by: 1. Aversive event (6) I.E Pitchers were most likely to hit batters when... (3)

*frustration-aggression principle* → frustration creates anger which can spark aggression Violence increases during: → hot years/days → pain → crowding → foul odors *i.e.* → frustrated by previous home run → current batter hit home run last time → teammate hit by pitch in previous half inning

How do we tend to explain other's behaviour and our own? (3)

*fundamental attribution error* for others → blame *own* behaviour or those we know well (failure) on *situation* → commit FAE to a stranger who acts badly

Biological aspects and explanations for Mood disorders G (2) B (4)

*genetic* → DNA linkage analysis reveals depressed gene regions → twin/adoption heritability studies *the brain* → diminished activity and increased mania → smaller frontal lobes in depression and fewer axons in bipolar → more *norepinephrine* in mania, less in depression → reduced serotonin in depression

Results of outcome research found some forms of psychotherapy work best for certain problems: i. Depression ii. anxiety iii. phobias iv. bedwetting

*i.* → cognitive-behavioural → psychodynamic therapy *ii.* → cognitive-behavioural → psychodynamic therapy → exposure therapy *iii.* → exposure therapy → behaviour conditioning *iv.* → behaviour conditioning

Baby memory: Infantile amnesia (2+ex)

*inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before the three years of life* → infancy brains for memories so differently from the episodic memory of adulthood I.E. → fire evacuation caused by burning popcorn → experienced as a three-year-old cannot remember the cause and miss recall being already outside

How effective is aerobic exercise as a way to manage stress and improve well-being? (7)

*increases* → arousal → muscle relaxation → sound sleep → triggers production of neurotransmitters → enhances self-image → relieve depression → good mood

Health impact of religious involvement may be... (2)

*indirect* → health may improve bc lifestyle and emotional factors associated with religious involvement not just faith

How do conditioning, cognition (5) and biology (4) contribute to feelings and thoughts that mark anxiety disorders OCD and PTSD?

*learning perspective* → fearful-behaviour reinforcement → hypervigilance (persistently watching out for danger) → observational learning of other's fears/cognitions → product of fear conditioning → stimulus generalization *biology* → abnormal responses in brain's fear circuit → *genetic* predispositions high levels of emotional reactivity → neurotransmitter production → role that fears of life-threatening animals/objects or situations played in *natural selection*

Why does perceived loss of control predict health problems? (7)

*losing control* produces: → blood pressure increase → immune responses drop →rising stress hormones *increasing control* → improved health and morale in prison/nursing home studies → Tyranny of choice can create information overload

Group Behaviour: 3. Deindividuation

*loss of self-awareness* and *self-restraint* occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity i.e. riots/concerts

Beneficial and Harmful stress effects: A _____ experience of stress can be beneficial (5) ______ or _____ stress can harm us (2)

*momentary* → feel engaged/satisfied → focusing priorities → improve immune system response → motivating action → challenges that encourage growth/ knowledge and self- esteem *extreme* or *prolonged* → mental/physical coping systems overwhelmed and defeated → immune functioning/health factors decline

Early and Modern Tests of Metal Abilities: David Wechsler (7)

*separate scores for separate skills* → Wechsler *Adult* Intelligence Scale and scale for *children* (WISC) & another for *preschoolers* → measure "g"/IQ and have subscores for: 1. *verbal comprehension* 2. *processing speed* 3. *perceptual memory* 4. *working memory*

token economy

*operant conditioning procedure* which peep earn token for exhibiting desired behaviour and exchange tokens for privileges or treats

fundamental attribution error (4)

*overestimate* influence *personality* and *underestimate* influence of *situation* → especially in individualistic culture → assume person's behaviour cause by their personality → think a behaviour demonstrates a trait

I. Explicit Ethnic Prejudice (4)

*overt prejudice* → attitude about gay marriage not come as far as interracial marriage → increase prejudice towards *Muslims*/Arabs after 9/11 → *women* still judged/treated unfairly *automatic prejudice* → subtle prejudice occurs when people say they have no prejudice in principle (have unconscious prejudice reactions)

Two problems called "Bias": Popular (def +ex) vs Scientific (def+ex) bias

*popular sense* → making it easier for one group than another to *score higher* on a test i.e. tests have questions rely on knowledge of mainstream culture → 2011 SAT writing prompt meant discussing reality television shows *scientific form* →making it easier for one group than another to have abilities *accurately* assessed and future performance predicted i.e. aptitude tests predict future achievement well for various ethnic groups and men/women

struggling with challenges can lead to...

*post-traumatic growth* → positive psychological changes as result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crisis

Early and Modern Tests of Metal Abilities: Alfred Binet (5) + implication

*predicting school achievement* → new law in France meant all kids went to school → developed tests for kids to determine child's *mental age* → tested variety of reasoning/problem-solving questions on his daughters → *assumed* all kids follow same course of development (some more quick) *IMPLICATION* →kids with *lower* ability were *delayed* (with mental age below actual age) and not *disabled* (could improve)

Why didn't anybody help Kitty Genovese? What social psychological principle did this incident illustrate? RP

*presence of others* → bystander effect since each witness assumed others were aware of the event

Stress Increases the risk of illness flow chart P S (he) A (ate) T (oo) F (ast) N B (c) H (ungry) I I (nside) R (umbling)

*psychological* stressor ↓ appraisal ↓ thoughts ↓ feelings ↓ *neurological* brain signals ↓ hormonal action ↓ *immunology* immune suppression ↓ risk of illness

Eating disorders associated factors psychological (3) family (4) cultural (1)

*psychological* → overwhelm body's tendency to maintain normal weight → *anorexia* view selves as fat → *bulimia* binge then compensate by purging → *bed* binge only *family factors* → *anorexia*, if competitive, high-achieving and protective → *bulimia*, if childhood obesity runs in fam → mother focused on weight/child's appearance → negative self-evaluation *Cultural* → unrealistic ideals of body appearance

dissociative identity disorder rare cases (2) alternative (3) different personalities have involved... (4)

*rare cases, personalities* → distinct not present in consciousness at same time → might not be aware of each other *alternative explanations* → extreme form of playing role → recent cultural construction in NA → cases created/worsened by therapists encouraging people to think of diff. parts of themselves *diff personalities have involved* → diff. brain wave patterns → diff. dominant hand → diff. visual acuity/eye muscle balance patterns → heightened activity in brain areas with managing/inhibiting *traumatic memories*

Schools of Cognitive therapy Albert Elli's... Aaron Beck's... Donal Meichenbaum's...

*rational-emotive behaviour therapy* → challenging irrational beliefs and assumptions *cognitive therapy for depression* → correcting cognitive distortions *stress inoculation training* → practicing healthier thinking before facing stressor, disappointment or frustration

Relaxation and Meditation (6) People who meditate learn to create a ...(5)

*relaxation techniques* reduce → headaches → high B.P. → anxiety → insomnia → improve immune system ...*relaxation response* → muscle relax → low b.P → slow heart rate/breathing → increases brain activity associated with positive emotions

Which elements of traditional psychoanalysis have modern-day psychodynamic theorists and therapists retained (2) and which have been left behind (2)?

*rely on* → interviewing → focus on childhood experience/attachment/unresolved conflict *left behind* → fixation → resolution of sexual issues is basis of personality

Interpretation in Psychoanalysis: The therapist may see unconscious meaning in...

*resistance* → blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material *interpretation* → therapist noting dream meanings and other behaviours/events to give insight *Transference* → patient transfers feelings toward someone from past to therapist

How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behaviour? (3)

*social exchange theory* view that we help others because it's in our own self-interest → goal of social behaviour is maximizing personal benefit/minimizing cost Others believe → helping results from socializing such as *resiprocity* norm and *social-responsibility* norm

Cognitive Roots of Prejudice: 1. Other-Race Effect (own-age basis & cross-race effect)

*tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races* → emerges between 3 to 9 months *forming categories* → observer's selective attention drawn to distinctive features of less-familiar minority i.e. European-descent New Zealanders classified ambiguous faces as Chinese

1. Catastrophic events/conditions (2+ex) 1. S (1) 2. L (4) 3. B (1)

*unpredictable large-scale events* → appraisal is not essential i.e. earthquakes/flooding → can be single event of chronic conditions *short-term* effects → increased heart attacks on day of event *Long-term* effects → depression → nightmares → anxiety → flashbacks *Bonding* → both trauma and recovery are shared by others

ADHD "stimulants" What they do (2) How they work (1) Side effects (1)

*what they do* → control impulses → reduce distractibility/need for stimulation *how they work* → block reuptake of dopamine from synapse *side effects* → decreased appetite

Antidepressant What they do (1) How they work (2) Side effects (3) ii. Inhibiting reuptake (4)

*what they do* → improves mood control over depressing thoughts and anxiety *how they work* → increase serotonin (or norepinephrine) at synapses by *inhibiting reuptake* → possible neurogenisis *side effects* → constipation → dry mouth → reduced sexual desire/response *ii. inhibiting reuptake* → often called SSRIs—selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 1. serotonin in synapse to send message 2. message received; excess serotonin reabsorbed by sending neuron 3. *stop normal reuptake*; excess serotonin in synapse enhances in mood-lifitng

Mood stabilizers What they do (2) How they work (1) side effects (1)

*what they do* → reduce "highs" of mania → reduce "lows" of depression *how they work* → under investigation *side effects* → various; must monitor blood levels

Antipsychotic medication What they do (2) How they work (1) Side effects (3)

*what they do* → reduce overreaction to irrelevant stimuli → treat schizophrenia *how they work* → mimic neurotransmitters (i.e. block or increase dopamine) *side effects* → diabetes → movement problems (twitching, or *tardive dyskinesia*→ odd facial/boy movements) → obesity

Anti-anxiety medication What they do (1) How they work (1) Side effects (4)

*what they do* → temporarily reduce worried thinking/physical agitation *how they work* → slow nervous system activity in body/brain *side effects* → dependence → reduced learning → slowed thinking → withdrawl

Social-cognitive perspective

views behaviour as influenced by interaction between people's traits and social context

CHAPTER 10

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CHAPTER 14

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CHAPTER 5 DEVELOPING THROUGH THE LIFESPAN (.)

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Chapter 12 Stress and Health

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Chapter 13

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Handled infants of babies/rats...

... Develop faster neurologically/gain weight more rapidly

Parents may try to have influence by selecting a child's peers... (5) NOTES

... Ultimately most children self select their peers → degree of peer influences hard to trace → apparent conformity could be a selection affect → interaction with peers can teach new social skills → Gardner (1998) concluded parents/peers are complementary

Exercise can... (more likely to rust from disuse than to wear out from overuse)

... slow ageing → builds muscles and bones → stimulates neurogenesis (in the hippocampus) and new neural connections → maintain telomeres → improve cognition → reduce risk of dementia

Females are more... (5)

...Interdependent than males → they tend and befriend 1. TEENS→ girls spend more time with friends and less time alone 2. ADOLESCENTS → girls spend more time on social media 3. ADULTS → Women take more pleasure talking face-to-face/use conversation more to explore relationships

Many research psychologists think of the unconscious mind as... (6)

...cooler information processing that occurs *without awareness* → *emotions* activate instantly → *implicit* memory → *priming* by stimuli → *right-hemisphere* activity enables split-brain patient's left hand to do things can't verbalize → *schemas* control perceptions → *stereotypes* unconsciously influence process info about others

Thinking Habits Reinforcing Prejudice 1. AH 2. CB 3. CD 4. HB

1. *Availability Heuristic* → stereotypes built on vivid cases rather than statistics 2. *Confirmation Bias* → not likely to look for counter examples to stereotypes 3. *Cognitive dissonance* → "My culture/fam treats minorities this way, can we be wrong?" 4. *Hindsight Bias* → blames victims for misfortunes "They should have known better"

Levels of aggression are influenced by: (4)

1. *Aversive conditions*/feeling frustrated 2. *reinforced* aggressive behaviour 3. Aggressive *role model* 4. Adopting social scripts for aggression from *culture* and *media*

Piaget' stages of cognitive development: 1. description of stage (3) 2. developmental phenomena (2) 7 to 11 years

1. *CONCRETE OPERATIONAL* → thinking logically about concrete events →grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations 2. Conservation/mathematical transformations

Jean Piaget believed cognitive development : (2)

1. *Combination of nature/nurture* → Children grow by maturation and by learning through interaction/playing with the environment 2. *Is not one continuous progression of change* →children make leaps and cognitive abilities from one scheme of development to the next

Social influence influences our behaviour, attitude, beliefs and decisions in forms including: (3+5)

1. *Conformity* 2. *Obedience* 3. *Group* situations/*behaviour* leads to: → social facilitation → social loafing → polarization → deindividuation → groupthink

the Big Five (CANOE)

1. *Conscientiousness* → organized/disorganized → careless/careful 2. *Agreeableness* → helpful/uncooperative → trusting/suspicious 3. *Neuroticism* → anxious/calm → insecure/secure 4. *Openness* → independent/conforming 5. *Extraversion* → sociability/retiring

Stability of Intelligence during aging: 1. Phase I (4) 2. Phase II (3) 3. Phase III (4)

1. *Cross-sectional Evidence for Intellectual data* → test people of diff. ages → older adults give fewer correct answers → corporations made retirement policies "companies benefit replacing aging workers with younger ones" 2. *Longitudinal Evidence for stability* → retested the same group of people over period of years → evidence that intelligence *remains stable* or *increases* over time 3. *It all depends* → after adjusting for participant loss, steeper decline in intelligence revealed (especially after 85) → intelligence not *single trait* but *several* distinct abilities → adjusting for processing speed/using wisdom tests suggest continued intellectual competence in many older adults

Keys to a lasting love relatioship

1. *Equity* 2. *Self-disclosure* 3. *Positive interactions/support* (laughs/hugs)

Piaget' stages of cognitive development: 1. description of stage (2) 2. developmental phenomena (2) 12 through adulthood

1. *FORMAL OPERATIONAL* → abstract reasoning 2. Abstract logic/potential for mature moral reasoning

Cognitive roots of prejudice (3)

1. *Forming categories* → Other-Race Effect 2. *Power of Vivid Cases* 3. *"Just World" Belief

Early and Modern Tests of Metal Abilities: Psychologists (4) F A L D

1. *Francis Galton*→ belief in hereditary genius 2. *Alfred Binet*→ Predicting School Achievement 3. *Lewi Terman*→ Innate IQ 4. *David Wechsler*→ Separate Scores for Separate Skills

The "Racial" Intelligence Test Score gap (6)

1. *Genetics research says under skin, races remarkably alike* → bigger diff between two peeps of same group than 2 diff groups 2. *Race is not a neatly defined biological category* → see race as social construction 3. *Intelligence test performance of today's better-fed, educated and test prepared pop. exceeds 1930s pop.* 4. *White and black exhibit similar info-processing skills when given same info* 5. *Schools/culture* matter → outscored bc spend more time at school 6. *Diff groups experience diff golden ages*

Developmental psychology focus on three major issues

1. *NATURE and NURTURE*→ how do genes/experience guide development over our lifespan 2. *CONTINUITY and STAGES*→ is development a gradual change or are there some leaps to a new way of thinking/behaving 3. *STABILITY and CHANGE* → in what ways do we change/stay the same as we age

Studies of twins in adulthood show that IDENTICAL twins are MORE alike than FRATERNAL twins in: (3+example each) NOTES

1. *PERSONALITY TRAITS* →extraversion(sociability) and neuroticism (emotional instability) 2. *BEHAVIOURS/OUTCOMES* →Rate of divorce 3. *ABILITIES* →Overall intelligence test scores

Piaget' stages of cognitive development: 1. description of stage (3) 2. developmental phenomena (2) About 2 to 6 or 7

1. *PREOPERATIONAL* → representing things with words/images → using intuitive rather than logical reasoning 2. Pretend play/Egocentrism

Persuasion efforts take two forms

1. *Peripheral* route persuasion 2. *Central* route persuasion

What can kids do in the preoperational stage (4) R U P U

1. *Represent schema* and some feelings with words/images 2. Use *visual models* to represent other places/perform pretend play 3. Picture other points of view/*replacing egocentrism with the theory of mind* 4. *Use intuition* but not logic and abstract yet

When immune system doesn't function properly it can err in *two directions* 1. (3) 2. (5)

1. *Responding too strongly* → self-attacking disease/arthritis → allergic reaction 2. *Underreacting* → bacterial infection flare → dormant virus to erupt → cancer cells multiply → doctors suppress immune system to protect implanted organs

Piaget' stages of cognitive development: 1. description of stage (2) 2. developmental phenomena (2) BIRTH TO NEARLY 2

1. *SENSORIMOTOR* → experiencing world through senses (looking/hearing/mouthing etc.) 2. Object permanence/stranger anxiety

Norms/Processes influencing help

1. *Utilitarianism → seeking greatest good for greatest # of peep. 2. *Social Exchange* → help if brings more benefit than cost 3. *Reciprocity* → help those who helped us 4. *Social Responsibility* → others depend on us to help → the right thing to do

How do our attitudes and our actions affect each other? (2) RP

1. *attitudes* influence actions as we behave in ways consistent with our beliefs 2. *actions* influence attitudes; come to believe in what we have done

Why does the presence of others reduce likelihood that any one person will help? (3)

1. *diffusion of responsibility* → the role of helper doesn't fall just on one person 2. People in crowd follow example of others; everyone *waiting* for someone to help first 3. people rationalize interaction → "no one helping; must know he's dangerous or faking"

3 sets of influence showing religious involvement as a predictor of health

1. *healthy behaviours* → less smoking/drinking 2. *Social support* → faith communities → marriage 3. *+ emotions* → hope/optimism → less stress → less anxiety

Other evidence of power of obedience: 1. bad news 2. good news

1. *in war*, peep say not gonna fight/kill → after obedience kill innocent people 2. *strengthen heroism* → soldiers risk themselves more so under orders

What are the four components of emotional intelligence?

1. *perceiving* emotions → recognizing in faces, music & stories 2. *understanding* emotions → predicting them/how they change 3. *managing* emotion → knowing how to express them in diff. situations 4. *using* emotion → to enable adaptive/creative thinking

Why factors make two people feel attraction (3)

1. *proximity* → increases liking in part from mere exposure effect 2. *Attractiveness* 3. *Similarity* → attitude/interests

Newborn feeding reflexes (3)

1. *rooting reflex*→ when something touches the newborns cheap the infant turns toward that side with an open mouth 2. *sucking reflex*→ can be triggered by fingertip 3. *crying when hungry*→ using just the right sounds to motivate parents to end the noise/feed the baby

Correlational and experimental studies offer three explanations of brain functioning when practicing mindfulness

1. *strengthens connections* among regions of brain 2. *activates* brain regions associated with more reflective awareness 3.*calms brain* activation in emotional situations

Lessons from the conformity and obedience studies (3)

1. *under pressure* to obey, ordinary peep say/do things they never believed they would do 2. the real evil may be in the situation 3. to assume person committing harmful acts is cruel/evil is a fundamental attribution error

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence (3)

1. Analytical→ solving well-defined problem with single answer (intelligence tests) 2. Creative→ generating new ideas to help adapt to novel situations 3. Practical→ expertise/talent help to complete tasks and manage complex challenges of every day life

Why do people claim to be happy even as their body declines? (4)

1. Attend *less to negative information* and more to positive ( I.e. Amygdala responds less to negative events) 2. Less problems in social relationships 3. Likely to have many positive memories (last longer than negative memories) 4. Increased sense of competence/control (greater stability in mood)

What are three parenting styles? (3) kj APA (daddy)

1. Authoritarian 2. Permissive 3. Authoritative

Four types of cells active in isolating and destroying bacteria

1. B lymphocytes 2. T lymphocytes 3. Macrophytes 4. Natural killer cells

Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences: 8 intelligences +9th

1. Bodily-kinesthetic 2. Intrapersonal 3. Interpersonal 4. Linguistic 5. Logical-mathematical 6. Musical 7. Naturalist 8. Spatial 9. Existential intelligence→ ability to ponder deep questions about life

According to Kohlberg_________morality focusses on UPHOLDING LAWS and social rules, _______morality focusses on self-interest and _________morality focusses on self-defined ethical principles RP

1. Conventional 2. Preconventional 3. Postconventional

Although Piaget's observation and stage theory are useful today's researchers believe: (3)

1. Development is a continuous process 2. Children show some mental abilities/operations at earlier age than he thought 3. Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition even for adults then he believed

Behaviour geneticists are more interested in exploring ___ in our behaviours and evolutionary psychologists are most interested in exploring ___

1. Differences 2. Commonalities

Effect of early exposure to sex hormones is both ______ in the girls _______ and in the _____ of social experiences that shape her

1. Direct 2. Biological appearance 3. Influence

Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are (2)

1. Discerning right from wrong 2. Developing character

Adulthood (6)

1. Early adulthood (20s to 30s) 2. Middle adulthood (to age 65) 3. Late adulthood (years after 65) → physical development → cognitive development → social development

Three general types of temperament in infancy

1. Easy 2. Difficult 3. Slow to warm up

Parents versus peers: parents have more influence on (6) E(at) C(old) S(tew) C(ause) R(ents) I(ndicate)

1. Education/career path 2. Cooperation 3. Self-discipline 4. Charitableness 5. Religion 6. Interaction style with authority figures

Autism spectrum disorder's ( difficulties in three general areas) (4)

1. Establishing mutual *social interaction * 2. using language and play *symbolically* 3. displaying *flexibility* with routines/interests and behaviour → have more difficulty than typical child in mentally mirroring the thoughts and actions of others (mind blindness)

Adult commitment to love (3)

1. Evolved to help children survive long enough to reproduce 2. Couples who marry first stay together more often than peeps just living together 3. Marriage (vs single) associated with happiness/les. social problems (crime/child delinquency)

Character education: what helps people choose principled actions over selfishness (4)

1. Experience serving others 2. Delayed gratification (to plan for larger goals) 3. Self-discipline 4. Empathy for the feelings of others

Menarche starts early if... (3)

1. Experience stress related to father absence 2. sexual abuse 3. insecure attachment

Actions affect attitudes by 2 ways: (3)

1. Foot-in-the-door phenomenon 2. Effects of playing a role → attitudes follow behaviour

Match the development of phenomena to concrete cognitive development stage RP 1. Thinking about abstract concepts( freedom) 6. Ability to reverse math operations

1. Formal operational 6. Concrete operational

If child experiences severe prolonged deprivation or abuse he or she may (4)

1. Have difficulty forming attachments 2. have increased anxiety and depression 3. have lowered intelligence 4. show increased aggression

Deary four possible explanations for why more intelligent people live longer

1. Intelligence facilitates *more education*, *better* jobs, and *healthier* enviro. 2. Intelligence encourages *healthy living*; less smoking, better diet, more exercise 3. *Prenatal events* or early childhood *illness* might influence intelligence/health 4. A "well-wired body" as evidence by fast reaction speeds, perhaps fosters intelligence/ longevity

Parents versus peers: PEERS have more influence on (5) L L C C G

1. Learning cooperation skills 2. Learning the path to popularity 3. Choice of music/recreation 4. Clothing/cultural choices 5. Good/bad habits

Brain changes of Alzheimer's disease/dementia (4)

1. Loss of brain cells 2. Deterioration of neurons that make acetylcholine ( memory/thinking neurotransmitter) I. shrivelled protein filaments in cell body II. free-floating protein fragment forming plaques at tips of neurons

Gender and aggression: 1. minor physical aggression 2. Extreme violent acts 3. Relational aggression 4. Interaction style

1. Men/women equal 2. MEN commit MORE than women 3. WOMEN MORE likely than men 4. Men offer opinions; women offer support

Gender and social power 1. Group leadership 2. Salaries 3. Elections 4. World governing bodies 5. Interaction style 6. Religiosity 7. By age 50

1. More likely assigned to MALES 2. Higher salaries paid to MEN in traditional occupations 3. Women LESS successful than men 4. 78% of seats held by MALES 5. Man offer opinions; women offer support 6. MEN less religious/pray less 7. Most parent related-differences subside

Biopsychosocial influences on successful ageing BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES (2) PSYCHOLOGICAL (2) SOCIAL-CULTURAL (3)

1. No genes for dementia/other diseases → good nutrition 2. Optimistic outlook → physically/mentally active 3. Support from family and friends → meaningful activities → safe living → cultural respect for ageing

Bran regions men vs women ( 2)

1. Parts of *FRONTAL LOBE* (verbal fluency) thicker in *women* 2. *PARIETAL CORTEX* (space perception) thicker in *men*

Similarities found in identical twins despite being raised in different homes (6) NOTES P A A I S B

1. Personality 2. Abilities/intelligence test score 3. Attitudes 4. Interests 5. Specific fears 6. Brain waves/heart rate

Despite strong impact of genetics on personality parenting has an influence on: NOTES (6) R V M A P H

1. Religious beliefs 2. Values 3. Manners 4. Attitudes 5. Politics 6. Habits

Reactions to separation and reunion (3)

1. Secure attachment 2. insecure attachment → anxious style 2. insecure attachment→ avoidant style

Adult attachment styles(3) AAS-SAA

1. Secure lovers 2. Avoidant lovers 3. Anxious/ambivalent lovers

Object permanence, pretend play, conservation and abstract logic or developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages respectively? RP

1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete operational 4. Formal operational

Parenting has an influence why are siblings so different? NOTES (3)

1. Siblings only share half their genes 2. Genetic differences become *AMPLIFIED as people react to them differently* 3. Siblings are raised in slightly *different families*→youngest has more older siblings/older parents

Group Behaviour: other ways behaviour changes in presence of others (5)

1. Social Facilitation 2. Social Loafing 3. Deindividuation 4. Groupthink 5. Group polarization

Social and Psych processes that make conflicts more likely

1. Social Traps 2. Mirror Image Perceptions

Social roots of prejudice (2)

1. Social inequalities 2. Us vs Them: Ingroup and Outgroup

Romantic love flow chart(5)

1. Starts as *attraction* or friendship 2. Phase of *passionate love* 3. Grows into *compassionate* love 4. Closer by *equity* and *self-disclosure* 5. Held together by *positive interaction* support

To assess impact of nature/nurture how do we examine how genes make a difference within the same environment? NOTES (2)

1. Study traits of *siblings vs *identical twins* 2. See if the *siblings vary more* than twins

Correlations do not indicate cause-effect they do tell us whether two things are associated in some way. 1. A correlation of -1.0 represents a perfect...between two sets of scores: As one score goes up the other score... 2. a correlation of...represents no association 3. The highest correlation, +1.0, represents perfect...: As the first score goes up, the other score goes...

1. disagreement; goes down 2. zero 3. agreement; goes up

Adult commitment to work (3)

1. Work can define identity 2. Tough economic times make difficult to find work 3. Work satisfaction from interests/providing a sense of competence and accomplishment

Levels of Aggression Influenced by: 1. Media (5) 2. Video game aggression (3)

1. aggression in videos, music, books teaches a *script* *SOCIAL SCRIPT* → culturally provided mental files on how to act → rely on *script* to guide response in new situations → media portray minorities (women/poor) and peeps with *less power* as weak/stupid/ submissive and deserving of victimhood 2. People assigned to play: → *ultraviolent* video games showed *increase* hostility* → game helping characters *increased* real-life helping → people *act out acts from game*

2. Physical Attractiveness People who are rated as physically attractive:

1. become objects of emotional attraction 2. seen as healthy/happy, successful/socially skilled (not necessarily caring) 3. not any happier than average person 4. *do not* have higher self-esteem/think praise is bc their looks

People in collectivist cultures make different kinds of attributions: (3)

1. behaviour of others attributed more to the *situation* 2. credit for success is given more to others 3. blame *failures* on themselves

Our goal for tests of mental abilities should be threefold

1. benefit of schools to *recognize who might benefit* from early intervention 2. remain alert to *Binet's fear* that intelligence test scores may be misinterpreted as measure of person's worth 3. helps enable success in life paths but *reflects one aspect* of personal competence

Stability of Intelligence test scores over the lifespan: 1. Before age 3... 2. By age 4... 3. late adolescence

1. casual observations/intelligence tests only *modestly predict* future aptitudes 2. intelligence test performance *begins to predict* adolescent and adult scores 3. remarkable *stability of aptitude* scores; +0.86 correlation

What to do if you score low on an IQ test? Binet says... Terman says...

1. study/develop discipline and attention span 2. remove your genes from the pop. (*eugenics*)

What are the three main criticisms of the evolutionary explanation of human sexuality? RP/2 NOTES

1. effect then propose an explanation 2. immoral men use this to rationalize behaviour toward women 3. overlook affects of cultural expectations and socialization → more immediate explanations for results better understood by social learning theory then decisions made by very distant ancestors → some traits/behaviors are difficult to explain by natural selection

Two vital components for maintaining companionate love are: RP

1. equity 2. self-disclosure

Attitudes affect our actions when: (4) (ex 4)

1. external influences are *minimal* 2. attitude is *stable* 3. attitude is specific to behaviour 4. attitude is easily recalled i.e. I feel like (attitude) eating at McD's and I will (action) 1. no nutritionists saying not to 2. enjoyed food for a while 3. easy to get the food 4. easy to remember how good it is when drive by big sign

Steps to get the relaxation response (3)

1. focus attention on breathing 2. a focus word 3. relaxing muscles from toes upward

What are the three big ideas that have survived from Freud's work in psychoanalytic theory? What are the three ways Freud's work criticized?

1. importance of childhood experience 2. unconscious mind 3. self-protective defence mechanism 1. not scientifically testable w after-the-fact explanation 2. too much focus on *sexual conflicts* in childhood 3. based on idea of *repression* not supported by modern research

Evolutionary psychologust Steven Pinker argued biology affects gender differences in... (3)

1. life priorities → women greater interest in people vs men in money 2. risk-taking → men more reckless 3. math reasoning/spatial abilities

Rational-emotive behaviour therapy helps people...

1. notice they are operating on self-defeating assumptions 2. reward selves for replacing assumptions with realistic beliefs → Albert Ellis

Big five research explores: 1. How stable are traits? (3) 2. How Heritable are they? 3. Do traits reflect differing brain structure? (3) 4. Have these traits changed over time? 5. How well do these traits apply to various cultures? 6. Do the Big 5 predict actual behaviour?

1. personality continuous through late childhood/adolescence → CAOE *increase* → neuroticism *decrease* 2. 50% variation for most traits from genes 3. size correlates with big 5 → high C, larger frontal lobe → high O, intense imagination 4. extraversion/conscientiousness *increased* 5. Big 5 holds up across cultures 6. level of success in work/relationships relates to traits

1. personality inventory (2) 2. empirically derived test

1. questionnaire designed to gauge wide range of feelings/behaviours → to assess selected personality traits 2. developed by assessing pool of items then selecting those that *discriminate between groups*

Lifestyle modification: In one study two groups...

1. received *standard advice* about medication, diet and exercise 2. similar advice, taught ways of modifying lifestyles → learned to slow down pace of life → accept imperfection → renew faith *group 2 had half as many repeated heart attacks as group 1*

1. Deary and colleagues study 2. Johnson study (2) 3. 11-year-olds with higher intelligence test scores... 4. In a study of nuns, those with lower verbal abilities...

1. retested 80-year-old Scots using intelligence test taken at age 11, scores across 7 decades correlated *+.66* 2. Scots born in 1936 from ages 11 to 70 confirmed remarkable stability of intelligence, independent of life circumstances → 207 survivors retested at age 87, correlation with age 11 scores was *+.51* 3. lived *longer*/more *independently*/ less likely getting Alzheimer's 4. were *more likely* to develop Alzheimer's & shorter life span

What does it mean to be empathetic? Self-actualized? Which humanistic psychologist used these terms?

1. share another's feelings → Carl Rogers 2. motivation to fulfill one's potential and find self-transcendence → Maslow

In order for intelligence or other psychological tests to generate results that are considered *useful* the test (and scores) must meet *3 criteria*

1. standardized 2. reliable 3. valid

Social networking influence: 1. On the 2010 U.S. congressional election day, facebook gave people informational message that encouraged voting. Message had more affect when.. 2. suggestibility and mimcry lead to...

1. supplemented with a social message that showed friends who had voted 2. *tragedy* → copycat violence threats after Colorado's Columbine High School shootings

Three hypotheses about racial differences in intelligence

1. there are *genetically* disposed racial differences in intelligence 2. there are *socially* influenced racial differences in intelligence 3. there are *racial* differences in test scores, but tests are inappropriate or biased

Gardner and Sternberg criticisms (3)

1. there is a general intelligence factor that predicts performance on tasks and jobs 2. Success MORE than intelligence →highly successful people conscientious, well-connected and energetic 3. 10 YEAR RULE→ performer spend about a decade daily practice

1. emotionally intelligent people... (2) 2. the level of emotional intelligence correlates with...

1. → socially/self-aware → ability to *delay gratification* while pursuing long-term goals 2. success in career and other social situations

Match the development of phenomena to concrete cognitive development stage RP 2. Intense fear of unknown people 5. Understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form

2. Sensorimotor 5. Concrete operational

Symbolic thinking

3-year-olds can use a tiny model of a room as a map/helping them to picture the location of objects in a full sized room

Match the development of phenomena to concrete cognitive development stage RP 3. Enjoying imaginary play (dress up) 4. Ability to reason with maturity about moral values

3. Preoperational 4. Formal operational

Match the development of phenomena to concrete cognitive development stage RP 7. Understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from site as when mom disappears behind the shower curtain 8. Difficulty taking another's point of view(as when blocking someone to be of the TV)

7. Sensorimotor 8. Preoperational

Which strengthens conformity to a group? A. finding the group attractive B. Feeling secure C. Coming from an individualist culture D. Having made prior commitment

A

Developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the lifespan

What Eric Erickson called a sense of integrity (2)

A feeling that one's life has been meaningful and worthwhile → View late-adult psychosocial task as developing a sense of integrity (versus despair)

Temperament(2)

A person's general level/style of emotional reactivity → from infancy to adulthood most people do not seem to change temperament

You took an intelligence test last week and were assigned a number of *120*. Then, after decades of the Flynn effect, the test was restandardized this week. Today, you took the test and got exactly the same number of items correct. Your new intelligence test score is more likely to be: A. 105 B. 120 C. 128

A. 105 since score is being compared to mean which has increased, making distance between your score and mean smaller

Identification Fixation (1 +ex)

According to Freud ...children incorporate parent's values into developing superegos ...lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at earlier psychosexual stage (when conflicts unresolved) I.E. orally fixated adult can *passive dependence* → like nursing infant or *exaggerated denial of dependence* → acting tough

AIDS (5) and stress

Acquired Immune Deficiency Symdrome → stress doesn't cause AIDS → can speed transition from HIV to AIDS → reduced stress slows progression → *the greater the stress of HIV-infected people, the faster disease progresses*

Relational aggression

Act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

Teratogens "monster makers"

Agents (such as chemicals and viruses) that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Genome

All organisms genetic material

Self-concept

At about age 12 develop an understanding of who we are (major task of childhood)

Culture

Behaviors/ideas/attitude/values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next → supports our species' survival/reproduction by enabling social and economic systems that give us an edge

Health/immunity changes with age Bad vs Good

B- immune system declines with age and can have difficulty fighting off MAJOR illnesses G- immune system has a lifetimes's accumulation of anti-bodies does well fighting off MINOR illnesses

How is our biological sex determined and how do sex hormones influence gender development? RP (3)

Biological sex determined by father's contribution to the *23rd pair of chromosomes* → mother X/ father X (female) or Y (male) by *triggering additional testosterone release* and the development of male sex organs → sex related genes/physiology influence behavioural and cognitive gender differences

Genes(4)

Biochemical units of heredity/make up chromosomes → directs the assembly of proteins that build the body →genetic protein assembly can be turned on/off by environment or by other genes →traits we see result of the complex interactions of genes and other molecules

Maturation (3+ex)

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behaviour, relatively uninfluenced by experience → experience (nurture) can adjust the TIMING but *maturation (nature) sets the SEQUENCE* → maturation in infancy/early childhood affects the brain and motor skills I.E.→ infant lifts head up THEN sit up THEN crawl THEN walk

Primary sex characteristics

Body structures (ovaries/testes and external genitalia) that makes *sexual reproduction possible*

Collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history → explains why people in certain cultures share certain myths/images

client-centered therapy (2) Style (4+active listening 3)

Carl Rogers → therapist uses techniques *active listening* in genuine, accepting, empathetic enviro to *facilitate clients growth* → non-directive → genuine → accepting/unconditional positive regard → empathetic Show empathy through *Active listening* 1. summarize paraphrase 2. invite clarification and elaboration 3. reflect feelings

Lawrence Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning: *early adolescence (2+ex)*

CONVENTIONAL MORALITY → uphold rules to gain social approval or maintain social order I.E.→ "if you steal the drug everyone will think you're a criminal"

Culture and child raising (4+2 ex)

Child rearing reflect cultural/individual values that vary across time and place → children thrive under various child-raising conditions → *INDIVIDUALIST* cultures raise children to be *independent* → *COLLECTIVIST* cultures raise children to be *compliant/emotional closeness* I.E.→ ASIAN/AFRICAN cultures raise children to be more emotionally/physically close to others (always carrying toddler on back) → WESTERN EUROPEAN cultures push babies in strollers/playpens

Does childhood neglect abuse or family disruption affect children's attachment? RP

Children resilient but those were moved repeatedly/severely neglected or prevented from forming attachments by age 2 at risk for attachment problems

How do researchers use twins/adoption studies to learn about psychological principles? RETRIEVAL PRACTICE (4)

Compare traits/behaviors of *identical twins and fraternal twins* → compare adopted kids with adopted/biological parents →compare twins raised together/apart →determine how much variation in people is to do to genetics/environment

Savant syndrome (2)

Condition in which person limited in mental abilities has an exceptional specific skill (I.e. computing or drawing) →4 in 5 males and have autism spectrum disorder

Why don't we live forever? Possible biological answers (5)

ENVIRONMENT → accumulation of stress/damage & disease wears down until one kills us GENES → some have genes that protect against some kinds of damage → TELOMERES wear down with cell duplication

In prosperous country X, everyone eats all they want. In country Y, rich are well fed, but semistarved poor thin. Which country will heritability of body weight be greater? RP

Country X where enviro. differences are minimal

How stable are intelligence scores over the life span and how does aging affect crystallized and fluid intelligence? RP (4)

Cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies shows *fluid* intelligence *declines* in older adults bc neural processing slows. *Crystallized* intelligence *increases* → stability increases with age → at 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores → early adolescence scores very stable/predictive

Gardner and Sternberg differences (2)and agreement(2)

DIFF 1. G identified 8 relative independent intelligences viewed as differentiated multiple abilities 2. S agrees with concept of multiple intelligences but proposes 3 SAME 1. Multiple abilities contribute to life successes 2. Different abilities add spice to life and challenges for education

Self concept test with mirror (7)

Dabbed colour on child's nose 6 MONTHS → Child touches mirror image as if it's another kid 15-18 MONTHS → begin to touch their own nose 18 MONTHS → have schema of their own face

Adrogyny

Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Biology ______ dictate gender but it can _______ in 2 ways

Doesn't → influence 1. GENETIC→ males and females have differing sex chromosomes 2. PHYSIOLOGICAL→ males and females have different concentrations of sex hormones

_____model of lifelong psychosocial development sees adolescence as a struggle to...(3)

Erik Erickson → form an identity (sense of self) → adolescence try out different "selves" with peers parents and teachers

Heritability(5)

Extent to which differences among people are attributable to genes → heritability of a trait may vary → enviro SAME→heritability ^ (vice versa) → *DOES NOT tell the PROPORTION that genes contribute to the trait for one person* → does not tell us whether genetics explain differences between groups/populations

Environment

Every NONGENETIC influence (prenatal nutrition to people around us)

social development: stranger anxiety (1) How(2)/why (2) does this develop

Fear of strangers that infants commonly display beginning by eight months of age *HOW DOES THIS DEVELOP* → children develop schemas for primer people in our lives/able to notice when strangers do not fit of schemas → do not have ability to assimilate those faces *WHY DOES THIS DEVELOP* → child learning to walk at this stage → children who walked toward strange creatures might've died before passing on jeans

Zygote

Fertilized egg→enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Spermarche

First ejaculation

Menarche

First menstrual period

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality attributes thoughts and actions to *unconscious motives* and conflicts

Stress and heart disease: Type B people (2)

Friedman and Rosenman's term for → easygoing → relaxed

Stress and heart disease: Type A people (5+1)

Friedman and Rosenman's term for → competitive →anger-prone → hard-driving → impatient → verbally aggressive → more combat ready peeps. have excess cholesterol in blood and deposited around heart

identical twins(6)

From one zygote (monozygotic) splits in 2 →same sex only 1. Some often don't have same # of copies of genes → why one twin more at risk for certain illness then other 2. Most share placenta up at 1 of 3 sets has separate placentas →contribute to identical twin differences

Place an order from smallest to largest: nucleus, gene, chromosome

G C N

General intelligence (g)

General intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities and measured by an intelligence test

Satoshi Kanasawa argues...

General intelligence scores correlate with ability to solve novel problems (academic situations) but NOT with individual skills in evolutionarily familiar situations (I.e marrying)

Male and female differences focussing on mating preferences→quantity of mating

Generally men think more than women about sex and men are more likely to think that casual sex is acceptable

Those studying heritability of a trait try to determine how much of our individual variation in that trait is due to our ... RETRIEVAL PRACTICE

Genes

Individualism( def +4)

Giving priority to *OWN goals OVER GROUP goals*/defining *identity* in terms of *PERSONAL attributes* → North America/western Europe/Australia → join groups but less focussed on doing duty to the group → more easily move in/out of social groups → feel relatively free to switch places of worship/jobs or leave families and migrate to new places

Infants distress over separation from parents experiment (3)

Groups of infants were left by their mothers in an unfamiliar room → both groups percentage of cried when mother left peaked at 13 months → whether the infant had experience daycare made little difference

Developmental psychologist use the visual preference procedure (pic of 'lightbulb' w squares in/not face arrangement pg. 171 ) to test an infants ______to stimulus

Habituation

Adulthood's commitments: Freud use terms...

Healthy adult is one who can love and work

How does heritability relate to individuals and groups? RP (1+ex)

Heritable differences DON'T imply heritable group differences I.E.→ genes mostly explain why people taller than others not why taller today then centuries ago

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development infancy (to year 1)🙅‍♂️ Issue Task

I- trust vs mistrust T-if needs are met infants develop a sense of basic trust

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Middle adulthood (40s to 60s)🌎 Issue Task

I-Generativity vs stagnation T-discover sense of contributing to the world or feel lack of purpose

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Toddlerhood (1 to 3 years)‍♂️ Issue Task

I-autonomy vs shame/doubt T-learn to do things for themselves or doubt abilities

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Elementary school (6 to puberty)💃 Issue Task

I-competence vs inferiority T-learn pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or feel inferior

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Adolescence (teen into 20s)💇 Issue Task

I-identity vs role confusion T- work at refining sense of self by testing roles/integrating them to form single identity or become confused about who they are

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Preschool (3 to 6 years)🙍‍♂️ Issue Task

I-initiative vs guilt T-carry out plans or feel guilty about efforts to be independent

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Late adulthood (late 60s and up)👩‍⚕️👵 Issue Task

I-integrity vs despair T-reflecting on life with sense of satisfaction or failure

Eric Erickson stages of psychosocial development Young adulthood (20s to early 40s)💑 Issue Task

I-intimacy vs isolation T-struggle to form close relationships/to gain capacity for intimate love or feel socially isolated

Why do psychologists NOT diagnose an intellectual disability based solely on the person's intelligence test score? (2) RP

IQ score is only one measure of person's ability to function. → other important factors to consider in overall assessment like *conceptual*, *social* and *practical* skills

Concrete operational stage (3)

In Piaget's theory, Stage of cognitive development (*6/7 to 11*) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events → grasp *conservation* → understand *simple mathematical transformations* the reversibility of operations

Formal operational stage (3)

In Piaget's theory, Stage of cognitive development (*beginning at 12*) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts → can ponder *hypothetical proposition*/deduced consequences (IF...THEN) → includes *algorithmic thinking* ("people who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones" COMMENT ON HYPOCRISY)!

What is included in the biopsychosocial approach to development?

Individual development results from interaction of biological/psychological/social cultural influence

Individualism (1) versus collectivism (1) : self

I→ Independent (identity from individual traits) C→ Interdependent (identity from belonging)

Individualism versus collectivism: what matters (6)

I→ ME - personal achievemen/rights and liberties/self-esteem C→ US - Group goals and solidarity/social responsibilities in relationships/family duties

Individualism versus collectivism: behaviour reflects... (2,2)

I→ behaviour reflects one's personality/attitudes C→ behaviour reflects social norms/roles

Individualism versus collectivism: coping method

I→ change reality C→ accommodate to reality

Individualism versus collectivism: how is morality defined

I→ defined by individuals (self-based) C→ defined by social networks (duty based)

Individualism versus collectivism: life task (2, 3)

I→ discover/express one's uniqueness C→ maintain connections/fit in/perform a roll

Individualism versus collectivism: relationships (2, 3)

I→ many often temporary or casual/confrontation acceptable C→ few/close and enduring/harmony valued

Moral intuition (3)

Jonathan Haidt → Quick gut-feeling decisions/emotions → DISGUST when people engage in degrading/subhuman acts → ELEVATION when people display generosity/compassion/courage

Why might natural selection have resulted in greater male promiscuity? RP (4 women pair WISLEY men pair WIDELY)

MEN have recreational view of sex →attracted to multiple healthy for tile partners *increases their chances of spreading their genes widely* WOMEN have relational view of sex →incubate/nurse babies→*increase their chance of survival by searching for mates with potential for long-term investment* in offspring

Attachment Variation: styles babies dealing with separation experiment (4)

Mary Ainsworth in the stranger situations test→ 1. mother's presence child plays comfortably in strange room/happily exploring new environment 2. Change your enters the room talk to mother and approaches the child/mom leaves they become distressed 3. mom returns they seek contact

self-actualization

Maslow→ ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical/psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved → motivation to fulfill one's potential

The biological growth process called________, explains why most children begin walking by 12 to 15 months RP

Maturation

Intelligence

Mental potential to learn from experience/solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

How does memory change with age RP (2 +i.e.)

Recall begins to decline but recognition strong💪 "terminal decline" →cognitive decline in last years of life I.E.→ adults in 40s have better recall memory than those in 70s

How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression and conflict into attitudes that promote peace? (2)

Peace result when individuals or group work to achieve *superordinate goals* Research indicates: → contact → cooperation → communication → conciliation promote peace

A loved one's death triggers what range of reactions? RP (4)

People do not grieve in predictable stages → strong expression of emotion doesn't purge grief → therapy is no better than grieving alone → grief more intense when death occurs unexpectedly

Transgender

People whose gender identity/expression differs from that associated with the birth sex

Theory of mind

Peoples ideas about their own and others' mental states (their feeling/perceptions and thoughts and the behaviours these my predict) → Sally places ball in red cupboard/ and moves ball to blue cupboard when Sally gone/where will Sally look for ball → (kids don't understand sally thinks different-will go to red)

Physical development: puberty (4+4 things that change)

Period of sexual maturation which a person becomes capable of reproducing G-11 B-13 INCREASED SEX HORMONES → Rapid physical development → intensify moods → development of primary/secondary sex characteristics → menarche → spermache

Fetal alcohol syndrome (2)

Physical/behavioural/cognitive abnormalities in children caused by pregnant woman's heavy drinking

Preoperational stage (2)

Piget's theory (*age 2 to 6/7*) during which a child learns to use language but *does not* yet comprehend the mental operations of *concrete logic* → believes children *lack concept of conservation* - quantity remains the same despite changes in shape

The competent newborn: in born skills (2)

REFLEXES→ responses that are in born and do not have to be learned → newborns have reflexes to ensure that they will be fed

Social development in adulthood the midlife crisis (3)

Reevaluating one's life plan and success → doesn't peek at any age → for 25% of adults trigger is major illness/divorce/job loss or parenting

Lifespan perspective

Refers to the idea that development is a lifelong process

Behaviour genetics - predicting individual differences (4) E S E I

Research findings suggest temperament differences typically persist 1. Emotionally reactive infants→ *emotionally reactive* 9-month-olds 2. Shy 6 month olds → *still shy* at 13 3. Emotionally intense preschoolers → relatively *intense* young adults 4. Identical twins (more than fraternal) twins have similar temperaments

How do researchers explore infant mental abilities

Researchers use techniques that test *HABITUATION* (A decrease in responding with repeated stimulation) such as the novelty preference procedure to explore infants abilities

Experience and brain development experiment(3)

Rosenzweig/Kerch raised some rats in solitary confinement and others in communal playground →analyze the rats brain → rats living in ENRICHED enviro usually developed heavier/thicker brain cortex → results influenced improvements in environments for animals and children in institutions

Researchers who emphasize experience and learning vs those who emphasize biological maturation

See development as a slow *CONTINUOUS* shaping process (nurture) VS sequence of genetically predisposed *STAGES* or steps (nature)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in *three phases* 1. *alarm* → mobilize resources 2. *resistance* → cope with stressor 3. *exhaustion* → reserves depleted

Intelligence tests (2)

Series of questions to assess peoples' mental abilities giving numerical scores so one person can be compared to another → intelligence defined as whatever intelligence tests can measure

Abuse relates to the brain chemical...

Serotonin which calms aggressive impulses

Role

Set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender roles (1+2ex)

Set of expected behaviours for males or females I.E. → MEN initiate dates/Drive/pay → WOMEN decorate/buy and care for children/select a wedding goft

X chromosome (4)

Sex chromosome found in both men and women → females 2 X's → males 1 X → X chromosome form each parent produces a female child

Estrogens

Sex hormones that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

Intelligence test

assessing person's mental aptitudes/comparing them with others, *using numerical score*

1. Conception

Sperm and egg together and form one organism (zygote)

Who is rated as physically attractive? (5)

Standards differ from culture to culture but across cultures (evolutionary influence): → men seek apparent youth/fertility → women seek maturity/masculinity → both like facial symmetry and averagness → nice people

Epigenetics

Studies molecular mechanisms by which environment can trigger/block genetic expression

Cross-sectional study

Study in which people of different ages are compared

How can we find out how the same genes express themselves in different environments? NOTES

Study the traits of *identical twins* as they grow up or if they were raised separately

Is the "stranger situations" behaviour mainly a function of the child's inborn temperament? (5)

TEMPERAMENT→ persons characteristic style and intensity of emotional reactively → some infants have EASY temperament (happy/relaxed and calm) → predictable rhythms of needing to eat and sleep → Some infants DIFFICULT (irritable) → unpredictable needs/behaviour and intense reactions

Embryo

The developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month

Sensorimotor stage

The stage (*birth to about 2*) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions/motor activities

Behaviour genetics

The study of the relative power/limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour

Menopause (2)

The time of natural cessation of menstruation → but launch will change the woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Chromosomes(4)

Threadlike structures made largely of DNA molecule → human genome has 46 chromosomes/ 23 match sets → includes X/Y chromosome/ is not a match set in males who are missing some genes on the Y → Parent donate half his/her set of chromosomes to his/her offspring

Fraternal twins(3)

Twins who come from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm →same or opposite sex Dizygotic →share fetal enviro but genetically no more similar than brothers/sisters

Natural selection

Trait variations that lead to increased reproduction/survival will most likely be passed on

The Chameleon effect (3)

Unconscious mimicry → collaborator of experiment intentionally *rubbed face* or *shook foot* → likelihood that participant *did the same*

Would the heritability of aggression be greater in Belyaev and Trut's foxes or in wild populations?

Wild→greatrer genetic variation in aggressiveness

Roger's Person-Centered Perspective (10)

agreed people have natural tendencies to grow, become healthy, move toward self-actualization *3 conditions that facilitate growth* 1. *G*enuineness → honest, direct, not using facade 2. *A*cceptance → unconditional positive regard (acknowledge feelings/problems/ without passing judgement) 3. *E*mpathy → tuning to others' feelings → showing effort to understand → listening well

self-concept

all thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the "Who am I?" question

emotion-focused coping (1+risk (2))

alleviate stress by *avoiding* or *ignoring* stress/attending to *emotional needs* related to stress reaction *RISK* → ignoring problem → use this style when think stressor is something can't change

problem-focused coping (1+risk)

alleviate stress directly-by *changing stressor* or *interaction* with stressor *RISK* → magnify emotional distress if trying to change something that's difficult to change

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive or behavioural methods

Jean Piaget and cognitive development : schemas (2+2 (1+ex)concepts)

an early tool to organize experiences → schemas can take the form of images/models and or concepts 1. *ASSIMILATE* →interpret them in terms of our current understanding (schemas) I.E.→ Having simple schema for dog a toddler may call of all four-legged animals dog 2. *ACCOMMODATE* → as interact with the world incorporate information provided by new experiences I.E.→ Child learns original dog schema is too broad/accommodates by refining the category

Attachment (2) + Origins of attachment (1)

an emotional tie with another person → young children by their seeking closeness to caregiver/showing distress on separation *ORIGINS OF ATTACHMENT* → experiments with monkeys suggest that attachment is based on physical affection/comfortable body contact and not based on being rewarded with food

Norm (2)

an understood rule for accepted and expected behaviour "proper" behaviour → Grease the social machinery

stress reaction (4)

any emotional/physical response to stressor →rapid heartbeat →elevated cortisol levels →crying

Therapy is most likely to be helpful for those with problems that ______________ well-defined. RP

are

Humanistic therapy insight therapies

attempts to support personal growth by helping people gain *self-awareness* and *self-acceptance* variety of therapies that aim to *improve psychological functioning* by increasing person's awareness of underlying motives/defenses

How does basic assumption of behaviour therapy differ from assumptions of psychodynamic/humanistic therapy?

behaviour therapies *are not insight therapies* → goal to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviours

self-fulfilling prophecy

belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Normal Curve

bell-shaped curve describes distribution of many physical/psychological attributes. → Most scores fall near average (middle bump), fewer lie near extremes

therapeutic alliance

bond of trust/mutual understanding between therapist and client → work together to overcome client's problem

Mirror-mage perceptions

both sides assuming the worst in other person i.e. this country is evil, we are the peacmakers

Oedipus complex (Electra for girls) How to resolve conflict?

boy's sexual desire towards mother and jealous and hatred for rival father ...repress threatening feelings and identifying with rival parent

Coronary heart disease Many factors contribute to heart disease: 1. B (1) 2. B (3) 3. P (2)

clogging of vessels that nourish heart muscle; leading cause of death in many developed countries 1. *Biological* → genetic predisposition to high blood pressure/cholesterol 2. *Behavioural* → smoking → inactivity → high-fat diet 3. *Psychological* → chronic stress → personality styles that worsen stress

When people act in a way that is not in keeping with their attitudes, and then change their attitudes to match those actions _______ theory attempts to explain why

cognitive dissonance

Medical model (def +4)

concept that disease (psychological disorders) have *physical cause* that can be diagnosed, treated and in most cases cured through treatment in hospital → Pinel sought to reform brutal treatment by promoting new understanding of nature of mental disorders → mental disorders caused by environmental factors (stress/inhuman conditions) → mental *illness* needs to be *diagnosed* on basis of *symptoms* through *therapy*

attribution

conclusion about cause of an observed behaviour/event

dissociative disorders Dissociative Amnesia Dissociate Fugue Dissociative Identity Disorder

conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, feelings *DA* → loss of memory with no known physical cause; inability to recall selected memories *DF* → "running away" state; wandering away from life, memory and identity with no memory of these *DID* → development of separate personality

self

contemporary psychology; centre of personality, organizer of thoughts, feelings and actions

Psychodynamic theorists: Karen Horney (2)

criticized Freudian portrayal of women as weak and subordinate to men → highlighted need to feel secure in relationships

Social clock

culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

repression (1+ex)

defence mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts/feelings/memories i.e. patient stressed about bills at doctor says "bills" instead of "pills" "please don't give me large bills I can't swallow them"

1. Standardized

defining *uniform testing procedures* and *meaningful scores* by comparison with performance of pretested group → Stern compared our intelligence score to others by finding "mental age" of people who scored on average the way we did → newer method to determine *where* your raw score falls on distribution of scores by people of your *chronological age*

schizophrenia

delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, diminished inappropriate emotional expression *positive symptoms* → hallucinations delusions → disorganized thought/speech → bizarre behaviour *negative symptoms* → anhedonia (no enjoyment) → avolition (less motivation) → alogia (speak less) → catatonia (move less) → flat effect (no emotion shown in face) → reduced social interaction

bipolar disorder

disorder in which person alternates between hopelessness and lethargy of *depression* and overexcited state of *mania*

Anxiety disorder

distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviours that reduce anxiety

Defense mechanisms

ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting realtiy

According to Freud's ideas about the three-part personality structure the ______ operates on *reality principle* and tries to balance demands in way that produces long-term pleasure rather than pain; _____ operates on *pleasure principle* and seeks to immediate gratification; _____ represents voice of internalized ideals RP

ego; superego;id

How does the two-factor theory of emotion explain passionate love? RP

emotion consists of: (1) physical arousal (2) interpretation of arousal → researchers found *any arousal* (running, fear, laughter) be interpreted as passion in presence of desirable person

Which component of Type A personality has been linked most closely to coronary heart disease? RP

feeling angry/negative much of the time

Culture shock

feeling lost about what behaviours are appropriate I.E.→ Knowing when to clap or bow/which fork to pick up first at dinner/what sort of gestures and complements are appropriate

Stereotype threat (3+ex)

feeling that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotype → affects performance on all tests → makes peeps. use working memory for *worrying* instead of thinking i.e. black/African-Americans scored higher when tested by blacks rather than by whites → this worrying is *self-confirming*: effect of minority status on performance is worsened by worrying about that affect

Attitudes

feelings, ideas, believes that affect how approach and react to people, objects and events → attitudes affect our actions (vice versa)

Psychodynamic theorists: Alfred Adler

fight against feelings of inferiority as theme at core of personality

2. Cooperation (3)

finding shared goals, not just focusing on incompatible goals *experiment* → adolescents from 11 countries confirm cooperative learning maintain/enhance student achievement → interracial group work made students friendly to one another

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

first developed to identify emotional disorders *now* used for many screening purposes → most widely researched/used personality test → items empirically derived (those that differed) → Starke Hathaway

social psychologist (2)

focus on the *situation* → study social influence that explain why *same person* will act diff. in *diff. situations*

Gender schema (3)

framework for organizing boy-girl characteristics → formation of schemas help children make sense of the world → gender expression can be seen as children drop hints in the language/clothing/interests and possessions

2. Central Route persuasion

going directly through rational mind, influencing attitudes with *evidence* and *logic* i.e. my product has been proven more effective

Group differences: Within-group vs between-group (1+ex(2))

group differences, including intelligence test score differences *between* so-called "racial groups" can be caused by enviro. factors i.e. two groups of flowers raised in diff. soil enviro → members within 1 group reflect genetic differences → avg. diff between flowers is enviro

When *like-minded groups* discuss a topic and result is the strengthening of prevailing opinion this is called RP when a group's desire for harmony overrides realistic analysis of other options _____ has occurred RP

group polarization groupthink

What are cognitive roots of prejudice?

grow from our natural ways of processing info → forming categories → remembering vivid cases → believing world is just and own/culture's way of doing things is right

social trap

harm our collective well-being by pursuing *our personal interests* i.e. arms race

What did Binet hope to achieve by establishing a child's mental age? RP

hoped mental age would help identify appropriate school placement of children

learned helplessness

hopelessness animal or human learns when *unable to avoid* repeated aversive events

mania

hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common

What are the insight therapies, and how do they differ from behaviour therapies? (4) Some maladaptive behaviours are learned. What hope does this fact provide? Exposure therapies and aversive conditioning area applications of______________ conditioning. Token economies are an application of ______________ conditioning.

i. *insight therapy* → psychodynamic and humanistic to relieve problems by providing understanding of origin *behavioural* → assume problem is behaviour and treat directly (less attention to origin) *ii.*if behaviour can be learned, can be *unlearned* and replaced by more adaptive responses *iii.* classical; operant

Acute (reactive) schizophrenia Chronic (process) schizophrenia

i. begin at any age, occurs in response to *emotionally traumatic event* and has extended recovery periods ii. appears during lat adolescence or early adulthood, psychotic episodes *last longer* and *recovery period shortens*

Humanistic Theories of Personality: 1960 psych. began to reject... (3)

i. dehumanizing ideas in behaviourism ii. dysfunctional view of people in Psychodynamic thought Abrahama Maslow and Carl Rogers offered third-force perspective *human potential*

Explaining fragmentation of personality from different perspectives: i. Psychodynamic perspective ii. cognitive perspective iii. learning perspective iv. social influence

i. diverting id ii. coping with abuse iii. dissociation pays iv. therapists encourage

active listening Unconditional positive regard

i. empathic listening which listener echoes, restates and clarifies ii. caring, accepting nonjudgmental attitude → feature of Roger's client-centred therapy

i. Electroconvulsive therapy Alternative neurostimulation therapies (3) 1. *vagus nerve stimulation* 2. *Deep brain stimulation* 3. *repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation*

i. induces mild seizure that disrupts severe depression by electric current sent through brain of anesthetized patient 1. *VNS* → stimulates neck nerve sends signal to limbic system → *increases* available serotonin by increasing firing rate of some neurons 2. *DBS* → manipulates brain via pacemaker → stimulates inhibition related to negative emotions/thoughts 3. *rTMS* → sends magnetic energy to brain surface through coiled wire close to brain → fewer side effects → modest effectiveness

behaviour therapy: Classical conditioning i. counterconditioning ii. exposure therapy sometimes exposure to feared situation is *too anxiety-provoking* so use... (4)

i. linking new *positive responses* to previously aversive stimuli ii. treat anxiety by exposing people to things they fear and avoid → person habituate to anxiety itself and then the feared situation *systematic desensitization* → associates pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli *virtual reality therapy* → exposure to stimulations such as flying, heights, snakes etc.

i. Clinical psychologist ii. Social worker

i. psychologists with *Ph.D.*(including research training) or *Psy.D* (focus on therapy) ii. (MSW) offer psychotherapy trained and licensed to *diagnose and treat mental health* disorders

i. Psychosurgery ii. lobotomy iii. microsurgery

i. surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in effort to change behaviour ii. psychosurgical procedure used to calm uncontrollable emotional/violent patients → *cut nerves connecting frontal lobes to emotional-controlling centres of inner brain* iii. might work by disrupting problematic neural networks involved with aggression or OCD

Group behaviour: 1. Social Facilitation (2+2 ex)

improved performance on simple/well-learned tasks in presence of others → presence of others *arouses us* improving performance on easy tasks → decreasing on difficult ones i.e. → win more home games *energizing effect* → *funny effect* of crowding jokes funnier in dense packed room

Egocentrism (3)

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view → I.e. preschoolers blocking your view of TV assume you see what they see → I.e. Boy has brother Jim but Jim doesn't have a brother

If the environments become *more equal*, the heritability of intelligence would...RP

increase

Personality

individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

Personality disorders + 3 clusters

inflexible and enduring behaviour patterns that impair social functioning i. *anxious* → avoidant PD → ruled by fear of social rejection ii. *eccentric*→ Schizoid PD → flat affect, no social attachement iii. *dramatic*→ Histrionic PD → attention-seeking → narcissistic → self-centred → antisocial

3. normative social influence (2)

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval → being different can be severe

3. informational social influence (2)

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other's opinions about reality → we want to be accurate, groups provide information

There are a few conditions that are... (2)

inherently and universally stressful; can choose our appraisal and responses *Condition*→ extreme/chronic physical threats or challenges (noise or starvation)

Cognitive-behavioural therapy What does it best address?

integrative therapy that combines *cognitive therapy* (changing self-defeating thinking) with *behavioural therapy* (changing behaviour) → effective for those with *anxiety*,*OCD*, *depressive*, *bipolar*, and *eating* disorders.

reciprocal determinism Three ways individuals and enviro interact

interacting influences of behaviour, internal cognition and enviro. i. diff. people *choose diff. enviro* ii. personalities shape *how we interpret/react* to events iii. personalities help *create situations* to which we react

Superego

internalized ideals/provides standards for judgment and future aspirations i.e. person with strong superego virtuous yet guilt ridden

Which two primary dimensions did Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck propose for describing personality variation?

introversion-extraversion emotional stability-instability

seasonal affective disorder

involves recurring seasonal pattern of depression usually during winter

Psychologists no longer use the term "Psychosomatic" because...we now refer to...(2)

it has come to mean imagined illness *psychophysiological* illness → real illness caused in part by psychological factors such as experience of stress

How and why do genders differ in mental abilities? (2) G (6) B(2) both (1)

m/f have same average intelligence scores but diff. in specific abilities *Girls* → spellers → verbally fluent → locating things → detecting emotion → sensitive to touch/ taste/colour *Boys* → outperform at spatial ability and complex math problems → outnumber girls at low/high extremes of mental abilities *Girls and Boys* → similar in overall math performance and computation evolution and cultural explanations proposed for these differences

Trait theory of Personality (4)

made up of collection of traits, behavioural predispositions that can be identified and measured, traits that differ from person to person → *Gordon Allport* said Freud overvalued unconscious and undervalued real personality styles → *Myers and Briggs* study individual behaviours and statements to find how peep. diff. in personality → *Myers-Briggs Type Indicator* (MBTI) questionnaire categorizing people by traits

What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs, and why is it important to develop resilience?

many psychological disorders can be prevented by changing: → oppressive, esteem destroying enviro. to more nurturing enviro. to foster *growth, confidence and resilience* *resilience* → personal strength that helps people cope with stress and recover from adversity

There may be a spectrum of... Stressors fall into 3 main types (+1):

of levels of intensity of stressors 1. catastrophes 2. significant life changes 3. daily hassels 4. low social status/power

What does theory of mind have to do with autism? RP

our ability to understand her own and others' mental states. Those with autism struggle with this

Gender identity

our sense of being male or female including a sense of what it means to be that gender

Social exchange theory (1+ex)

our social behaviour is an exchange process, the aim is to *maximize benefits* and *minimize cost* i.e donating blood *benefit* → reduced guilt *cost* → time

spotlight effect

overestimating other's noticing and evaluating appearance, performance and blunders

Minority influence

power of one or two individuals to sway majorities

How well do personality test scores predict behaviour? Explain RP

predict *average behaviour* across many situations better than predicting *specific behaviour* in any situation

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on person's physiology

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

projective test which peep. express their inner feelings and interests through stories they make up about ambiguous scenes → Henry Murray → used to asses achievement motivation

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (2)

psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention or hyperactivity and impulsivity → 11% of American receive diagnosis after displaying key symptoms (2.5% have ADHD)

eclectic approach

psychotherapy that uses techniques form *various forms of therapy*

Re-standardization

re-testing a sample of general pop. to make *updated, accurate comparison group* in case people are smarter than they used to be when test was first made

people who identify unconsciously as homosexual report more negative attitudes toward gays People tend to see their traits, attitudes, goals in others (2)

reaction formation projection → today called *false-consensus effect* i. tendency to overestimate extent to which others share our beliefs/behaviours

Stress does not make people sick but it does...

reduce immune system's ability to function optimally

Stress

refers to *process* of appraising and responding to events which we consider *threatening* or *challenging*

Appraisal

refers to deciding whether to view something as a stressor i.e. *Stressful event* →math test) *Appraisal* 1. Threat → can't do this 2. Challenge → got to apply all i know *Response* 1. stressed to distraction 2. aroused/focused

Faith factor

religiously active people tend to live longer than those who aren't religiously active

Sigmand Freud felt anxiety stems from...

repressed childhood impulses, socially inappropriate desires and emotional conflicts

Longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

When prejudiced judgement causes us t blame an undeserving person for a problem, that person is called a ______ RP

scapegoat

Social psychology

scientific study of how we *think* about, *influence* and *relate* to one another

Rorschach inkblot test (4)

seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing interpretations of blots → widely used projective test → designed by Hermann Roschach *Problem* → low validity (don't link well traits) and diff. raters (low reliability)

behaviour therapy: Operant Conditioning (4) applications (2)

shaping chosen behaviour in response to consequences of behaviour *behaviour modification* → shaping client's behaviour to look more like desired behaviour → desired behaviour rewarded *Applications* → used with nonverbal autistic kids → rewards behaviours like sitting and making eye contact

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and required cooperation

Why would it be instinctual not to kill unless we are directly threatened? (2)

shared moral instincts survive from a distant past where we lived in small groups in which direct harm-doing was punished → as inheritors of prehistoric genetic legacy we are predisposed to behave in ways that promoted our ancestors surviving/reproducing

People tend to exert less effort when working with a group than they would alone, which is called RP

social loafing

Psychology's most famous obedience experiments, which most participants obeyed authority figure's demands inflict "painful", dangerous shocks on an innocent participant, were conducted by_____ RP

social psychologist Stanley Milgram

Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages? RP

strengthens across lifespan unrelated to age (positive emotions increase after midlife/negative ones decrease)

what psychological principle helps explain why women tend to perform more poorly when they believe their online chess opponent is male? RP

stereotype threat

Aerobic exercise improves management of... (2)

stress and reduces depression and anxiety → One study shows mildly depressed women randomly assigned to exercise group reduced depression caused by *exercise alone*

How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease? (2)

stress diverts energy from immune system, inhibiting B and T lymphocytes, macrophages and NK cells → doesn't cause AIDS and cancer but by altering immune functioning makes more vulnerable

In animals and humans, uncontrollable threats trigger... (7)

strongest stress responses *Animal studies* → Laudenslager rat studies → Seligman learned helplessness dog studies *Human studies* → Rodin nursing home resident study → O'Neill work site enviro. studies

How does an optimistic outlook affect health and longitivtiy? (4)

studies of optimistic peeps show → blood pressure increase lower with stress → longer life expectancy → recovery from heart bypass surgery faster → stronger immune system

what does evidence reveal about enviro. influences on intelligence? RP (4)

studies of twins, family members and adoptees provide enviro. influence → test scores of identical twins raised *apart less* similar than identical twins raised together → kids raised in poor enviro. with little social interactions indicate life experience *significantly influences* intelligence test performance → no evidence says that normal, healthy children can be molded into geniuses by growing up in enriched enviro

Molecular genetics (3)

studies the molecular structure and function of genes → search for specific genes that influence behaviours → finding some of many genes that together contribute to complex traits

epigenetics

study of enviro. influences on gene expression occur without DNA change

Psychoneuroimmunology (4)

study of how *psychological, neural and endocrine processes* together affect the immune system and resulting health 1. emotions (*psycho*) 2. affect brain (*neuro*) →controls stress hormones that influence disease-fighting *immune* system 3. field is the study of (*ology*) those interactions

Health psychology

subfield that provides psychology's contribution to behavioural medicine

ii. Predictive validity

success with which a test *predicts behaviour* it's designed to → assessed by computing correlation between *test scores* and *criterion behaviour*

Aerobic Exercise

sustained activity that raises heart rate and oxygen consumption → triggers genes to produce proteins that guard against more than 20 chronic diseases *reduces risk of * → heart disease → cognitive decline → dementia → early death

The stress response system: When alerted to negative, uncontrollable event, our ______ nervous system arouses us. Heart rate and respiration _____. Blood is diverted from digestion to the skeletal _______. The body releases sugar and fat. All this prepares the body for the ________-or-________ response. RP

sympathetic; increase; muscles; fight-or-flight

cognitive therapy (2+ex)

teaches people new, adaptive ways of thinking → based on assumption that thoughts intervene between events and emotional reactions i.e. cause of depression not bad events but *our thoughts about those events*

Exercising willpower...

temporarily depletes mental energy needed for self-control on other tasks

Bystander effect

tendency for any given bystander to be *less likely* to give aid if other bystanders are present

Group Behaviour: 2. Social Loafing (1+3)

tendency for people in group to exert *less effort* when not individually accountable *Causes* 1. People acting as part of group feel *less accountable* therefore worry less about what others think 2. Group members view individual contribution as *dispensable* 3. People feel free to "cheat" when get an equal share of the reward anyway

Actions affect attitudes: 1. foot-in-the-door phenomenon (3)

tendency for people to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one *effect on attitude* → people adjust attitude along with actions → liking person they agreed to help → disliking person they agreed to harm

Just-world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup bias

tendency to favour own group

Stress and heart disease: Type D people (2)

term for people who suppress negative emotion to avoid social disapproval → increased risk for mortality/non-fatal heart attack

achievement test (def +ex)

test designed to assess what a person has learned i.e. exam covering what you have learned in this course

aptitude test (def+ex)

test designed to predict person's future performance; *aptitude* is capacity to learn i.e. college entrance exam

You are organizing a meeting of fiercely competitive political candidates. To add to the fun, friends suggested handing out masks of candidate's faces for supporters to wear. *What phenomenon might these masks engage?* RP

the anonymity provided by masks, combined with arousal of contentious setting create *deindividuation*

Object permanence (4)

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived → unfolds gradually → Jean felt kids in the sensorimotor stage do not think abstractly → evidence that kids in the stage can notice violations in physics

Fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Moral reasoning (4)

the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong → teens see justice in terms of merit and equity instead of everyone getting equal treatment → strive to advocate for ideals/political causes → Think about god/purpose in deeper terms than in childhood

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

psychodynamic therapy

views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences and seeks to *enhance self-insight*

3. Daily Hassels caused by facing... (5)

too many tasks/too little time/too little control caused by lack of social power/freedom → bullied → living in poverty → living under oppressive political conditions

How do psychologists use traits to describe personality? (4)

trait theorists see personality as *stable* and enduring pattern of behaviour → describe differences instead of explaining them → *factor analysis* identify clusters of behaviour tendencies → genetic predisposition influence many traits

psychotherapy (6)

treatment involving *psychological techniques* → between trained therapist and client to achieve personal growth *Psychoanalysis* → Freud *Humanistic* → client-centred therapy → Carl Rogers/Maslow *Behaviour therapy* → B.F. Skinner/Pavlov *Cognitive therapy* → reducing erros and distress → Aaron beck/Albert Ellis

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence uses studies of... (5) intelligence is...

twin and adoption cases → *identical* twins show similarity in specific talents (music, math and sports) → brains of twins show similar structure/function → specific genes may have small influence on ability → findings from these studies indicate both nature and nurture affect intelligence test scores ...*polygenetic*, it involves many genes

Social relations: 1. Prejudice (4)

unjustifiable *attitude* toward group and its members → stereotyped *beliefs* → negative *emotions* → *predisposition* to action (discriminate)

Discrimination

unjustified *behaviour* applied to members of a group

Alturism

unselfish regard for welfare of others

Aggression (4)

unwanted behaviour intended to harm someone physically or emotionally → physical, verbal, relational → planned or reactive → driven by hostile rage or coldly calculated means to an end

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

unwanted repetitive thoughts (*obsessions*), actions (*compulsions*) or both → persistently interfere with everyday living/cause distress

evidence-based practice (4)

use of outcome research about *effectiveness of diff. techniques* to select therapeutic interventions *clinical decision making* → *patient's* values, characteristics, preferences, circumstances → clinical *expertise* → best available *research evidence*

psychodynamic theories

view personality as dynamic interaction between conscious/unconscious mind, with associated motives and conflicts

humanistic theories

view personality with focus on *potential for healthy* personal growth

Stanly Milgram (5)

wanted to study the influence of direct commands on behaviour *Q*→ under what social condition peep more likely to obey command? *E*→ authority figure tells participants to give shocks to "learner" (a confederate of the researcher) when gives wrong answers → most predicted that they would stop giving shocks when "learner" expressed pain → *in reality* most complied with experimenter's direction

Social learning theory (1+ex)

we learn social behavior by observing and imitating others' gender-linked behaviours and by being rewarded or punished I.E.→ Big boys don't cry Alex

Reward theory of attraction (2)

we like those whose behaviour is rewarding to us → those who are willing/able to help achieve our goals

Actions affect attitudes: 2. Effects of playing a role (1 +3 ex)

when adopt new role, strive to follow social prescriptions of role i.e. → in arranged marriages, peep. often come to have deep love for person they marry → actors "lose" themselves in role *participants in Stanford Prison Sutdy* → adopted attitudes or role assigned → prisoners hate guards → gaurds have demeaning view of prisoners

develop self-discipline in one area of your life and...

your strengthened self-control may spill into other areas, making healthier/happier/successful life

The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the _______ the period of the _______ lasts from nine weeks after conception until birth. the time between those two prenatal period is considered the period of the________

zygote→fetus→embryo

BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES on Individual development (4)

→ individual variations → prenatal environment → sex-related genes/hormones/physiology → shared human genome

2. Significant Life Changes (5)

→ "happy" life changes, *marriage/college/birth*, can bring increased challenge and stress → change often challenging → new roles/priorities/tasks put strain on coping resources *Negative impact on health increases when*: 1. change is painful (death or job loss) 2. too many changes at once → young adults reported feeling more stress

How does daycare affect children (3+1)

→ *Time in daycare does not significantly change separation anxiety* → warm interaction with multiple caregivers can result in multiple healthy attachments👯‍♂️ → correlates with advanced thinking skills... Also with increased aggression/defiance😡 → child's temperament/parent sensitivity/families economic and educational levels and culture also matter

What is the difference between a test that s biased culturally and a test that is biased in terms of validity? (2+ex) RP

→ *culturally biased* if higher scores achieved by those with certain cultural experiences → same test may *not* be biased in terms of *validity* if it predicts what it's supposed to i.e. SAT culturally biased but does accurately predict U.S. college success

Aggressive Behaviour: 3. Social-cultural influences (6)

→ *deindividuation* → challenging *evnrio.* factors (heat/crowding) → parental models of aggression → minimal father involvement → rejection from group → exposure to violent media

Evidence has updated Freud's Ideas (7)

→ *development* lifelong → dreams/slips of tongue many origins not likely to reveal *unconscious conflict* → gender/sexual identity more *genetics* than *Oedipus* complex → ignore threatening info. but traumatic memories intensely remembered → infant *neural network* not mature enough to create lifelong impact of childhood trauma → peers *more influence* on personality, parents less → sexual abuse stories likely fact than wish fullfillment

Biochemistry of Aggression: Alcohol (5)

→ *disinhibited* aggressive behaviour → *aggressive responses* to frustration → violent *crimes* (spousal abuse) →*lack of attention* to peacemaking options → interpreting neutral acts as provocations *i.e.*a bump in the crowd

Therapeutic lifestyle changes (3)

→ *exercise* boost serotonin levels/reduce stress → changing negative thoughts → mental health reduced by *meeting basic needs* for sleep, food, light, meaningful activity and social connection

Aggressive behaviour: 1. Biological influences (3)

→ *genetic* influences → *biochemical* influences (testosterone/alcohol) → *neural* influences (severe head injury)

What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?

→ *hope* for demoralized people → *fresh perspective* → *empathetic, trusting relationship*

Speed dating offers unique opportunity for studying influences on first impression findings include: (3)

→ *men more transparent* → *given more options* choice become more superficial → *men wish for future contact* with more of their speed dates

In psychiatry classification aims to (3)...DSM-5 (4)

→ *predict* disorder's future course → *suggest* appropriate treatment → *prompt* research into its causes *American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* → used to classify psychological disorders PROBLEMS → too detailed/extensive → arbitrary labels create preconceptions

Biochemistry of Aggression (4)

→ *testosterone* levels correlated with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness and low tolerance for frustration → traits linked to *testosterone* levels (facial width) linked to aggressiveness → violent *crimes* in males have *high testosterone*/ *low serotonin* levels → reducing testosterone *reduces aggression*

Stress and heart disease (1) (person (2)) (person (1))

→ 600 000 North American coronary heart disease-related deaths yearly *Meyer Friedman* → stress predicted heart attack risk for tax accountants → TYPE A men more likely to have heart attack *Conley* → stress related to everyday academic stressors in students

The Power of Expectations: 1. Stereotype threat does not fully account for (1)...it does address why... (3) 2. Conclusion

→ Black-White aptitude score differences or gender gap in high-level math achievement → Blacks score higher when tested by Blacks → why women score higher on math tests when no male test-takers are present → "Obama effect" : AA's performed better on verbal aptitude test after watching Barack speak 2. aptitude tests are not biased in *scientific* sense but biased related to *differences* caused by cultural experience

Adolescent brain development (4)

→ Brain stops adding new connections/more efficient by "rewiring" → pruning away connection is not being used → coating well used connections in MYLAN to speed up nerve conduction → adolescence crucial time to learn as much as possible

Social-Cognitive perspective: Depression is associated with (4) Depressed explanatory style (3)

→ Depressive explanatory style → learned helplessness → low self-esteem → rumination compulsive fretting; *overthinking* about problems/causes i. stable (last forever) ii. global (affect everything) iii. internal (my fault)

How much credit or blame do parents deserve? (3)

→ Freudian psychiatry/psychology and social blame *negative child behaviours on bad mothering* (asthma) → largest parenting affects occur at the *extremes* (being overbearing) → in personality measures environmental influences from prenatal development onward account for *less than 10% of child differences*

Effects of prolonged stress (1) Prolonged stress + too much Phase 3 leads to... (7)

→ GAS works for single exposure to stress → cell can't divide → cells die → DNA telomeres shorten → decline of making new neurons → early aging/death → neural circuits in brain break down → tissues stop regenerating

Is behaviour a reaction to the way the parents have interacted with the child previously? If so is that caused by the PARENTING BEHAVIOUR? (3)

→ Mary Ainsworth believes sensitive/calm😎 parenting SECURE ATTACHMENT STYLE → Monkeys with UNRESPONSIVE artificial mothers showed ANXIOUS INSECURE ATTACHMENT😩 → sensitive responding for parents of TEMPERAMENTALLY DIFFICULT children lead to double rates of SECURE ATTACHMENT😭😏

What social-cultural (2) factors may trigger aggressive behaviour?

→ Media provide *social script* that kids learn to follow → playing violent video games *increases* aggression

1. Secure attachment (2)

→ Most children (60%) feel distress when mother leaves → Seek contact with her when she returns

Example of moral intuition (4)

→ Most people will FLIP A SWITCH to save five people and kill one from oncoming trolley → not as many would push a person on the track to save five others → brains emotional areas lit up for arrow 2

Developmental similarities across groups (3+2 ex)

→ National stereotypes exaggerate differences (I.e. Canadians agreeable) → speak to babies the same/response to cries/share the same lifecycle → differences within a culture ( like those attributed to race) are often easily explained by interaction of biology and culture I.E. → Blood pressure higher in black man and white man/salt consumption higher in black man race → difference partially a diet difference/cultural preference for certain foods

Fathers parenting counts (2)

→ Studies of the impact of parenting have focussed on mothers → studies show strong relationship between paternal (father) involvement in parenting and child academic success/health and overall well-being

Fetal life : dangers (2)

→ Teratogens → fetal alcohol syndrome

What are the values (2) and dangers (2) of labeling people with disorders? RP

→ Therapists use disorder labels to communicate with one another → Clients benefit from knowing they are not only ones with symptoms *dangers* → people begin to act as they have been labeled → labels trigger assumptions that will change behaviour toward labeled peep

Freud's path to Developing Psychoanalysis (4)

→ Vienna physician → explore how mental/physical symptoms caused by psychological factors → powerful mental processes operate in *unconscious* → grew into theory of structure of human personality and development: *psychoanalysis*

Physical changes with age: the following abilities decline as we age (4) 👀 👂 🙅 👩‍🏫

→ Visual acuity (sharpness & brightness) → Hearing especially sensing higher pitch → Reaction time/general motor abilities → Neural processing speed (especially for complex/novel tasks)

Promoting health (5)

→ address stressors → exchange pessimism for optimism → get social support → increase sense of control over stressors → soothe emotions

Ways that some people reduce levels of stress and improve health (4)

→ aerobic exercise → alternative medicine → faith communities → relaxation/meditation

what are some of the tactics we can use to manage successfully the stress we cannot avoid? (4) RP

→ aerobic exercise → relaxation → mindfull meditation → religious engagement

What factors increase the risk of suicide (8) Forewarnings of suicide (4) Nonsuicidal self-injury (4)

→ age → gender → income → marital status → nation → race → religious involvement → social support i. discussing suicide ii. giving away possessions iii. preoccupation with death iv. withdrawal → cut/burn skin → hit selves → insert objects under nails → less able to tolerate emotional distress

Immune system is affected by... (5)

→ age → nutrition → genetics → body temp → stress

Levels of Aggression influenced by: 2. Reinforcement (4), Modeling (1)

→ aggression increases in frequency and intensity after it's reinforced *i.e. animals fought and got food* *Parents and Aggression-Replacement Training* → avoid modeling violence by screaming/hitting → guide youth by rewarding other, prosocial behaviours that still meet personal needs *CULTURE MODELING* → some cultures model aggression as solution to personal/societal injustice

Genetic Influences on Aggression (4)

→ aggression selectively bred in animals then passed on to next gen. → *identical* twins similar in levels of aggression than *fraternal* twins → linked to *Y chromosome* → linked to *monoamine oxidase A gene* (low MAOA behave more aggressively)

How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety? (2)

→ anxiety product of tension between demands of *id* and *superego* → *ego copes* by unconscious defence mechanisms (repression)

What should a person look for when selecting a therapist? (5)

→ ask about treatment approach → values → credentials → fees → therapy seeker must feel comfortable/establish a bond with therapist

Understanding mood disorders can explain why... (7)

→ behavioural/cognitive changes → depression striking earlier, more people → highest rates in developed countries → events related to work, marriage and close relationships precede depression → major depressive episodes self-terminate → women double risk than men → widespread

As with other areas of psychology, a study of emotions, stress and health teaches us... (2)

→ body constantly interacts with mind → psychological and physiological phenomena connect

Infancy and childhood how do the brain and motor skills develop? RP (4)

→ brains nerve cells *sculpted by heredity/experience* → interconnections *multiply fast* after birth until puberty when *PRUNING PROCESS* shuts down unused connections → Complex motor skills develop in *predictable sequence* but timing is of individual *MATURATION/CULTURE* → Have *no conscious memory* of events happening before age 3-1/2 because major brain areas have not yet matured

What criticisms have social-cognitive theorists faced?

→ build on well-established concepts of learning/conditioning → believe best way to predict behaviour is to observe person's behaviour in similar situations → faulted for *underemphasizing* importance of unconscious motives, emotions and biologically influenced traits

How does social support promote good health? (6)

→ calming us → reducing blood pressure → reducing stress hormones → stronger immune system functioning → helps manage painful feelings → laughter helps

Does psychotherapy work? How do we know? (3)

→ client/therapists' positive *testimonial* not enough → *placebo effect* difficult to judge if improvement occurred bc treatment → *meta-analyses* (to statistically combine results of psychotherapy outcomes) found those not in treatment improve *but* those in treatment *more likely to improve quickly* with less change of relapse

2. insecure attachment :Anxious style(2)

→ cling to mother/less likely to explore environment → may get loudly upset with mothers departure/remain upset when she returns

Cost of Self-esteem: Excessive optimism (4) Blindness to one's own incompetence (1) Self-serving bias (4)

→ complacency → directed toward group (illusionary optimism) → prevent recognition of real risks → self-defeating when dealing with temptations *B* → lead us to make same mistakes repeatedly *S* → readiness to perceive self favourably → people accept more responsibility for good than for bad deeds → creates better-than-average effect → underlie range of conflicts

What are positive and negative effects of high-self esteem? (2) Tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failures is called... RP

→ confident in abilities are happier/greater motivation, and less susceptible to depression → Excessive optimism and high self-esteem lead to *blindness* to one's own incompetence, *self-serving bias*, and *narcissism* *self-serving bias*

Promoting Peace: Research indicates that in some cases... (the 4 C's)

→ contact → cooperation → communication → conciliation can be transformational

Depression and heart disease (3)

→ increases risk of unnatural/cardiovascular death → result when *chronic stress triggers inflammation* → persistent inflammation produce asthma/clogged arteries/worsen depression

Variation of culture overtime (7)

→ cultural variation can occur within one culture → language changes in vocabulary/pronunciation → Pace of life quickens → gender equality increases → people sleep less/socialize in person less/stare at screens more → people marry more for love but then expect more romance These cultural changes occur too fast to be rooted in genetic change

Parents involvement promotes development/place importance where (1+2 ex)

→ cultures differ in what they deem important I.E.→ Asian cultures place emphasis on school/hard work → May explain why Japanese/Taiwanese children get higher scores on math tests

Children's self-concept by school age (2)

→ detailed description includes gender/group membership/psychological traits → see themselves as good/skillful in some ways but not in others

how and why do racial and ethnic groups differ in mental ability score? (2)

→ differ in average intelligence scores → evidence suggest enviro differences responsible

Aggressive behaviour: 2. Psychological Influences (6)

→ dominating behaviour → believing alcohol has been ingested → frustration → aggressive role model → rewards for aggressive behaviour → low self-control

1. Contact(4)

→ effective when free of competition and equal status exists → across 1/4 mill. people studied in 38 nations, *friendly contact* with ethnic minorities/older peep/disabilities led to *less prejudice* → not always enough exposre→ familiarity→ acceptance→ connection

Frontal lobes last to rewire (2)

→ emotional limbic system gets wired for puberty *BEFORE frontal judgement* get wired for adulthood → Teens understand risks/consequences but give more weight to potential thrills

1. Proximity (4+ex)

→ encounters once depended on *proximity*, working living near another person *exposure* key factor (*mere exposure effect*) → helped ancestors survive (what was familiar was trustworthy) → mirrors/photos make familiar with our face so attracted to people that look like us i.e. voters prefer candidate whose picture incorporated voter's features

What are some ways to reconcile conflicts and promote peace? (4) RP

→ encourage equal-status conflict → cooperation achieve superordinate goals → understanding through communication → reciprocated conciliatory gestures (each side gives a little)

optimists/optimism (3)

→ expect to have control/work well under stress/good health → run in families; genetic marker *oxytocin* → Danner; optimism-long life correlation study

Biological risk factors affecting early development of schizophrenia *somewhat more likely to develop if these are present* (5) *more likely to develop in babies born...* (3)

→ famine → low birth → maternal diabetes → maternal virus during mid-pregnancy impairing brain development → older paternal age → after mother *had flu* during *second trimester* → during/after flu epidemic → few months after flu season

Why do sports fans tend to feel sense of satisfaction when archival team loses? (3) Why do such feelings, in other settings, make conflict resolution challenging? (1)

→ feel part of an *ingroup* that sets apart from *outgroup* (fans of other team) → ingroup bias develops/other team deserves to lose → so other team loss seems *justified* → each side develops *mirror-image perception*

Fetal life: responding to sound (4)

→ fetuses in the womb can respond to sounds → can learn to recognize/adapt to sounds that they previously heard only in the womb → can habituate to annoying sounds becoming less agitated with repeated exposure → melodic ups and downs of newborns cry bare the tuneful signature of their mothers native tongue

Origins of attachment: familiarity (1+ex)

→ form during CRITICAL PERIOD (optimal period exposure to stimuli produces normal development) I.E.→ Birds have critical period (hours after hatching) during might imprint

Thurstone's 7 clusters of abilities (2+7 factors) Thurstone I(s) M(y) N(ew) P(et) S(o) V(ery) W(eird)

→ found results of 56 skill test fell into 7 clusters → other studies showed people strong in one cluster tend to be strong in other clusters (evidence of G factor) 1. Inductive reasoning 2. Memory 3. Numerical ability 4. Perceptual speed 5. Spatial ability 6. Verbal comprehension 7. Word fluency

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (6) Which people get PTSD? (3)

→ haunting memories → nightmares → social withdrawal → jump anxiety → insomnia lingers for weeks or more after traumatic experience *Those with* → less control → frequent trauma → brain differences

What are the traits of those at the *high* intelligence extreme? (5)

→ healthy/well-adjusted → some can seem socially delayed or withdrawn → academically successful → "Gifted" children learn best with appropriate level of challenge → segregated "tracked" programs, however, often unfairly widen achievement gaps

Maslow (5)

→ hierarchy of needs → studied healthy people → those secure in self interests were problem-centred → enjoyed deep relationships physiological needs ↓ safety ↓ belonging ↓ esteem ↓ self-actualization

The high extreme of intelligence: *Terman Study* (2) + critiques (4)

→ high-scoring children *healthy*, *well-adjusted* and unusually *successful* academically → after decades, his group attained higher levels of education/accolades *CRITICS* → question % of gifted children and tracking by aptitiude → enriched gifted education may *widen* education gap → *agree* that kids have diff. gifts → with *appropriate placement* can promote equity and excellence for all

evolutionary psychology: our genetic legacy(4)

→ humans share common genome → a "universal moral grammar" is shared across culture → shared moral instincts comes from *distant past of living in small groups* in which direct-harm doing was punished → predisposed to behave in ways that promoted our ancestors' surviving/reproducing

Why does stranger anxiety develop between 9-13 months? NOTES (2)

→ in evolutionary/survival terms humans learning to walk at this time → babies who used walking to leave parents (towards predators) might not survive to reproduce like those who clung to their parents

Do genes influence schizophrenia (2) What factors (biological (2+etc) and psychological (3)) are early warning signs?

→ inherited → no enviro. causes produce schizo. but may *turn on genes* for disorder *biologic* → birth complications → mother with chronic schizo. → poor muscle coordination *psychological* → emotionally unpredictive → poor peer relations/solo play → withdrawn behaviour

Researchers believe that conditioning and cognitive processes contribute to anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD. What biological factors also contribute to these disorders? RP

→ inherited temperament differences and other gene variations → learned fears that altered brain pathways → outdated, inherited responses had survival value for distant ancestors.

Cognitive Development : Jean Piaget (1896-1980) (3+ex)

→ interest began in 1920 in Paris developing questions for children's intelligence tests → became intrigued by Childs wrong answers → Study cognition errors by children to understand what ways they think differently than adults I.E.→ toddlers inability to realize a miniature slide is too small for sliding → Core idea that the driving force behind our intellectual progression is *unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences*

Issues related to Intelligence tests (3) questions

→ is discriminating among college or job applicants based on test scores better than discriminating based on appearance? → can test scores be used as Alfred Binet suggested to identify those who would benefit from educational interventions? → can a person's worth/potential be summed up in one intelligence score?

Cognitive Roots of Prejudice: 2. Remembering Vivid Cases (2)

→ judge frequency of events by instances that readily come to mind → cases are more readily available to our memory and feed stereotypes

Stress factor: Perceived level of control experiment (4)

→ left and middle rats received shocks → rat on left turn off shock for both rats by spinning wheel → *middle* subordinate rat had increased ulcers → not the level of shock but level of *control* over the shock that created stress

Similarity and Attraction

→ like those who share our features/attitudes/beliefs → more alike people are the more their liking *endures* → like those who like us

Why are some of us more prone than other to coronary heart disease? (2)

→ linked with reactive, anger-prone Type A personality (secretes more stress hormones) → chronic stress contributes to persistent *inflammation* heightens risk of clogged arteries/depression

What are the traits of those at the *low* intelligence extremes? (5)

→ low intelligence test score (70 or below) → difficult adapting to normal demands of independent living: 1. *Conceptual Skills*→ literacy and calculation 2. *Social Skills*→ safe social choices 3. *Practical Skills*→ personal care, occupational, travel

Biopsychosocial approach (1) B(3) P(4) S(3)

→ mental disorders arise in interaction between biology, psychological and social cultural influences *biological* → brain structure/chemistry → evolution → individual genes *psychological* → learned helplessness → mood-related perceptions/memories → stress → trauma *social-cultural* → definitions of normality and disorder → expectations → roles

What are some ways in which males and females tend to be alike (4) and to differ (7)

→ more alike than different thanks to similar genetic make up - see/hear/learn/remember similarly → differ in body fat/muscle/age of onset of puberty/certain disorders/aggression/social power/social connectedness

Samuel Gosling says genetically influenced personality traits lurk in our... (4)

→ music preference i.e extraverts like upbeat → bedrooms/offices → online spaces → written communication

Cancer and stress (2)

→ no clear stress link → stress may weaken the body's defence against replication/spread of malignant cells

Dementia and Alzheimer's disease (2)

→ not normal with ageing → small strokes/brain tumour/alcohol dependence damage brain causing mental erosion

Spearman's general intelligence and G (4)

→ one general intelligence at the heart of everything one does → mental abilities like physical abilities → intelligence involves distinct abilities that correlate to define a small general intelligence factor → Gardner and Sternberg discount theory/propose diffferent kinds of intelligence

How does a perceived lack of control affect health? (3)

→ outpouring of hormones → unable to avoid repeated aversive events can lead to *learned helplessness* → peeps perceive *internal locus of control* achieve more/enjoy better health/happier

How do parents and peers influence adolescence RP (4+ex)

→ parental influence DIMINISHES/peer influence INCREASES → adolescence adopt peers dressing/acting/communicating → parents have influence religion/career choice/college → positive parent-teen relationships and positive peer relations go hand-in-hand I.E. → girls with affectionate relationship with mother have intimate relationship with girlfriends

Conflict and peacemaking: Enemy perceptions (4)

→ people in conflict form *negative* images of one another (mirror-image perception) → "Us" vs "them" develops → vicious cycle of hostility emerges at individual or national level → perceptions can become *self-fulfilling prophecies*

What did Milgram's obedience experiments teach us about the power of social influence? (2) What situations have researchers found to be most likely to encourage obedience in participants? (a-d)

→ people obeyed orders even though thought they were harming another person → learned strong social influences can make ordinary people *conform to falsehoods* or give into cruelty *Obedience was highest when:* (a) person giving orders was *nearby* and perceived as *authority* figure (b) research supported by *prestigious* institution (c) victim *depersonalized*/ at distance (d) no *role models* for defiance

III. Gender Prejudice (4)

→ people prefer feminine face → preference for male babies → blaming women for adultery → seeing assertiveness/ambition as attractive in men, abrasive in women → fathers *more intelligent* than mothers

Biosocial roots of crime: the brain APD criminality? (2)

→ people who murder have less tissue and activity in part that suppresses impulses → *less amygdala* response when viewing violence → *overactive dopamine* reward-seeking system *APD does not mean criminal* → criminals show empathy/selflessness with fam/friends

How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences? RP (2)

→ people with syndrome have a limited mental ability overall but have one exceptional skill → Gardner suggests our abilities come in separate packages rather than being fully expressed by one general intelligence

Major depressive disorder Persistent Depressive Disorder

→ person experiences two or more weeks with *five or more* symptoms one of which is either: i. depressed mood ii. loss of interest or pleasure → experiences *mildly depressed moods* more often than not for at least *two years* along with two other symptoms

Topics of study in health psychology include

→ phases of stress response/adaptation → how stress/health affected by: 1. appraisal/severity of stressor 2. personality 3. emotion/focus 4. Optimism

Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? (1) How important is self-esteem (3) to psychology/human well-being? (def+1)

→ possible selves (who become, loved self, rich self) helps motivate toward *positive development* but focusing too intensely on ourselves can lead to *spotlight effect* *Self-esteem* → one's feelings of high or low self-worth → high, less pressure to conform → better to reward achievement *Self-efficacy* → one's sense of competence and effectiveness

Schooling and Intelligence (6)

→ preschool/elementary have at least *temporary* impact on intelligence test scores → Growth mindset (*Dweck, 2006*) → intelligence is changeable → increases when *effort* (rather than ability) is encouraged → made teens more resilient when frustrated with others *ability* + *opportunity* + *motivation*= success

What are personality inventories and what are their strengths and weaknesses as assessment tools? (4)

→ questionnaires to gauge wide range of feelings/behvaiours → test *empirically derived* and objectively scored → people can fake answers to create good impression → ease of computerized test may lead to misuse

How many people have or have had psychological disorder (2) ? Is poverty a risk factor? (2)

→ rates vary depending on time/place of survey → one survey *less than 5%* Shanghai, *more than 25%* USA *Poverty risk factor* → conditions/experiences contribute to development of disorder → some disorders (schizophrenia) lead to poverty

In what ways might relaxation and mediation influence stress/health? (5)

→ reduce stress by relaxing muscles → lower blood pressure → improve immune system functioning → lessens anxiety/depression → massage therapy relaxes/reduces depression

How did humanistic theories influence psychology? (1) What criticisms have they faced? (3)

→ renew interests in concept of self → vague and subjective → values self-centered → assumptions naively optimistic

Emotional Roots of Prejudice (3)

→ scapegoat theory → experiments show link: prejudice *increases* during temporary *frustration* → link to *fear*: prejudice absent in people with *inactive fear* responses in amygdala

3. Insecure attachment: avoidant style (1)

→ seeming indifferent to mothers departure and return

Do psychological disorders predict violent behaviour? (4)

→ seldom lead to violence → clinical prediction of violence unreliable → when violence, society questions if these peep. accountable → most mentally ill victim not attacker

Critiquing Humanist Perspective: *What about Evil* critique humanist response: Critiquing Humanist Perspective: *Self-centerdeness* humanist response:

→ self-acceptance not the end; it then allows us to move on from defending own needs to loving and caring for others → therapist using approach should not *encourage selfishness* should keep in mind "positive regard" means "acceptance" not "praise"

Physical development: motor development (4)

→ sequence of physical development is universal →*ROLL OVER - SIT UP UNSUPPORTED (6 months)- CRAWL (8-9 months)- WALK (15 months)* → maturation takes place in the *BODY and CEREBELLUM* enabling the sequence → experience before that time has *LIMITED AFFECT*→ physical training generally *can't change the timing*

How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self? (3)

→ some rejected standardized assessments → relied on interviews/conversation → Rogers used questionaries where peep. described ideal/actual selves used to judge progress during therapy

Genetics & Environmental influence on intelligence: Are there known genes for genius? (4)

→ specific genes pinpointed seemingly influence variations in intelligence/learning disorder → *no single DNA* segment predictor of years of schooling; genetic variations account for about *2%* of schooling diff. → gene variation predicted slightly bigger brain *what matters is the combination of genes*

Health Consequences of Chronic Stress: The repeated release of stress hormones (2)

→ stress hormone *cortisol* helps body respond to *brief* stress → chronically high cortisol levels damage body

Critiques of operant conditioning (3)

→ techniques, i.e. token economy, produce changes that disappear when *reward ends* → unethical to decide which behaviours should change → treatment with positive reward is more humane than punishing/institutionalizing

The final issue in development: stability and change 1. Are we essentially the same person over long periods? (3) (1)

→ temperament seems stable → traits can vary especially attitude/coping methods/work habits and styles of socializing → personality stabilize with age STABILITY helps form identity while potential for change gives us control over lives

Female response to stress (3) Male response to stress (4)

→ tend and befriend → *oxytocin* bonding hormone plays role → areas important for face processing/empathy more active → socially withdrawn → turn to alcohol → aggressive → brain shows less empathy/tuning into others