Psychology = NCE Preparation

Therapeutic surrender

(in multiracial counseling) the client psychologically surrenders him/herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open w/ feelings and thoughts. It occurs when the client is able to trust the counselor and self-discloses. The literature suggests these factors as helpful in promoting therapeutic surrender: rapport, trust, listening, conquering client resistance, and self-disclosure.

what are the types of work for lifting?

-Sedentary: maximum lifting is 10 pounds -Light work: maximum is 20 pounds -Medium work: maximum is 50 pounds -Heavy work: maximum is 100 pounds -Very heavy work: maximum exceeds 100 pounds.

Goffin and Tull (1985) have described four characteristics of a "good problem" to focus on in anxiety disorder:

-The problem must be interesting and meaningful to the client -The problem must be solvable in more than one way -The problem is one that requires or allows for a new decision -The outcomes of the new decision can be evaluated in specific, observable situations

The mean of the Wechsler is _______ and the standard deviation is___________

100; 15 Wechsler, 16 Stanford-Binet

2 x 3 factorial design

2 independent variables that are being measured (like male and female) and 3 other independent variables (like low class, middle, and high).

"Wish Fulfillment"

A Freudian notion that dreams and slips of the tongue are actually wish fulfillments.

cluster sampling

A probability sampling technique in which clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random, followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster.

Primal Scene

A psychoanalytic concept that suggests that a young child witnesses his parents having sexual intercourse or is seduced by a parent. The incident, whether real or imagined, is said to provide impetus (the force that makes somethings happen) for later neurosis.

behavioral rehearsal

A role-playing strategy in which a client acts out a behavior he wants to change or acquire. Can be quite useful in assertiveness training. The counselor in this case might also switch roles and model assertive behavior

Null Hypothesis (H0)

A statement of "no difference." There will not be a significant difference between the experimental group who received the IV and the control group who did not. Null means "nil" or "nothing." The null hypothesis is simply that the IV does not effect the DV.

Ordinal data

A statistical data type that exists on an arbitrary numerical scale where the exact numerical value has no significance other than to rank a set of data points. Deals with the order or position of items such as words, letters, symbols or numbers arranged in a hierarchical order. Quantitative assessment cannot be made.

A test of significance

A statistical technique intended to provide researchers with confidence that their results are, in fact, true and not the result of sampling error. For example, a t-test would be used to determine if a significance difference between two means exist.

a student's t-test

A statistical test designed to determine whether there are significant differences between two independent groups' means being tested on the same dependent variable. If the t value obtained statistically is lower than the t value (sometimes called "critical t") in the table, then you accept the null hypothesis. Your computation must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject the null.

One-way ANOVA

A statistical test used to analyze data from an experimental design with one independent variable that has three or more groups (levels).

ABC Theory of Personality (REBT)

A=activating event B=belief system C=emotional consequence D=disputing the irrational behavior at B E=a new emotional consequence

quasi-experiment

An experiment in which investigators make use of control and experimental groups that already exist in the world at large. Also called a mixed design. a type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs. You cannot state that the IV (independent variable) caused the DV (dependent variable).

Behavioral consultation or "social learning theory model"

An indirect alternative to behavior therapy whereby the therapist serves as a consultant to an individual such as a parent, teacher, or supervisor who ultimately implements the behavioral interventions with the client in the natural setting. Associated with Bandura, the consultant designs behavioral change programs for the consulate to implement.

What are the two behavioral approaches in therapy?

Applied behavior analysis & social-cognitive theory.

contextualism

Behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs

(Career Counseling) The decision-making theory, which refers to periods of anticipation and implementation/adjustment, was proposed by

David Tiedman and Robert O'Hara. They suggested that the decision process is done in a two part process. In the anticipation stage, the individual imagines himself in a given career. In the implementation phase (Also sometimes called accommodation or induction) the person engages in reality testing regarding their expectations concerning the occupation. All decision-making theories contend that the individual has the power to choose from the various career options.

E.J. Gibson

Developed the visual cliff test to use with human infants and animals. Gibson and Walk were interested in whether or not an infant's ability to perceive depth is a learned behavior or it was, as they suspected, innate. Infants avoid the drop-off because they sense that they lack the physical skills to make the descent possible.

The range

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data; a measure of variance and is usually calculated by determining the difference between the highest and lowest points. It is the highest score minus the lowest score plus 1. The "exclusive range" does not include the plus 1.

If an ANOVA yields a significant F value, you could rely on _______ to test significant differences between group means.

Duncan's multiple range, Tukey's, or Scheffe's test. In order to further discriminate between the ANOVA groups the post hoc measures would be appropriate.

Developmental career theorists view career choice as an ongoing or so-called longitudinal process rather than a single decision made at one point in time. The pioneer theorists in this area--who were the first to forsake the matching models--were

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma. Early 1951, after a small sample, they concluded that occupational choice takes place over a 6 year to 10 year period; the choice is reversible and there is room for optimization, meaning that individuals try to make the best of what they have to offer and what is available in the job market. The theory postulated three stages: fantasy--until age 11, based strongly on impulses; tentative--ages 11 to 17, where interests and abilities are examined; and the realistic period--age 17, where a choice is made by weighing abilities and needs and making a compromise.

Virginia Satir

In family therapy, the Satir Model ultimately expanded beyond the realm of family therapy and became recognized as applicable to all situations where improving human communication and growth is desired. Is a pioneer in the field of family reconstruction therapy. Widely regarded as "Mother of Family Therapy." She also offered insights into the particular problems that low self-esteem could cause in relationships.

Andrew Salter's Conditioned Reflex Therapy

"excitation" or the practice of spontaneously experiencing and expressing true emotions (even negative ones) is seen as necessary in order to attain a state of positive mental health. "Inhibition" or constipation of emotions, is seen as the opposite of excitation.

How Glasser (Reality therapy) view mankind

Individuals strive to meed basic physiological needs and the need to be worthwhile to self and others. Brain as control system tries to meet needs.

Intrapersonal vs. Interpersonal

Intrapersonal transactions are interactions that a person has with themselves in their own mind. Interpersonal transactions are interactions that take place between two or more individuals.

How Adler (Individual Psychology) view mankind

Man is basically good; much of behavior is determined via birth order.

How Jung (Analytic Psychology) view mankind

Man strives for individuation or a sense of self-fulfillment

What is the family life cycle?

Normal or typical developmental phases in family life. Critical stages are those involving life transitions: birth, marriage, leaving home, and death. Exact stages: Unattached adult, Newly Married Adults, Child-bearing adults, Preschool-age children, School-age children, teenage child, launching center, late-middle age, & nearing end of life stage.

The trait-factor or matching approach in career counseling is associated with

Parsons and Williamson. The trait-factor (actuarial approach) is sometimes called "structural" theory since it emphasizes individual/structural differences

Assimilation

Piaget's term for the interpretation of new experiences in terms of present schemas; the act of taking in new information

Projection in Gestalt Therapy

Projection is an ego defense mechanism in which you see something in others that you cannot accept about yourself. A technique is called, "playing the projection" where the counselor literally asks you to act like this person you dislike.

Some support for Roe's theory comes from

Rorschach and TAT. Think of "R"oe for "R"orschach.

EEG feedback

Scalp sensors are used to monitor brain waves. It is called electroencephalogram, but other electrical devices nearby, such as an air conditioner or a light, can confound it. EEG training often focuses on the production of waves, which is 8-12 cycles per second. An individual in an alpha state is awake but extremely relaxed.

What are the two elements of law?

Statute: Legislative Process codified thereafter. Case Law: Higher Court's Ruling becomes precedent.

Joseph Breuer

Taught Freud the value of the talking cure; known as catharsis; was the first to recognize transference and countertransference in a psychoanalytic relationship.

____________________ was a prime factor in the history of multicultural counseling.

The 1954 Supreme Court decision, Brown vs. the Board of Education, which outlawed public school segregation. Desegregation created culturally different populations for school counselors.

Donald Miechenbaum

The cognitive therapist most closely associated with the concept of stress inoculation. It has three basic phases: 1.) the client is involved in an educational phase. Here the client is taught to monitor the impact of inner dialogue on behavior. 2.) Clients are taught to rehearse new self-talk. This is the "rehearsal phrase." 3.) the "application phase" is where new inner dialogue is attempted during actual stress-producing situations. His approach is called "Self-Instructional Therapy". Counselor educators often classify approaches which dwell on cognition, while emphasizing behavioral strategies for change as "cognitive-behavioral approaches" to helping.

What is the manifest and latent content according to Freud?

The manifest content is considered the surface meaning of a dream and then the hidden meaning is the latent content from a dream.

dependent variable

The outcome factor or the data; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. "D" stands for data.

Casual-Comparative Research

The researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups or individuals. Non-intervention research aimed at uncovering relationships by comparing groups of people who already differ on a variable of interest.

Epistomology

The study of how we know what we know (branch from philosophy).

Empiricism

Theorists who believe that development merely consists of quantitative changes. Grew out of the philosophy of John Locke in the 1600s and is sometimes referred to as associationism. Scientists can learn from objective facts. Empiricism comes from the Greek word meaning experience. This philosophy adheres to the principle that experience is the source for acquiring knowledge. An empiricist view of development would be behavioristic. They value statistical studies and emphasize the role of the environment.

_______ and _______ created a program to help counselors learn accurate empathy.

Traux; Carkhuff. Robert Carkhuff has been quoted "all helping is for better or worse" and "no helpee is left unchanged by any helping interaction."

What is anal retentive personality?

a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn. They pay so much attention to detail that it becomes an obsession and may be an annoyance to others.

Atkinson, Morten, and Sue's minority development model examines

a. attitudes towards work. b. recycling experiences. c. attitudes towards self. d. reports of discrimination. They state that the three major barriers to intercultural counseling are culture-bond values, class-bound values, and language differences.

discriminant validity

an empirical test of the extent to which a measure does not associate strongly with measures of other, theoretically different constructs. For example, there should be no correlation between IQ and snake phobias.

EKG feedback

electrocardiogram provides data on the heart.

Ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.

Tuckman & Jensen stages (5) in group work

forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning

the "isolate role" in group work

he is ignored by others. They generally feel afraid to reach out and are generally rejected. It is not the same as the scapegoat, because the scapegoat actually receives attention. They are often referred to as the "silent one."

Schein also mentions the 'purchase of expertise model' (consultation)

in which the consulate says: "Here's the problem; you fix it." This is similar to the "doctor-patient" model except that the consultee knows what is wrong.

stimulus generalization (irradiation)

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

Jung used drawings balanced around a center point to analyze himself, his clients, and dreams. What are these called?

mandalas. The mandala in Hindu is the symbol of meditation. In Jung's writings the mandala also can stand for a magic protective circle that represents self-unification.

The number of people in an open group is generally

more stable than in a closed group.

In regard to an individual's behavioral style or so-called modal orientation, Holland believed that

most people are not purely personality types and thus can best be described by a distribution of types such as Realistic, Social, Investigative.

Existentialists speak of three worlds, the Unwelt or the ______________ world, the Mitwelt of the ______________ world, and the Eigenwelt or the ______________ world.

physical, relationship, and identity. Mitwelt has the prefix "mi," which is the Spanish word for "my" is in having "my mother," a possession of a relationship. Eigenwelt is like "iden" but has a g instead "igen."

trend analysis

refers to statistical procedure performed at different times to see if a trend is evident.

ipsative versus normative interpretation of test scores

refers to whether you are looking at an individual's own patterns revealed via measurement (e.g. highs and lows) or whether his score is compared to others evaluated by the same measure.

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting; he would most likely say that aggression is an inborn tendency. According to him, aggression is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival. Therefore, he said that we should utilize catharsis and get our anger out, using methods such as competitive sports

Participant observer model

study in which the researcher actually participates in the study while making observations about what transpired.

Macroculture

the dominant culture or the culture accepted by the majority of citizens in a society. Majority culture.

External Validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Whether it can be generalized to larger populations/real world.

The peak period of competition between the various schools of therapy was during

the late 1960s (Gestalt, Behavioristic, Reality therapy, etc.). The 1950s marked a golden age for developmental psychology. In the late 1960s the field was literally inundated with competing psychotherapies. In the 1970s biofeedback, behavior modification, and crisis hotlines flourished. And in the 1980s professionalism (e.g. licensing and improvement in professional organizations) was evident.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one

Spearman correlation (also known as Kendall's tau)

used in place of the Pearson r when parametric assumptions cannot be utilized. Spearman rho correlation is for ordinal data.

Common archetypes include

-the persona—the mask or role we present to others to hide our true self, -animus, anima, self, and -shadow—the mask behind the persona, which contains id-like material, denied, yet desired. This is considered as the dark side of the personality, though it is not necessarily negative. Jung noted that the shadow encompasses everything an individual refused to acknowledge. The shadow represents the unconscious opposite of the individual's conscious expression. Hence, a shy person might have recurring dreams that he or she is very outgoing, verbal, and popular.

An excellent psychological or counseling test would have a reliability coefficient of

.90. 90% of the score measured the attribute in question, while 10% of the score is indicative of error. 90% is true variance while 10% constitutes error variance.

Women workers make up nearly

1/2 of the country's labor force.

Z scores are the same as standard deviations, thus a z score of -2.5 means

2.5 standard deviation below the mean. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied. When observations are made and the subject's behavior is influenced by the very presence of the researcher, it is often called a "reactive effect" of observation/experimentation. This is sometimes known as an observer effect. This is also known as demand characteristics of experiments, because it is when participants act differently simply because they know that they are in an experiment

"counterculture"

A culture with lifestyles and values opposed to those of the established culture.

Self-Help group

A group made up of people with similar problems who help and support one another without the direct leadership of a clinician. Also called a mutual help group.

Leptokurtic distribution

A more peaked distribution that indicates that more returns are clustered around the mean than with a normal distribution. (Lepto=Less Risky). Distribution curve is very tall, thin and peaked. (Memory: Leptokurtic leaps tall buildings in a single bound.)

Types of tests: Norm Referenced vs. Criterion Referenced

A norm-referenced test scores a test by comparing a person's performance to others who are similar. A criterion-referenced test is scored on an absolute scale with no comparisons made. It is interested with only one thing only: did you meet the standards?

between-subjects design

A research design in which different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions. In a between-subjects design, each subject receives only one value of the IV & in a within-subjects design, two or more values or levels of the IV are administered to each subject.

Chi-square test

A statistical method of testing for an association between two categorical variables. Specifically, it tests for the equality of two frequencies or proportions. a statistical test used to determine the probability of obtaining observed proportions by chance, under a specific hypothesis

Resentful Demoralization of the Comparison Group (also called compensatory equalization)

A threat to internal validity; The comparison group lowers their performance or behaves in an inept manner because they have been denied the experimental treatment. When this occurs, the experimental group looks better than they should.

Cohort Study

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of exposed individuals (individuals who have been exposed to the potential risk factor) and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease. Such as, "How many women born in the Great Depression of 1929 committed suicide?"

stratified sampling

A type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group. In a research situation where a specific number of cases are necessary from each stratum, the procedure often is labelled as "quota sampling."

cognitive error

AKA interpretive error Seeing the finding but misinterpreting it Less common than perceptual error

A counselor who had an interest primarily in testing would most likely be a member of

AMECD. This ACA Division is the Association of Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development.

The Black vs. White IQ controversy was sparked mainly by a 1969 article written by

Arthur Jensen. His article was called "How much can we boost IQ and Scholastic Performance?" The closer people are genetically , the more alike their IQ scores. He leveled the charge that Whites score 11 to 15 IQ points higher than Blacks (regardless of social class). He estimated that hereditary contributed 80%, while environmental influence 20% of the IQ.

AHEAD

Association for Higher Education Access and Disability Suggest

Jacob Moreno

Coined the term "group psychotherapy" founder of psychodrama and organized the first society for group therapies. Psychodrama, which can be considered a precursor to group therapy.

connotative eror

Connotation applies to the emotional content of a word, which is different than the true or dictionary definition. The tendency for words to convey different connotations is often referred to as a "semantic differential."

David Wechsler

Developed WAIS and WISC (IQ tests); is well known for creating the Wechsler intelligence scales. researcher that worked with troubled kids in the 1930's in NYC. He observed that many of these kids demonstrated a type of intelligence that was much different than the type of intelligence needed to succeed in the school system (STREET SMARTS). He created tests to measure more than verbal ability.

Viktor Frankl

Developed and is the Father of logotherapy (healing through meaning) after experiencing the holocaust to help patients find meaning/purpose in life without medical help.

GATB (General Aptitude Test Battery)

Developed by U.S. Employment Service to measure multiple aptitudes. It is used to help you secure an appropriate job.

The frustration-aggression theory is associated with:

Dollard and Miller. Their hypothesis asserts that frustration leads to aggression. Frustration occurs when an individual is blocked so that he or she cannot reach an intended goal (or the goal is removed).

The counselor's social power is related to

Expertise, attractiveness, and Trustworthiness (memory technique) "EAT"

Positive Addiction (according to Glasser)

Glasser stressed that people can be addicted to positive behaviors and this helps to instill self-confidence. A positive addiction must be a noncompetitive activity which can be performed alone for about one hour each day. Moreover, the person can see that performing the activity will lead to personal improvement. Lastly, the person needs to be capable of performing the activity without becoming self-critical.

career counseling vs. vocational guidance

Guidance is seen as a developmental and educational process within the school system while career counseling is viewed as a therapeutic service for adults performed outside an educational setting.

GZTS

Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey; personality inventory used with normally functioning individuals age 16+, measures 10 traits, initially developed to asses Carl Jung's constructs of introversion and extroversion, most freq with college. It is for those who do not have severe psychiatric disabilities.

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961)

He founded analytic psychology. Carl believes that the nature and the purpose of the libido is that it is a generalized source of psychic energy motivating a range of behaviors (Freud: A source of psychic energy specific to sexual gratification). The nature of the unconscious is a storehouse of repressed memories specific to the individual and our ancestral past (Freud: A storehouse for unacceptable repressed desires specific to the individual). The cause of behavior is because of past experiences in addition to future aspirations (Freud: past experiences, particularly in childhood).

Frank Parsons ( Father of Vocational Guidance)

He was the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues. He had certain issues towards: eight-hour day, profit sharing, the role of education in preparing the citizen for society, urban planning, and ownership of public utilities. Parsons' theory. Frank Parsons developed the idea of matching careers to talents, skills and personality. ... He developed the talent-matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. It usually relies on psychometric properties by and is NOT developmental. At the centre of Parsons' theory is the concept of matching. In 1909, he wrote a landmark book entitled 'Choosing a Vocation.'

How Skinner (Behavior Modification) view mankind

Humans are like other animals; mechanistic and controlled via environmental stimuli and reinforcement contingencies; not good or bad; no self-determination or freedom.

Centration

In Piaget's theory, during the preoperational stage, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features. Ex: A child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose but ignores his or her other features.

one and two tailed t tests

In a one-tailed test your hypothesis specifies that one average mean is larger than another. So, a two-tailed hypothesis, would be, "The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will have a statistically 'different' IQ than the average patient who has not received analysis. The one-tailed hypothesis would be, "The average patient who has completed psychoanalysis will have a statistically, significantly 'higher' IQ than the average patient who has not received analysis." When appropriate, one-tailed tests have the advantage of having more "power" (i.e., the statistical ability to reject correctly a false hypothesis) than the two-tailed design.

Harlow's experiment with monkeys

In the famous experiment by Harlow, frightened monkeys raised via cloth and wire mothers: ran over and clung to the cloth and wire surrogate mothers. Animals placed in isolation during the first few months of birth appeared to be abnormal and autistic (extremely withdrawn and isolated).

John Ertl

Invented an electronic machine to analyze neural efficiency to take the place of pencil and paper tests. It relies on a computer, EEG, a strobe light, and an electrode helmet. The theory is that the faster one processes the perception, the more intelligence he has.

Negatives of cohesiveness in a group

It can stunt creativity and it can abet (encourage or assist) conformity.

Urie Brofenbrenner ( Ecological Systems Theory)

It offers a framework through which community psychologists examine individuals' relationships within communities and the wider society.

repeated-measures comparison design / within-subjects design

Measuring the SAME group of subjects without the IV and then with the IV.

A group therapist must make more or less decisions than an individual therapist?

More decisions. When a counselor reads the journals in this field, it becomes evident that a researcher/practitioner split exists in group work.

Horizontal Sampling

Occurs when a researcher selects subjects from a single socioeconomic group.

An aptitude test is to ______________________ as an achievement test is to ______________________.

Potential; what has been learned. Like the NCE would be an achievement test. Predictability validity is particularly important when choosing an aptitude test.

Difference between Privacy, Confidentiality, and Privilege

Privacy: we have the right to have a privacy in our own homes (broadest) Confidentiality: not disclosing their information (ethics and legal) because it is the general standard of professional conduct. Privilege: what information that we can disclose and not disclose in a legal proceeding (legal protection from disclosure in legal proceedings).

Today the Stanford-Binet is used from ages 2 to adulthood. The IQ formula has been replaced by the

SAS "standard age score."

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Sociology as a separate science on the grounds that it has both an object (patterned reularities as a group distinct from that of individuals) and a substratum (society as a whole). He is considered as one of the founders of modern sociology and for his research on suicide. He is said to have taken group phenomena beyond the armchair speculation stage into formal research. His principles were first outlined in his 1895 work, Rules of Sociological Method.

Define dichotomy

Splitting into two, ideas that are opposite of each other. One can only be understood in relation to the other (i.e. wet and dry). Or like true and false items.

What is the SIC?

Standard Industrial Classification Manual, which classifies businesses in regard to the type of activity they are engaged in (i.e. the type of service or product). "Hopefully working in industry won't make you sic."

What is SOC in Career Counseling?

Standard Occupational Classification Manual, which codes job clusters via similar worker function. Thus, it is very useful for a counselor who wants to find additional occupations that a workers might already be trained for or could consider with additional training.

A back-up reinforcer

Tangible objects, activities, or privileges that serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with tokens. Back-up reinforcers are normally unconditioned. A teenager in a residential facility has earned enough tokes to buy his favorite brand of candy bar. The candy bar is the back-up reinforcer.

ASGW

The Association for Specialists in Group Work- division of ACA that focuses primarily on group intervention. The Association for Specialists in Group Work—a division of the American Counseling Association—exists so that members and other helping professionals are empowered with the knowledge, skills, and resources necessary to practice effective, socially just, and ethical group work in a diverse and global society.

"doctor-patient" model by Edgar Schein (consultation)

The consultant is paid to diagnose the problem (i.e. the consulate is not certain what it is) and prescribe a solution. The focus is on the agency or organization, not the individual client.

Cultural relativity

The idea that behavior must be judged relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs; Connotes that a behavior cannot be assessed as good or bad except within the context of a given culture.

harmonic mean

The mean of n numbers expressed as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the numbers.

Parroting

To repeat someone else's words without thinking or understanding

WAIS-III

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- 3rd edition -test for adults age 16 or older -composed of 1) verbal activity and 2) performance

WISC-III

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- 3rd edition -used for school-age children = ages 6 1/2 - 16 1/2 yrs old -composed of 1) verbal activity and 2) performance

Confrontation in counseling

When a counselor points out that the client is smiling but says that she is very sad about what she did. The essence of confrontation is to illuminate discrepancies between the client's and the helper's conceptualization of a given situation.

higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)

When a new stimulus is associated or "paired" with the CS and the new stimulus takes on the power of the CS. After a dog is conditioned using the well-known experiment of Pavlov's, a light is paired with the bell (the CS). In a short period of time, the light alone would elicit the salivation, which would be considered as...

Covary positively vs. covary negatively

When two variables vary together. When one variable increases while the other decreases.

What is it called when a researcher has an accomplice pose as a client?

a confederate or stooge

Folkways

a norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern

What is a subpoena?

a writ ordering a person to attend a court. To compel testimony by a witness or production of witness under a penalty of failure.

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information; Piaget's term.

Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)

an extra X chromosome causes physical abnormalities; a male shows no masculinity at puberty.

Stanley Milgram

associated with obedience and authority. He discovered that people who were told to give others powerful electrical shocks did so on command.

A counselor created an achievement test with a reliability coefficient of .82. The test is shortened because students said it was too long. The counselor shortened the test but logically assumed that the reliability coefficient would now

be lower than .82. Increasing a test's length raises reliability. Shorten it and the antithesis occurs. The Spearman Brown formula is used to estimate the impact that lengthening or shortening a test will have on a test's reliability coefficient.

Group planning occurs

before the group begins and continues throughout the life of the group. The counselor needs to look at demographics, community needs, and social considerations. After the group begins, program development or session by session planning is recommended.

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat. He demonstrated that a phobic reaction was "learned," while Mary Cover Jones demonstrated that "learning" could serve as a treatment for a phobic reaction.

When correlational data describe the nature of two variables, what term is utilized.

bivariate

Switching the order that stimuli are presented to a subject in a study is known as

counterbalancing. It is used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Radical Behaviorists

deny that hunger, fear, or other internal, private events cause behavior. They do not believe in concepts like the id, ego, and superego. They do not believe in mental constructs such as "the mind" nor do they believe in consciousness. The behaviorists generally feel that if it can't be measured then it doesn't exist.

independent variable

eThe experimental factor that is manipulated, controlled, altered or wishes to experiment; the variable whose effect is being studied. "I manipulate the IV"

what is a normative format of a test?

each item is independent of all other items.

Edwin Bordin

emphasize the unconscious processes in terms of career choice; felt that difficulties related to job choice are indicative of neurotic symptoms. He felt that career choices could be used to solve unconscious conflicts.

The tendency to affiliate with others is highest in:

firstborns and only children.

Perls suggested _______ which must be peeled away to reach emotional stability.

five layers of neurosis. The person has a phony layer, a phobic layer (fear that others will reject his or her uniqueness), an impasse layer (the person feels struck), the implosive layer (willingness to expose the true self), and the explosive layer (person has relief due to authenticity).

Ritualistic behaviors, which are common to all members of a species, are known as:

fixed-action patterns elicited by sign stimuli (FAP). It will result whenever a releaser in the environment is present. The action, or sequence of behavior, will not vary.

Schlossberg

focused heavily on adult career development (five noteworthy factors) (1)Behavior in adult years is primarily determined by social factors rather biological factors; (2) behavior can either be a function of one's life stage or one's age at othe times; (3) sex differences are more powerful than age or stage differences; (4) adults continually experience transition which require adaptation & self-assessment; (5) identity, intimacy, and generativity are recurring themes in adulthood.

ACA and the ASGW division recommend screening for potential group members

for all groups. A professional counselor uses a screening process in order to determine who is appropriate and who will not be a appropriate for a given group.

Robert Hoppock

he feels that to make an accurate career decision you must known your personal needs and then find a an occupation that meets a higher percentage of the needs. Lastly, as your personal needs change you might need to secure a different occupation.

Daniel J. Levinson

his research found that 80% of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises and an "age 30 crisis" occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes; found that adult developmental transitions in white-collar and blue-collar men seemed to be relatively universal; subsequent research indicates that his theory of a midlife crisis for men or for women does not really hold water. He also wrote "Seasons of a Man's Life." He suggested three major transitions in a man's life: the first is known as "early adult transition" (age 17-22) where the individual makes decisions about collage, the military, and breaking away from one's parents. A dream of the ideal life is formulated. Next, the "age 30 transition" (ages 28-33) is when a person attempts to make the dream a reality. After this stage, the man experiences a "settling down" period. Next, comes the "midlife transition (ages 40-45). This 'stressful stage' is when the person questions his dream and acknowledges that goals may not be met. Moreover, one's mortality becomes an issue (i.e. being young versus being old).

Strategies that approach the group as a whole are known as

horizontal interventions. Techniques which focus on group relationships, processes, tasks, and interactions are said to be horizontal intervention strategies. The horizontal approach is said to be called the "interpersonal" method since it focuses on interactions. Working with individuals within the group is called a vertical intervention. It has been termed "intrapersonal" leadership. Interpersonal leaders focus on the here and now while the interpersonal leaders are more likely to work on the past, sometimes employing psychodynamic notions.

Stampfl

implosive therapy-imaginal form of flooding where client is asked to imagine their fear.

Caplan's psychodynamic mental health consultation

in which the consultant does not see the client directly, but advises the consultee (i.e., the individual in the organization who is receiving the consultant's services). This model is interesting because it recommends that the consultant--not the counselor/consultee--be ethically and legally responsible for the client's welfare and treatment.

Description of the analysis of covariance technique

it controls for sample differences which exist; it helps to remove confounding, extraneous variables; it statistically eliminates differences in average values influenced by covariates. It helps to eliminate differences between groups which otherwise could not be solely attributed to the experimental IVs. They have an "adjusted average" procedure.

Mann-Whitney U-test/Wilcoxon rank-sum test

it determines whether two uncorrelated means differ significantly when data are nonparametric (the "u" can remind you of "uncorrelated".

EMG Feedback

means electromyogram and is used to measure muscle tension feedback. A person who is tensing a given muscle group, could have an EMG biofeedback device hooked directly to the problem area.

nominal scale

measurement in which numbers are assigned to objects or classes of objects solely for the purpose of identification. It merely classifies, names, labels, or identifies groups. Adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing the aforementioned nominal categories would prove meaningless.

How Berne (Transactional Analysis) view mankind

messages learned about self in childhood determine whether person is good or bad, though intervention can change this script.

injunctions

messages we receive from parents to form the ego states, which causes us to make certain early life decisions.

Dysthymics

might also be called "neurotic depression" or "depressive neurosis"--is a longstanding depressed mood which exists for at least a year in children and adolescents or two years in adults.

A counselor who is part of a research study will be counseling clients at the polar regions and then at a point near the equator. Her primary concern will be:

national and ecological culture. Clemmont Vontress noted that universal culture can be distinguished from national, regional, radio-ethnic, and ecological culture. Ecological culture implies that cultural norms are often the result of practical and survival behaviors related to the climate or the resources in a given physical or geological environment. Eating, drinking, clothing, and shelter behaviors would clearly be different in the polar regions than in the equator, dessert region, or NYC.

The correct order of the Freudian psychosexual stages is:

oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

Albert Ellis

pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET/REBT), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions; teaches clients to think in a more scientific and logical manner.

Joseph Wolpe

pioneered systematic desensitization, a behavioristic technique used to alleviate phobic reactions. It is useful when trying to weaken (i.e. desensitize) a client's response to an anxiety-producing stimuli.

In terms of research and the group leader's personality,

qualities such as flexibility, enthusiasm, and common sense may be helpful to a very small degree.

Concreteness

quality of being specific and of referring to particular things. When used in context of counseling, a directive is merely a suggestion. A client who is having panic attacks is told to practice his jaw for three minutes per day. The counselor here is using concreteness.

equation of coefficient of determination

r^2.

The NCE uses forced choice or so called _________________ items.

recognition. Recognition items give the examinee two or more alternatives.

Counterbalancing

refers to an experimental process in which a researcher varies the order of conditions to eliminate irrelevant variables.

Turner's Syndrome (XO)

short, sterile. caused by nondisjunction, loss of an X chromosome early in embryonic development, deletion of part of one X chromosome; where a female has no gonads or sex hormones.

Lifestyle and career development have been emphasized

since the beginning of the counseling and guidance movement and are still major areas of concern. The guidance movement has often been associated with the work of Frank Parsons who started the Boston Vocation Bureau on January 13, 1908

In contrast with Freud, the neo-Freudians emphasized

social factors. Neo-Freudians such as Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Erich Fromm stressed the importance of cultural (social) issues and, of course, interpersonal (social) relations.

Robert Rosenthal

social psychology; focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students. studied experimenter bias, a researcher's unintended influence on the behavior of subjects

Developmental Psychologists

study of our changing abilities from womb to tomb. They are fond of looking at prenatal influences (e.g. smoking or alcohol consumption) that affect the fetus before birth. Development is a continuous process which begins at conception. Development is cephalocaudal, which means head to foot. The head of the fetus develops earlier that the legs. Cephalocaudal simply refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail.

In Gestalt therapy, unexpressed emotions are known as:

unfinished business.

The group IQ test movement began

with the Army Alpha and Army Beta in World War I.

William McDougall

wrote Intro to Social Psychology, 'hormic psychology' (individual and group behavior is result of inherited tendencies to seek goals); He suggested that individuals in or out of groups are driven by innate, inherited tendencies.

Gerald Corey

wrote extensively on group therapy.

Metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task

Anxiety Treatment for Youth

"Well Established" Txs- Exposure (88%), Cognitive Techniques (62%), Relaxation (54%), Psychoeducation (42%), & Modeling (34%). Overarching goals: (1) Decrease perception of danger/threat; (2) Increase perceived ability to cope. Begin with Problem Solving as a team: a collaborative approach in which we work together to discover and apply new solutions to a particular dilemma (it promotes active learning, client independence, and client confidence). Problem solving steps: Selecting a problem, generating alternative solutions, evaluating these solutions, selecting a solution to implement, evaluating the result, refining the solution if necessary and repeating evaluation and implementation. They tend to underestimate their own abilities, so they will need this support. Implementation: often needs to occur in a series of non-threatening steps: coping modeling by the therapist; hypothetical situations; real situations practiced in the office; real-life implementation. Address logistical and emotional obstacles.

Berkowitz

(1983, 1993) Aversive (painful or unpleasant) stimuli can trigger aggression. He developed the Cognitive neoassociation model of aggressive behavior, which helped us understand instances of aggression that the frustration-aggression hypothesis could not. He discovered that the presence of weapons raises the level of violence as well as the probability that it will occur.

retroflection

(gestalt) The act of turning back onto ourselves something we would like to do (or have done) to someone else.

Parameter

(n.) a determining or characteristic element; a factor that shapes the total outcome; a limit, boundary; numerical summary of a population. Technically a value obtained from a population while a statistic is a value drawn from a sample. A parameter summarizes a characteristic of a population (e.g. the average male's height is 5'11).

Group specialists classify member roles as: task roles, maintenance roles, and self-serving roles.

-A task role (e.g. an information giver or a clarifier) simply helps the group carry out a task. They help solve problems, aid in terms of goal setting and keep the group focused, and are seen as positive. -A maintenance role (e.g. the follower or a n encourager) helps "maintain" or even strengthen group processes. -The self-serving role/individual role is seen as a negative role. They meet their own individual needs at the expense of the group. A person who downright refuses to participate or a person who criticizes or disagrees with others would be an example.

Weaknesses of group counseling

-researchers. cannot pinpoint precisely why groups are effective. -a major limitation to group work is that a group leader can lose control and members could experience emotional harm. -a client may need individual therapy before he can benefit from group work -a client may not be capable of trusting others enough to reveal key material since he fears others may find it unacceptable -the group could become a substitute experience for the real world -the group counselor may not be as effective with the whole group of people as he is with one person in individual treatment. -some clients may feel pressure to replace their personal norms with those of the group -disappointment can set in if the group is not helpful and the person loses faith in treatment without experiencing individual sessions.

A career counselor is using a test for job selection purposes. An acceptable reliability coefficient would be _______ or higher.

.80. Although .70 is generally acceptable for most psychological attributes admissions for jobs, schools, and so on, it should be .80 and some experts will not settle for less than .90.

(Social Cognitive Theory) Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:

1.) Attentional processes: account for the information that is selected for observation in the environment. People might select to observe real-life models or models they encounter via media. 2.) Retention processes: involve remembering the observed information so it can be successfully recalled and reconstructed later. 3.) Production processes: reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned can be applied in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn't mean the observer will replicate the observed action exactly, but that they will modify the behavior to produce a variation that fits the context. 4.) Motivational processes: determine whether or not an observed behavior is performed based on whether that behavior resulted in desired or adverse outcomes from he model. If an observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be more motivated to reproduce it later. However, if a behavior was punished in some way, the observer would be less motivated to reproduce it. Thus, social cognitive theory cautions that people don't perform every behavior they learn through modeling.

Ellen Galinsky's Six Stages of Parenthood

1.) Image-Making Stage: (this occurs during pregnancy) this is the time when prospective parents begin to cull (select from a large quantity; obtain from a variety of sources) through, to form and re-form images of what's to come, of birth and parenthood. They prepare for a change in themselves and in their other important adult relationships. 2.) Nurturing Stage: from birth until the child begins to say "No," somewhere around 18 months to 2 years. Parents compare their images of birth, of their child, and of themselves as parents with their actual experience. They become attached to the baby, and in that attachment, in learning how much and when to give, their conceptions of themselves become blurred and changed, often leading to identity questions: What are my priorities? How much time should I give to the baby and how much to the other aspects of my life? 3.) Authority Stage: approximately from 2 years to 5 years of age. Parents face the task of deciding what kind of authority to be, how rules are set, what the rules are, when they are enforced, and when they are broken. 4.) Interpretive stage: begins in child's preschool years and ends with the approach of adolescence. The child's entrance into kinder/first grade usually prompts parents to review their images of parenthood, to ask themselves how realistic they've been. The task in this stage is interpreting. Parents are concerned with how they are interpreting themselves to their children as well as how they are interpreting and developing their children's self-concepts. Parents are also figuring out how they want to interpret reality, how to answer their children's questions--and what kinds of knowledge, skills, and values to promote. 5.) Interdependent Stage: spans the child's teenage years. The issues that predominated in the Authority Stage rise back into prominence, often requiring new solutions. Parents form a new relationship with their almost-adult child. 6.) Departure Stage: time when the children leave home, is characterized by evaluations. Parents evaluate their images of departure, when and how far away they thought their child would go. They evaluate whether they've achieved the parent/grown child relationship they wanted as well as taking stock of their overall successes and failures.

Erik Erickson's stages of psychosocial development

1.) Trust vs. Mistrust: If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust. 2.) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities. 3.) Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. 4.) Industry vs. Inferiority: Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior. 5.) Identity vs. Confusion: Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. 6.) Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel social isolated. 7.) Generativity vs. Stagnation: the middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. 8.) Integrity vs. Despair: when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.

Francis Galton

1822-1911; Field: differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; Studies: Twin Studies-compare identical & fraternal twins, Hereditary Genius-used bell curve for normal distribution, & "Law of Errors"-differences in intellectual ability. *He did research and concluded that intelligence was normally distributed like height or weight and that it was primarily genetic. He felt that intelligence was a single or so-called unitary factor.

Charles Spearman

1863-1945; Field: intelligence; Contributions: found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability) and a specific ability 'S' (the two factor theory) which were thought to be applicable to any mental task. He felt intelligence was best explained via a two factor theory.

Carol Gilligan

1936-pres; Field: cognition; Contributions: maintained that Köhlberg's work was developed by only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgments of boys and girls; girls focus more on relationships than laws and principles. She felt that Kohlberg's theory did not delineate the fact that women place more emphasis on care-giving and personal responsibility than to men.

The DOT or Dictionary of Occupational Titles lists more than

28,000 job titles. The Occupational Information Network O-NET is a new automated replacement for the DOT. Each job is given a 9 digit code. The first 3 digits designate the occupational category and divisions, middle 3 describe tasks in relation to data, people, and things respectively. Last 3 help alphabetize the titles. It was first published by the Department of Labor in 1939. There are 9 occupational categories: 0/1: Professional, Technical, and Managerial Careers. 2. Clerical and Sales, 3. Service, 4. Agricultural, 5. Processing, 6. Machine Trade, 7. Bench Work, 8. Structural Work, 9. Miscellaneous.

The same test is given to the same group of people using the test-retest reliability method. The correlation between the first and second administration is .70. The true variance (i.e., the percentage of shared variance or the level of the same thing measured in both) is

49%. To demonstrate the variance of one factor accounted for by another you merely square the correlation (i.e. reliability coefficient). So .70 x .70 = .49. .49 x 100 = 49%. This can be considered as coefficient of determination.

Kuder-Richardson coefficients of equivalence

A counselor is told to measure the internal consistency reliability (i.e. homogeneity)of a test but not to divide the test in halves. The counselor would need to utilize this. Internal consistency or homogeneity of items is also known as "inter-item consistency." It is often denoted on exams as KR-20 or KR-21 formulas.

Irvin Yalom

A leading figure in contemporary group therapy, especially the interpersonal approach; and existentialism. Existential psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how people come to terms with the basic givens of human existence. The existential perspective has important roots in philosophy, which has long tried to make sense of people's being in the world. A well known existentialist and group theorist who pointed out that structured exercises can create a situation where group stages are passed over and purges feelings too rapidly when members are not emotionally equipped to handle this. It can also make the members rely too much on the guidance and direction of the leader. He suggested four group stages: orientation, conflict, cohesion, and termination.

What is an emancipated minor?

A minor who has proven to the court that they can legally sustain themselves without the help of their parents. They must be 14 years of age or older, received petition from county court, willingly living apart from parents, financially independent, and parents agree to the petition. Also if there is a valid marriage, or active military service. There is an emergency or crisis. This is the exception of when a minor can be treated in therapy without parental consent. "Mature Minor" is a minor who can consent to outpatient Tx if the following are met: 12 years of age or older and mature enough to participate meaningfully in Tx. Another exception is it was a court-ordered treatment.

systematic sampling

A procedure in which the selected sampling units are spaced regularly throughout the population; that is, every n'th unit is selected. Say you have a list of 10,000 folks. You want 1,000 in your study. You pick the first person between one and 10 at random and then use every 10th person. According to statisticians your results will be virtually the same as if you used good old random sampling.

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

A quasi-scientific set of suppositions and procedures with aims that include understanding and relating to people accurately. It is a pseudoscientific approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created by Richard Bandler and John Grinder. NLP's creators claim there is a connection between neurological processes (neuro-), language (linguistic) and behavioral patterns learned through experience (programming), and that these can be changed to achieve specific goals in life.

predictive validity

Also known as empirical validity. The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. Criterion validity could be "concurrent" or "predictive."

Donald D. Jackson

American psychiatrist best known for his pioneering work in family therapy. Studied under Sullivan. From 1953 - 1962, he worked with Gregory Bateson, John Weakland, Jay Haley, and William Fry developing thinking in the areas of family therapy, brief therapy, systems theory and communication theory. One of the results of this research was the development of the double bind theory of schizophrenia: a proposal that schizophrenic symptoms are an expression of social interactions in which the individual is repeatedly exposed to conflicting injections, without having the opportunity to adequately respond to those injunctions, or to ignore them (i.e. to escape the field).

basic research vs. applied research

Applied research is research that seeks to answer a question in the real world and to solve a problem. It is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories can be used in terms of practical application. Basic research is research that fills in the knowledge we don't have; it tries to learn things that aren't always directly applicable or useful immediately.

What does NLP stand for? And what is it?

Bandler and Grinder's Neurolinguistic Programming. Techniques focus on "reframing" and "anchoring." Reframing: counselor helps the client to perceive a given situation in a new light so as to produce a new emotional reaction to it (e.g. a glass of water is not half empty, it is half full). Anchoring: a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus such as a touch or a sound or a specific bodily motion. This program emphasizes the importance of eye movements in determining a person's "representational system" for storing information, such as hearing, seeing, or feeling.

A counselor who fears the client has organic, neurological, or motor difficulty would most likely use the

Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test because it is an expressive projective measure, though first and foremost it is known for its ability to discern whether brain damage is evident. Suitable for ages 4 and up, the client is instructed to copy nine geometric figures which the client can look at while constructing his drawing.

William McDougall and E.H. Ross

Both published the first textbooks in social psychology. McDougall wrote Introduction to Social Psychology, which expounded on his "hormic psychology" position that individual as well as group behavior is the result of inherited tendencies to seek goals. Ross authored Social Psychology.

On exams, sometimes they may refer the CS, and the UCS to what?

CS-'neutral stimulus' UCS-"reinforcing" or "charged stimulus"

What is the CACG?

Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems: a term used to describe a computer application that combines career assessment, career information, and career guidance into one integrated system.

Child Assessment

Cover a broad range of symptoms, potential problems, or disorders. Assess functioning across multiple domains: (1) mood/emotional functioning, (2) behavior, (3) family relations, (4) academic functioning, (5) social/peer relations, (6) recreation/leisure time activities. Treatment planning: develop a hierarchy of treatment issues based on your case formulation--behavioral deficits/excesses, cognitive deficits, psychodynamic issues, family issues, academic issues.

Robert Williams

Created the Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity (BITCH) to demonstrate that blacks are smart when given tests with info they are familiar with.

What does DLOS stand for?

Degree Learning Outcomes (DLOS) in a program assessment that includes three areas: Knowledge, Professional Skills, and Personal Attributes.

How Freud (psychoanalysis) view mankind

Deterministic; people are controlled by biological instincts; are unsocialized, irrational; driven by unconscious forces.

ERIC

Educational Resources Information Center, bank of scholarly literature and resources, 1.2mil citations, to help you complete your literature search before you begin writing.

transactional analysis (TA) and the 3 ego states

Eric Berne developed Transactional Analysis, where he defined a transaction as the fundamental unit of social interaction. We can observe what people do and say to themselves and to other people and the resulting effects of each individual act. (Intrapersonal vs. Interpersonal interactions). Transactional Analysis is basically the study of how people take on certain behaviors, either by accident or from their early caretakers or authority figures and then continue to play them out in their adult lives. It is a model for people to use to work towards 'autonomy.' An ego state for Berne is a system of feelings accompanied by related set of behavior patterns. The 3 Ego States: The Parent Ego state: contains the attitudes and behaviors that are observed and copied from the individual's caretakers/figures. The 'should' and 'oughts' of life. The Adult Ego State: it is concerned primarily with appraising facts, reasoning, thinking, evaluating and responding to available data. The Child Ego State: People who spend a lot of time operating from a child ego state usually are acting as they did when they were a child. Activated feelings are usually the executive energy force. Transactional analysis can be used to address one's interactions and communications with the purpose of establishing and reinforcing the idea that each individual is valuable and has the capacity for positive change and personal growth. Eric Berne's most popular books are 'Games People Play' and 'What do you say after you say hello?' TA therapists are most likely to incorporate Gestalt Therapy in the treatment process, because it is considered experiential. It asserts that healthy communication transactions occur when vectors of communication run parallel.

How Frankl (Logotherapy) view mankind

Existential view is that humans are good, rational, and retain freedom of choice.

Carl Whitaker

Experiential Family Therapy: Stated the belief that in order to effect the change a family needs, the therapist must engage the family on a deep and personal level. He often used very confrontational techniques including argument, teasing, yelling, and approaches designed to produce tension and stress, which he believed where necessary for change. He acknowledged the role of the entire family. His humanistic approach focused on getting at the heart of the feelings experienced by all members of a family. He aimed to stir things up in therapy sessions and allow family members to express themselves more fully. The Family Crucible. He developed the practice of co-therapy. Experiential therapy is a technique that uses expressive tools and activities, such as role-playing or acting, props, arts and crafts, music, animal care, guided imagery, or various forms of recreation to re-enact and re-experience emotional situations from past and recent relationships.

Fritz Perls

Father of Gestalt therapy Awareness and endurance of unwanted emotions is considered to a major curative ingredient. He saw the "top dog" as the Critical Parent portion of the personality which is very authoritarian and quick to use "shoulds" and "oughts." The "underdog" was seen as weak, powerless, passive, and full of excuses. These splits in the personality would wage civil war within the individual. He uses the empty chair technique. Gestalt Therapy focuses on the here and now, therefore a counselor would urge a client to 'stay with the feeling.' Everything in the client's dream is considered a projection of the self. This model emphasizes experiences rather than interpretation. In Gestalt, "what" questions are more valuable than "why." And then after the question, the therapist will ask the client to exaggerate that behavior/action. The goal is to eliminate "it talk" and replace it with "I statements." It focuses on awareness in the here and now by incorporating psychodrama-that incorporates role-playing into the treatment process. Because Gestalt therapy is generally confrontational, the relationship a client has with their therapist would most likely progress slower.

Platykurtic distribution

Flatter and more spread out than a normal curve. (Memory: 'Plat' sounds like 'flat'). A less peaked distribution that indicates that more returns with large deviations from the mean have occurred, or are expected to occur, than with a normal distribution. (Plat is Flat).

The United States Employment Service created the

GATB (General Aptitude Test Battery) is the test utilized by state employment security offices, Veterans Administration hospitals, and related government agencies. The battery measures 12 job-related aptitudes including intelligence/general learning ability, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude, spatial aptitude, clerical perception, form perception, motor coordination, manual dexterity, and finger dexterity.

Zimbardo Prison Study

Half of the subjects were assigned to be guards, Half of the subjects were assigned to be prisoners, "pretend became real", Prisoners acted like prisoners - Had to stay in prison 24/7, Had nervous break downs; Gaurds began to crack down - 1/3 became abusive, Could leave after their shifts; Study had to be terminated after 6 days. Zimbardo and his colleagues (1973) were interested in finding out whether the brutality reported among guards in American prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards (i.e., dispositional) or had more to do with the prison environment (i.e., situational). Zimbardo also believed that when individuals lose their identity (sometimes called "deindividuation") they are likely to become aggressive and/or violent.

Arnold Lazarus

He is a known behavioral therapist who worked specifically with methods of desensitization and phobias. He is most associated with Multimodal Therapy. BASIC-ID is an acronym where Lazarus feels his approach to counseling is multimodal, relying on a variety of therapeutic techniques; it stands for: Behavior, Affective Responses, Sensations, Imagery, Cognitions, Interpersonal relationships, and Drugs.

Balance Theory

Heider's theory holding that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, cognitions, and sentiments

Hoppock's theory is based on the work of ______ and is a personality approach like Holland's.

Henry Murray. Henry Murray created the "needs-press" theory and the TAT (along with Christina Morgan) projective test. The occupation is used to meet a person's current need.

Lev Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

His cultural-historical theory of cognitive development is focused on the role of culture in the development of higher mental functions, such as speech and reasoning in children. His theory is sometimes referred to as having a sociocultural perspective, which means the theory emphasizes the importance of society and culture for promoting cognitive development. He believed that adults in a society foster children's cognitive development in an intentional and systematic manner by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities. Culture serves as a mediator for the formation and development of specific abilities, such as learning, memory, attention, and problem solving. There are two terms that Vygotsky was known for: The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) refers to someone who has a better understanding or higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. And the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions. Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies.

What is Bracketing?

In professional and personal values, it is managing personal values so they do not contaminate the counseling process. It is setting aside personal values that are not in life with the legitimate counseling goals of the client.

Eclecticism

In psychotherapy, drawing ideas from two or more systems of therapy instead of committing to just one system. Multicultural counseling promotes this, because counselors needs to be flexible. It is most closely associated to Frederick C. Thorne, as he preferred the term "psychological case handling."

Alfred Adler

Individual Psychology. Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" (where many neurotic symptoms could be traced to overcompensation for this feeling; if you are a healthy well-being you will be using senses of inferiority for opportunities to grow and challenge self) and stressed the importance of birth order. He is the father of individual psychology. Inferiority Complex is an acute feeling of inferiority that can result in extreme shyness or aggressiveness as compensation for these feelings. Organ Inferiority: the sense of being deficient or somehow less than others as a result of negative feelings about any type of real or imagined abnormality of organfunction or structure. Adler concludes that it is the "striving for superiority" or a thirst for perfection that motivates behavior. Note: The drive for superiority did not imply that the person wanted to dominate others or become a political figure or one of the ruling class. Adler believed that, "Sibling interaction may have more impact than parent/child interaction." He emphasized that people wish to belong (social connectedness). He was one of therapists who relied on paradox, which is a strategy that often seems to defy logic as the client is instructed to intensify or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior (e.g. a student who is afraid he might shake in front of the class during his speech, he will then be instructed to exaggerate the behavior and really do thorough job shaking in front of the class). Lifestyle, birth order, and family constellation are emphasized by him. Adlerians believe that our life-style is a predictable self-fulfilling prophecy based on our psychological feelings about ourselves. His work has been classified as a preface to the group movement, because he stated, "man's problems and conflicts are recognized in their social nature."

How Rogers (Person-Centered) view mankind

Individual is good and moves toward growth and self-actualization. Man is positive when he develops in a warm, accepting, trusting environment.

What does ISVD stand for?

Information System for Vocational Decisions is a process whereby data about educational, military, and vocational opportunities are turned by each inquirer into information about a personality-determined career. It is a computer-based career guidance program.

Maxie C. Maultsby Jr.

Is the father of rational behavior therapy (RBT). This therapy works well with multicultural populations and groups. In group work the counselor has a didactic or a teaching role in which participants are taught to apply the techniques to their own life. The leader encourages equal group participation for all members and gives reading assignments (i.e. bibliotherapy) between sessions. It is similar to REBT but emphasizes a written self-analysis. This model is highly directive. RBT, like REBT, utilizes rational-emotive imagery

What is the American Counseling Association?

It is a non-profit organization that strives to support professional counselors and grow and strengthen the field of counseling. It is the largest professional association of counselors in the world.

What is Johari's window model?

It is necessary to improve self-awareness and personal development among individuals when they are in a group. American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed this model in 1955. The 'Johari' window model is a convenient method used to achieve this task of understanding and enhancing communication between the members in a group. It is used to enhance the individual's perception on others. This model is based on 2 ideas--trust can be acquired by revealing information about you to others and learning yourselves from their feedbacks. Each four window panes signifies personal information, feelings, motivation and whether that information is known or unknown to oneself or others in four viewpoints. 'Feedback solicitation' is a process which occurs by understanding and listening to the feedback from another person.

Carkhuff's 'scale for measurement' levels for counseling skills

It rates the counselor from 1 to 5. The higher the rating, the better the counselor is facilitating client growth. It is considered as the Empathy Rating Scale. Gazda also suggested a "Global Scale for Rating Helper responses." They both look at empathy and counselor effectiveness.

Attachment Theory

John Bowlby asserted that much of child development is based on the innate need of children to form attachments. These attachments may involve any number of people, places, or things and ultimately have a substantial effect on onward development patterns throughout life. He created the sequence of object loss which goes from protest to despair to detachment. In psychoanalysis, the term "object" describes the target of one's love. Bowlby felt that if the child was unable to bond with an adult by the age three he or she would be incapable of having normal social relationships as an adult.

The terms "introversion" and "extroversion" are associated with what theorist?

Jung. Introversion meant a turning in of the libido. Thus, an introverted individual is his or her primary source of pleasure. Such a person will generally shy away from social situations of possible. Extroversion, on the other hand, is the tendency to find satisfaction and pleasure in other people. The extrovert seeks external rewards.

MCAT

Medical College Admission Test. The MCAT is required for admission to most medical schools.

Milton Erickson

Much of his contributions were centered on the idea that resistance to change was a key obstacle to success in therapy. He specialized in medical hypnosis and family therapy. He is noted for his approach to the unconscious mind as creative and solution-generating. Through conceptualizing the unconscious as highly separate from the conscious mind, with its own awareness, interests, responses, and learnings, he taught that the unconscious mind was creative, solution-generating, and often positive. He developed an extensive use of therapeutic metaphor and story as well as hypnosis and coined the term brief therapy for his method of addressing therapeutic change in relatively few sessions.

Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect

Of several responses made in a situation, those followed by a pleasant outcome will increase in occurrence, whereas those followed by an unpleasant outcome will decrease in occurrence. The Law of Effect is also known as "trial and error learning." Here is an important point: Practice per se does not ensure effective learning. The practice must yield a reward.

Ethology

Often associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz, refers to the study of animals' behavior in their natural environment. The term "comparative psychology" refers to laboratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans. Konrad Lorenz is best known for "imprinting," when an infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters. This illustrates the principle of "critical periods," which states that certain behaviors must be learned at an early time in the animal's development. Lorenz also developed the theory that certain tropical fish will attack an alternate target even when the actual target of aggression is removed, therefore he is a believer in the so-called, "innate aggression theory."

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Outlined layers of environment that affect a child's development, such as the child's own biology, family/community environment, and society.

How Perls (Gestalt) view mankind

People are not good or bad. People have the capacity to govern life effectively as "whole." People are part of their environment and must be viewed as such.

How Ellis (Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy) view mankind

People have a cultural/biological propensity to think in a disturbed manner but can be taught to use their capacity to react differently.

How Bandura (Neo-behavioristic) view mankind

Person produces and is a product of conditioning.

Wolfgang Kohler and the chimps

Put forward the result of the theory of insight learning, with the use of chimps and how they have learned to stack up boxes to reach the bananas in the ceiling.

Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of

R.A. Fisher. An hypothesis is a statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.

Organismic psychologists

Rejects distinction between mind and body, because it emphasizes the total organism. It embraces a molar approach that takes account the interaction between the orgasm and its environment. They believe that change can be internal. They feel that individual's actions are more important than the environment in terms of one's development.

John Crites

Researched the phenomenon of "career maturity" or "vocational maturity." He is well known for his Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) that measures attitudes and competencies related to the career choice process.

What are some Computer Assisted Career Guidance Systems (CAGG) or Computer-based Career Information Systems (CBICISs)?

SIGI Plus, Choices, and Discover.

John Holland

Self-Directed Search (SDS)(1970) to measure the six personality types- most popular approach to career choice; Individuals cycle and recycle through the developmental stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. He stressed that a person's occupational environment should be congruent to his or her personality type. The Strong Interest Inventory (SCII) is based on his theory (developed by E.K. Strong Jr. in 1927). Holland's hexagon model depicts the 6 personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social. enterprising, conventional.

Jean Piaget's 4 stages of development & his fun facts

Sensorimotor: During this stage, infants are only aware of what is in front of them. They focus on what they see, on what they are doing, and physical interactions with their immediate environment. They are learning about the world through trial and error. They still have not developed object permanence. Preoperational Stage: young children (age 2 - 7) are able to think about things symbolically. It includes the acquisition of symbolic schema. Symbolic mental processes allow language and symbolism in play to occur. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future, and can engage in make-believe. A milk carton can easily become a spaceship or a pie plate can become the steering wheel of an automobile. Animistic: a child attributes human characteristics to inanimate objects. Thus, a child may fantasize that an automobile or a rock is talking to him. However, they still cannot grasp cause and effect. Concrete Operational: children start to demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning (ages 7-11). They become less egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others or may not even be part of reality. Formal Operational: Children can think abstractly and hypothetically. They are able to use symbols related to abstract concepts; they can think about multiple variables in systematic ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. Problems can also be solved using deductions. He felt that a large number of individuals never really reach this stage. The child can think in terms of multiple hypothesis. Piaget felt that when the child finally reached final stage, they would be ready for adulthood and would not experience childlike feelings of helplessness. *Piaget felt that teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation. A child also learns more from their interactions and communications with peers rather than adults.

Rollo May

Shared with humanists the belief in free will and freedom of choice but also emphasized loneliness, anxiety, and alienation; Introduced existentialism in the U.S.

SPSS

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. One of several statistical software packages used in the social sciences, to crunch in statistics in a computer.

Jay Haley

Strategic Family Therapy: His work includes strategic and problem solving therapy; often uses paradox. It is any type of therapy where the therapist initiates what happens during therapy and designs a particular approach for each problem. It is the types of therapy where the therapist takes responsibility for directly influencing people.

Salvador Minuchin

Structural Family Therapy: uses joining, enactment, boundary making, and mimesis techniques. This therapy addresses problems within a family by charting the relationships between family members, or between subsets of family. These charts represent power dynamics as well as the boundaries between different subsystems. The therapist tries to disrupt dysfunctional relationships within the family, and cause them to settle back into a healthier pattern. Subsystems can include: role, gender, generation, etc. Some factors that affect family are factors with larger systems, large transitions in life

What does SIGI stand for?

System of Interactive Guidance and Information that is a computer-assisted career guidance system for university students and adults. It is a computer program designed to help people make informed career decisions via self-assessments and in depth, current educational and job information.

Synthetic validity

Test that validly test different components are combined into one test to test a multi-dimensional idea. A method of testing the validity of a selection procedure by combining jobs that require similar abilities and by separately validating the specific predictors intended to measure those abilities. The researcher looks for tests that have been shown to predict each job element or component (e.g. typing, filing, etc.).

Freud's theory speaks of Eros and Thanatos. A client who threatens a self-destructive act is being ruled primarily by

Thanatos (the Greek word for death).

Which journal publishes more counseling research articles than any other periodical in our field?

The American Psychological Association's Journal of Counseling Psychology

What does GOE stand for in career development?

The Guide for Occupational Exploration that consists of 12 interest areas that clients can lean towards.

NASW

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW -established in 1955) is a professional organization of social workers in the United States. The NASW provides guidance, research, up to date information, advocacy, and other resources for its members and for social workers in general.

The Child ego state is like the little kid within. The Child may manifest itself in three different ways: (structural analysis)

The Natural Child: this is what the person would be naturally; spontaneous, impulsive, and untrained. The Little Professor: is creative and intuitive. Acts on hunches, often without the necessary information. The Adapted Child: learns how to comply to avoid a parental slap on the hand.

WPPSI-R

The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence is suitable for children ages 3 to 7 years, three months.

The three key terms in the field of career counseling: the contrast effect, the compensatory effect, and spillover.

The contrast effect: it refers to a heightened sense of expectation based from previous stimuli. Like if a very good interviewer interviews after a lot of bad ones, they are more likely to get the job. The compensatory effect: suggests that a worker compensates or makes up for things he can't do on the job. Thus, a librarian who must be quiet from 8 to 5 may go out after work and be loud. They can compensate for poor job satisfaction by excelling in his or her activities outside of work. Spillover: the individual's work spills over into his time off the job. The person engages in activities similar to work during periods of leisure.

content validity

The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover.

William Glasser

The developer of reality therapy and choice theory. His ideas, focus on personal choice, personal responsibility and personal transformation. Reality Therapy has incorporated control theory, later referred to as choice theory. Reality Therapy often uses the abbreviation BCP, which means that perception controls our behavior. According to choice/control theory, our behavior is our best attempt to control our world to satisfy our wants and needs. His position on mental illness is that diagnostic levels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible. His theory was popularized in educational circles after he wrote 'Schools Without Failure.' He also authored 'Choice Theory' and 'Positive Addiction.' His Choice Theory are about pictures in your mind. Glasser insists that behavior is internally motivated and we choose our actions.

Bergland's 6 Steps of Decision Making about a problem

The first step is defining the problem and the final step consists of implementation and plan evaluation. 1.) problem is defined 2.)alternatives are generated 3.) information is gathered 4.) information is processed 5.) plans are made and goals selected 6.) plans are implemented and evaluated.

Maturationist Theory

The maturational viewpoint utilizes the plant growth analogy, in which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development. They allow clients to work through early conflicts. They allow the client to work through the old painful material. Theoretically, the counselor acts almost like a perfect nonjudgmental parent. Psychoanalysts and psychodynamic therapists fall into this category. Gessell's Maturational Theory states that while the child's social and cultural environments also play a role in their development, these socializing forces are most effective when they are harmonious with the inner maturational timetable.

Phenomenology vs. ontology

The study of individuals' own unique, first-person, conscious experience, which refers to the client's internal personal experience of events. Whereas, ontology is the philosophy of being and existing. It is the metaphysical study of life experience.

Arnold Lazarus's concept of BASIC ID (multimodal approach) (with Joseph Wolpe)

There are 7 key modalities or areas of the client's functioning: B= behaviors, such as acts, habits, and reactions. A= affective responses such as emotions, feelings, and mood S= sensations, including hearing, touch, sight, smell, and taste I=images/the way we perceive ourselves, including memories and dreams C=cognitions such as our thoughts, insights, and even our philosophy of life I=interpersonal relationships (i.e., the way we interact with each other); AND D=drugs, that would include alcohol. legal, illegal, and prescription drug usage, diet and nutritional supplementation.

How Williamson (Trait-factor) view mankind

Through education and scientific data, man can become himself. Humans are born with potential for good or evil. Others are needed to help unleash positive potential. Man is mainly rational, not intuitive. His work purports to be scientific and didactic, utilizing test data from instruments like the 'Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales.' These scales are designed to enhance the actuarial approach to career choice

Cross validation

Verifying the results obtained from a validation study by administering a test or test battery to a different sample (drawn from the same population). This procedure is necessary to ensure that the original validity method helps guard against error factors. In most cases, a cross validation is indeed smaller than the initial validity coefficient. This phenomenon is called "shrink-age."

What is the present status of HIV and AIDS with regard to Tarasoff and duty to warn?

When a person in therapy admits to sexual engagement and they have HIV or AIDS, this is something that we should address in treatment. It is not our duty to warn, that is the physician's job. Tarasoff = when a patient tells you that they are going to harm a third party.

C.G. Jung

Who stressed the importance of archetypes in the working of the "collective unconscious"? The material that makes up the collective unconscious, which is passed from generation to generation, is known as archetypes (a primal universal symbol). His is the father of analytic psychology. The anima represents the female characteristics of the personality while the animus represents the male characteristics. Jung calls the anima and animus, "archetypes," which are inherited unconscious factors. He is the founder of Analytic Psychology. Eros refers to intuition while logos refers to logic. He said men operate in logos while women operate in Eros. He is the founder of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the most widely used measure of personality preferences and dispositions. It yields a 4 letter code, or "type," based on four bipolar scales. The bipolar preference scales are extroversion/introversion; sensing (i.e., current perception); thinking/feeling; and judging (i.e. organizing and controlling the outside world)/perceiving (i.e., observing events). Another term that he coined was "the collective unconscious," which implies that all humans have "collected" universal inherited unconscious neural patterns.

John Krumboltz

Whose Social Learning theory of Career Counseling proposes 4 determinants of career: genetics, environment, learning, task approach skills. He felt that interests are the result of "learning," such that changes in interests can be "learned." Thus, actual exposure to a wide range of work settings (i.e. site visits) is highly desirable). Based on principles of Bandura's social learning theory. Reinforcement, cognitive information processing and classical behaviorism. Career Beliefs Inventory (1988)- faulty beliefs impeding career development process "planned happenstance"; indecisiveness is desirable and clients can learn from unplanned events. Occupational indecisiveness is seen as an indication of an information deficit rather than a lack of career maturity. It is a behavioristic model of career development.

rational-emotive therapy

a cognitive therapy developed by Albert Ellis that helps clients identify and change the irrational assumptions and thinking that help cause their psychological disorder. It is a technique used by Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapists in which the client is to imagine that he or she is in a situation that has traditionally caused emotional disturbance. The client then imagines changing the feelings via. rational, logical, scientific thought.

ego state analysis

a common practice in transactional analysis in which the counselor helps the client discern out of which ego state (i.e., parent, child, or adult) he or she is primarily operating in a given situation

Down Syndrome

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21; genetic factors cause Down syndrome; it is a result of chromosomal abnormality that causes brain damage which results in an IQ of 50 or less (100 being normal)

Affective Counseling Theory

a counselor focuses primarily on emotions, or a person's affect. The idea that a person can be healed of mental health ailments by focusing on their emotions and taking responsibility for their feelings. The goal is to help the client reach their full potential (moving towards self-actualization).

sociogram

a diagram that represents relationships within a group, especially likes and dislikes of members for other members; a graphic representation of the interactions within the group; a pictorial account of a group which serves to diagram member interaction.

family sculpturing

a family therapy technique in which the family members are instructed to arrange themselves spatially to create a live representation of family members' bonds, feelings of closeness (or lack of it), and sense of alliances

Gaussian curve

a graph plotting the distribution of values around the mean; normal frequency curve. It looks like a symmetrical bell.

The interrogator in the group

a group member who insists on asking other members inappropriate questions, who is known as the Pepping Tom. He asks a never-ending string of questions, while the "follower" goes along with the rest of the group.

A test battery is considered

a horizontal test. In testing, a vertical test would have versions for various age brackets or levels of education (e.g. a math achievement test for pre-schoolers and a version for middle-school children). A horizontal test measures various factors (e.g. math and science) during the same testing procedure.

Two-way ANOVA

a hypothesis test that includes two nominal independent variables, regardless of their numbers of levels, and a scale dependent variable (Gender::Age::Test Score)

entropy

a measure of the disorder of a system; a popular family therapy family systems theory term that means that dysfunctional families are either too open or too closed. The healthy family is said to be in a balanced state known as negative entropy.

Bogardus Social Distance Scale

a measurement technique for determining the willingness of people to participate in social relations - of varying degrees of closeness - with other kinds of people. It is a psychological testing scale created by Emory S. Bogardus to empirically measure people's willingness to participate in social contacts of varying degrees of closeness with members of diverse social groups, such as racial and ethnic groups. Ethnicity can be defined as that which pertains to a large group of individuals who are categorized by racial, national, religious, linguistic, or cultural attributes.

Process consultation

a meeting in which a consultant assists a client in understanding process events with which he or she must deal and identifying processes that need improvement; the focus is not on the content of the problem, but rather the process used to solve the problems.

One distinct disadvantage of an open group is that

a member who begins after the first meeting has missed information or experiences

Reality Therapy

a method of analysis developed by Glasser to help clients focus on the present rather than past experiences; treatment that emphasizes responsibility for consequences. The relationship that the therapist has with the client in Reality Therapy is like that of a friend who asks what is wrong; the therapist literally makes friends with the client. Glasser created eight steps in the Reality Therapy: - Build a good relationship. - Examine the current behavior. - Evaluate behavior-helpful or not? - Brainstorm alternatives. - Commit to new plan. - Evaluate results-no punish/excuses. - Accept logical & natural consequences. - Don't get discouraged; be persistent and never give up (even when the client wants to give up, the therapist does not).

A reliability coefficient of 1.00 indicates

a perfect score with no error (generally only occurs in physical measurement).

Existentialism

a philosophical theory or approach that emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will. It is considered a humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his or her life by doing a deed (e.g. an accomplishment), experiencing a value (e.g. love), or suffering (e.g. Frankl discovered that even being held hostage in a concentration camp could not take away his dignity). It rejects analysis and behaviorism for being deterministic and reductionistic. The existential viewpoint developed as a reaction to the analytic and behavioral schools and stresses growth and self-actualization.

Value Neutrality

a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results. This is impossible because personal values influence clients. You need to inform clients of areas in which you think you cannot be neutral; your task is not to approve or disapprove of clients' values but to help them explore and clarify their beliefs.

Sensate Focus

a process of touching and communication used to enhance sexual pleasure and to reduce performance pressure; it is a form of behavioral sex therapy. It is developed by William Masters and Virginia Johnson, in which a couple is told to engage in touching and caressing (to lower anxiety levels) on a graduated basis until intercourse is possible.

A word association test would be an example of

a projective test. Although it is rare, some tests and exams take issue with the archaic word "projective" and refer to such as "self-expressive."

ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Childhood onset: several inattentive or HA-IMP sxs present prior to age 12. So if individuals do not have the early onset then you are not diagnosing them with ADHD. There are multiple causes for ADHD (like being exposed to alcohol in the womb). Structural differences: Overall brain volume and certain structures (e.g. prefrontal cortex) both smaller; delayed maturation of frontal lobe regions. Functional Differences: lower activity in the prefrontal area ("brain activation deficits"). Different causes: Genetic, environmental (maternal smoking/drinking, pre-natal insult or injury, low birth weight), genetic and environmental influences may interact, or neurotransmitter dysfunctions. What does NOT cause ADHD? Family environment factors or purely social factors. Symptoms naturally change over time, but those with ADHD tend to remain different from age-mates. It is typically a chronic disorder where symptoms persist into adolescence (70-80%) and adulthood (50-60%). Best form of treatment: Multimodal Treatment medication in combination with Behavior Modification/Behavior Therapy (Behavioral parent training, interventions in the classroom, peer interventions, & Organizational Training).

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control. Fluid intelligence is inherited neurological that decreases with age and is not very dependent on culture. It is tested by what is called "content-free reasoning" such as block design or a pictorial analogy problem. Crystallized intelligence is from experiential, cultural, and educational interaction. It is measured by tests that focus on content.

ratio scale

a quantitative scale of measurement in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "nothing"

interval scale

a scale of measurement in which the intervals between numbers on the scale are all equal in size, but has no absolute zero point. Does not apply to IQ, because a 0 on an IQ does not mean no knowledge; so like the temperature.

ordinal scale

a scale of measurement in which the measurement categories form a rank order along a continuum. Parametric tests rely strictly on interval and ratio data, while nonparametric tests are designed only for nominal or ordinal information. IQ tests provide ordinal measurement.

Caste System

a set of rigid social categories that determined not only a person's occupation and economic potential, but also his or her position in society. It implies that there are fixed layers of superiority and inferiority which you are born into and cannot escape.

Group therapy initially flourished in the U.S. due to

a shortage of individual therapists during World War II.

equivalent or alternate forms reliability

a single group of examinees takes parallel forms of a test and a reliability correlation coefficient is figured on the 2 sets of scores. Like the same population takes alternate forms of the identical test. That is to say, half of the individuals get parallel form A first and half get form B initially. This controls for variables such as fatigue, practice, and motivation.

Group specialists define role conflict as

a situation in which there is a discrepancy between the way a member is expected to behave and the way he or she actually behaves. Don't confuse "role conflict" with the group term "conflict of interest," which occurs when a group member maximizes his or her needs and interests at the expense of someone else.

Pearson's r

a statistic that measures the direction and strength of the linear relation between two variables that have been measured on an interval or ratio scale. Pearson r, the most common correlation coefficient, uses I and R (interval and ratio data) as in "information and referral."

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

Factor Analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. Hence, a test which measures a counselor's ability may try to describe the three most important variables (factors) which make an effective helper.

multivariate design

a study designed to test an association involving more than two measured variables. If more than two variables are under scrutiny, then the term "multivariate" is used to describe the correlational paradigm.

factorial design

a study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors.

Applied Behavior Analysis

a technique used to modify maladaptive behaviors by reinforcing new behaviors through shaping. It applies the principles of reinforcement and punishment to learning. It addresses a client's problem by changing what occurs before a behavior and changing the result of the behavior.

Eidetic Imagery

a term in child psychology, which is usually gone by the time the child reaches adolescence--is the ability to remember the most minute details of a scene or a picture for an extended period of time. Lay persons will say that such a child has a "photographic memory."

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

a test according to Carl Jung's personality types in an attempt to figure out one's personality. Tests and inventories like the 16 PF that analyze data outside of a given theory are called factor-analytics tests or inventories rather than theory-based tests.

John Henry Effect (also known as 'compensatory rivalry of a comparison group')

a threat to internal validity of an experiment that occurs when subjects strive to prove that an experimental treatment that could threaten their livelihood really isn't all that effective.

In 1973, Prediger, Roth, and North conducted a nationwide study of career development and its relationship to students. The study, which involved over 28,000 students, revealed that

a very high proportion of students in high school and at junior high or middle-school level wanted guidance in planning a career.

In social psychology, the sleeper effect asserts that

after a period of time, one forgets the communicator but remembers the message. The so-called sleeper effect asserts that when you are attempting to change someone's opinion the change may not occur immediately after the verbal exchange. In other words, when a counselor provides guidance to a client a delay may occur before the client accepts the message. The communication may have more impact after some time has passed.

The word "personalism" in the context of multicultural counseling means

all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands. Culture must mold itself such that individuals can best thrive and survive in a given environment. Personalism implies that the counselor will make the best progress if he or she sees the client primarily as a person who has learned a set of survival skills rather than a diseased patient.

Social-Cognitive Theory

an approach that considers the effect of a continuous interaction between the environment, personal factors, and individual behavior. Albert Bandura (with the Bobo Doll example) named his theory the Social Cognitive Theory in order to put greater emphasis on the cognitive components of observational learning and the way behavior, cognition, and the environment interact to shape people.

In terms of group risks

an ethical leader will discuss them during the initial session with a client. This practice is specified in ASGW's Ethical Guidelines for Group Leaders. Although group confidentiality is desirable, ACA Ethics stipulate that leaders should inform participants that they cannot guarantee confidentiality. Lack of confidentiality is a risk of group intervention.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

an inherited disorder of protein metabolism in which the absence of an enzyme leads to a toxic buildup of certain compounds, causing intellectual disability; an amino acid metabolic difficulty that causes retardation unless the baby is placed on a special diet.

organismic IV

an organismic variable is one the researcher cannot control yet exists such as height, weight, or gender.

What does Gestalt mean?

an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts; a form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

analysis of variance test used for designs with three or more sample means. The results of an ANOVA yield an F-statistic. If F obtained (i.e., computed) exceeds the critical F-value in the table, then the null hypothesis is rejected.

The initial group stage has been called forming, orientation, or the preaffiliation stage. This stage is characterized by

approach-avoidance behavior. In the first stage, people want to be accepted but are scared to participate. It is a conflict wherein you are attracted and repelled by the same goal. You want to meet group members, but it's scary to think about the fact that you could be rejected.

"member-specific measures" in a group vs. "member-specific measures"

are designed to assess change (or lack of it) in an individual group member. Most measures, such as a self-rating or a rating by an outside observer are not standardized. Member-specific measures are intended to measure the degree of change in all persons participating in the group. A group leader who wishes to assess the impact of the group ideally would have an outside "observer" sit in during group sessions and consequently rate the level of behavioral change.

Heredity

assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, assumes the hereditary characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes, and assumes genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code.

Alloplastic vs autoplastic viewpoint

auto-(self) change comes from within; allo- client can cope best by changing or altering external factors in the environment

In the late 1930s researchers identified three basic leadership styles:

autocratic (authoritarian), democratic, and laissez faire. Laissez faire is a French term that implies that group members can do as they please without leader interference or direction. Children displayed the best behavior when treated in a democratic fashion, while aggressive behavior occurred in response to the other two leadership styles. Your exam might also mention charismatic leadership style in which the leader uses his or her personal power, charisma, and attractiveness to abet facilitation.

Ivey has postulated three types of empathy--

basic, subtractive, and additive. In basic empathy, the counselor's response is on the same level as the client's. In the case of subtractive empathy, the counselor's behavior does not completely convey an understanding of what has been communicated. Additive empathy is most desirable since it adds to the client's understanding and awareness.

In Freudian theory instincts are emphasized. Erik Erikson is an ego psychologist. Ego psychologists...

believe in man's power of reasoning to control behavior. It accents the ego and power of control.

split-half method

checking the reliability by comparing the odd answers of one group by the even answers of another group. A method for assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-half of a set of scaled items against the results from the other half.

Assimilation-contrast theory

client perceives counselor's statement that is somewhat like his/her own beliefs as even MORE similar (also called assimilation error). Therefore, he or she would perceive any dissimilar attitudes as even more dissimilar attitudes. In any case, if a counselor is highly regarded and trustworthy his or her statements will be better accepted than if the helper has poor credibility.

The three factors which enhance interpersonal attraction are:

close proximity, physical attraction, and similar beliefs.

Pygmalion effect

closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.

Leon Festinger (1957)

cognitive dissonance theory and social comparison theory. A popular balance theory that suggests that people strive for consistency/balance in terms of their belief systems. Simply put, individuals attempt to reduce or eliminate inconsistent or incompatible actions and beliefs. A state of incompatibility is known as "dissonance," which literally means discord. He suggested that individuals are motivated to reduce tension and discomfort, thus putting an end to dissonance. A statement like, "I'd rather smoke three packs of cigarettes a day and enjoy myself than quit and live an extra year or two," would be an example of cognitive dissonance in action. Dissonance is often reduced using denial. People tend to justify their behavior to create a state of "consonance" between attitudes and behaviors. Cognitive dissonance research deals mainly with cognition and attitude formation because their tension create discrepancies and inconsistencies. His theory is also called "Theory of Social Comparison," which postulates that people have a need to compare themselves with others to assess their own abilities and options. The theory further asserts that we will compare ourselves to others who are basically similar to us.

James McKeen Cattell

coined the term mental test and spent time researching mental assessment and it's relation to reaction time at the University of Pennsylvania.

linking

connecting; it is used to promote cohesion. A link is an attempt to bring together common patterns or themes within the group.

Define pica

consumption of non-food substances; such as when a person wishes to eat a pencil.

In a cyclical test

contains several sections which are spiral in nature (get progressively more difficult)

According to Public Law 93-380, also known as the Buckley Amendment, a 19 yer-old college student attending college

could view her record, which included test data, could view her daughter's infant IQ test given at preschool, and could demand a correction she discovered while reading a file. Persons over 18 can inspect their own records and those of their children. The Family Education Rights and Privacy Act also stipulates that information cannot be released without adult consent.

Arthur Janov

created primal scream therapy; it is a trauma based psychotherapy, which argues that neurosis is caused by the repressed pain of childhood trauma. psychotherapy in which the patient recalls and reenacts a particularly disturbing past experience usually occurring early in life and expresses normally repressed anger or frustration especially through spontaneous and unrestrained screams, hysteria, or violence.

Neal Miller

demonstrated that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes. (heart rate, blood pressure). observed that rats decrease their heartbeat if they receive pleasurable brain stimulation when their heartbeat slows. This best illustrated that biofeedback can facilitate control of autonomic nervous system functioning. He and Banuazizi showed that by utilizing rewards, rats could be trained to alter heart rate and intestinal contractions. Today, counselors often use the technique of biofeedback (i.e. hooking the client to a sophisticated electronic device that provides biological feedback) to help clients control autonomic responses. A biofeedback does not change the client, it merely provides the client and helper with biological information. In counseling, biofeedback devices are used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control autonomic (i.e. automatic) nervous system functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature.

ex post facto study

describes differences between groups of participants that differ naturally on a variable such as race or gender. research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition; all other variables are controlled. The IV (gender/race) was administered before the research began.

Most experts would agree that the Wechsler IQ tests gained popularity, as the Binet

didn't seem to be the best test for adults. David Weschler felt the Binet was slanted toward verbal skills and thus he added "performance" skills to ascertain attributes which might have been cultivated in a background which not stress verbal proficiency. The Wechsler yields a verbal IQ, performance IQ, an a full-scale IQ.

The _______ index indicates the percentage of individuals who answered each item correctly.

difficulty.

Anne Roe

divided career fields into 8 categories and 6 levels Categories: arts/entertainment, general, technology, outdoor, science, business, organizations, and services industry Levels- requiring most to least experience and knowledge: professional & managerial, semi-professional, skilled worker, semi-skilled worker, unskilled worker She was one of the first individuals to suggest a theory of career choice based heavily on personality theory. She postulated that jobs can compensate for unmet childhood needs. suggested a personality approach to career based on the premise that a job satisfied an unconscious need. Proposed needs which are satisfied don't become unconscious motivators. Higher order needs disappear even if rarely satisfied but lower order needs (i.e., safety) will be the major concern and needs satisfied after a long delay become unconscious motivator. Roe emphasized that early child rearing practices influence later career choices since a job is a major source of gratification for an unconscious need. *According to Roe, career choice is influenced by genetics, parent-child interaction, unconscious motivators, current needs, interests (people/things), education, and intelligence. The choice of a career helps to satisfy an individual's needs.

Donald Super

emphasized career development rather than career choice. He is the most popular developmental career theorist, who emphasizes on the self-concept The assumption here is that the individual chooses a career which allows the self-concept to be expressed. His theory emphasizes five life stages: Growth (birth to 14), Exploration (15-24), Establishment (24-44), Maintenance (44-64), and Decline (65+). Suggested Memory device: GEE-MD. His theory includes the life-career rainbow. The person can play a number of potential roles as he advances through the five stages, which are parent, homemaker, worker, citizen, leisurite, student or child. These roles unfold over the lifespan. The roles are played out in the "theaters" of the home, community, school, and work.

Holland's theory would predict that the Vice President of the U.S. would be....

enterprising. The "enterprising" person likes to sell to others or perform leadership tasks. He tends to value power and status. Other enterprising occupations would include real estate agents, business owners, television producers, and hotel managers.

Roe and Brill

espoused personality theories of career choice

Aaron T. Beck

ex-psychoanalytic therapist, created Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), developed cognitive therapy (to correct faulty thoughts/beliefs). Although Cognitive Therapy is similar to REBT, Beck insisted that dysfunctional ideas are too absolute and broad though not necessarily irrational. Beck's contention was that depression is the result of a cognitive triad of negative beliefs regarding oneself, one's future, and one's experience. Since Beck disliked the term "irrational beliefs," he emphasized "rules" or formulas of living" which cause unhappiness, and he suggested new rules which the client can test.

Martin E. P. Seligman

experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs via giving them electric shocks while placed in a harness. These dogs - unlike trained dogs - did not even try to escape the painful shocks when the harnesses were removed.

Internal Validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study. the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. Threats to internal validity include maturation of subjects, mortality (i.e., subjects withdrawing), instruments used to measure the behavior or trait, and statistical regression (i.e. the notion that extremely high or low scores would move toward the mean if the measure is utilized again). Internal validity refers to whether the DVs were truly influenced by the experimental IVs or whether other IVs had an impact.

Rogers emphasized congruence in the counselor. Congruence occurs when

external behavior matches an internal response or state. Roger insists that three key factors are needed for an effective helping climate. The counselor's attitude must include genuineness (also called congruence), unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding. Congruence is a condition where the counselor is very aware of his or her own feelings and accurately expresses this to the client. Of the three elements, Rogers suggested that congruence is the most important of the three elements.

Roe was the first career specialist to utilize a two-dimensional system of occupational classification utilizing

fields and levels.

George Gazda

formed ASGW Assoc. for Specialists in Group Work (division of ACA) (1970s) group leadership influences members/aggressive leaders= group casualities developmental group counseling to teach basic life skills (1980s) He proposes a typology of three distinctive types of groups: guidance, counseling, and psychotherapy. A guidance group is a primary group in the sense that it is mainly preventative. It may also be coined, "affective education group" or psychological education group." It does not deal with the remediation of severe psychological pathology. A counseling group would not tend to be psychodynamic and therefore would focus primarily on conscious concerns. It generally has less structure than a guidance group.

Counselors who work as consultants

generally do not adhere to one single theory. There is no integrated theory of consultation at this time. Consultation can target organizational concerns or service delivery. Several major consultation models exist.

Robert Kegan (Constructive Model of Development): the evolution of consciousness.

his model stresses interpersonal development, it is billed as a constructive model of development, meaning and individual constructs realist throughout their entire life span. He speaks of a "holding environment" in counseling in which the client can find meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction. Kegan suggests six stages of life span development: incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, and interdividual. Other resources say that there are 5 stages: Impulsive Mind, Instrumental Mind, Socialized Mind (team player/faithful follower/aligning/seeks direction/reliant), Self-Authoring Mind (agenda-driving/leader learns to lead/own compass, own frame/problem-solving/independent), Self-Transforming Mind (meta-leader/leader leads to learn/multiframe, holds contradictions/problem-finding/interdependent). Growth from stage to stage is driven by the alternating need/desire for agency or communion.

The standard error of measurement tells you

how accurate or inaccurate a test score is. The lower the score the better. If a client decided to take the test over and over again you could plot a distribution of scores.

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence; to research the dilemma of self-actualization, Maslow interviewed the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average." The hierarchy of needs are: survival, security, safety, love, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

Eric Berne's transactional analysis (TA) posits three ego states: the Child, the Adult, and the Parent. These roughly correspond to Freud's structural theory that includes

id, ego, and superego. Both analogies are hypothetical constructs used to explain the function of the personality.

Prior to the 1960s most counseling took place

in a dyadic relationship

Transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

R.K. Coyne's 'group work grid' model has 4 levels

individual, interpersonal, organization, and community population. He suggested that group intervention is intended to prevent, correct, or enhance behavior. The intervention can be correction oriented or enhancement oriented for either personal or task functions.

IQ means

intelligence quotient. A quotient is the result when you perform division. The early ratio formula for the Binet IQ score was MA/CA (i.e. mental age divided by chronological age) x 100. Wilhem Stern produced this formula which is known as the "ratio IQ." The second indicated how compared to those in your age group. Memory device: MA is a high degree so put it on top of the equation as the numerator. Alfred Binet believed that intelligence was fluid and crystallized in nature (like Theodore Simon). Binet used his own daughters as test subjects in order to investigate mental processes and also is cited as one of the pioneers in projective testing based on his work with inkblots. After testing nearly 3,000 children in the U.S. in 1916, Lewis M. Terman of Stanford University published an American version of the Binet that was translated into English and adapted to American children.

Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means

interpreting the results in the simplest way. Parsimonious literally means a tendency to be miserly and to not overspend. A parsimonious individual is said to be overly economical and stingy. In research, we strive for parsimony in the sense that the easiest and less complex explanation is said to be the best; an economical description if you will. Simply put, the simplest explanation of the findings is always preferred. The factor analysis is parsimonious in the sense that 10 tests which measure the dimensions of an effective counselor can be explained via a short measure which describes 3 underlying variables. Factor analysis then, is concerned with data reduction. Occam's Razor suggests this as well. The NLC can refer parsimony as Occam's Razor, the principle of economy, or Lloyd Morgan's 1894 Canon (canon in this sense means "law").

Life scripts (in TA)

is a persons's ongoing drama which dictates how a person will live his or her life. There are three basic unhealthy scripts: no love, no mind, and no joy. It is actually a life drama or a plot. The process of ferreting out the client's script is called "script analysis."

Whereas a culture is defined primarily via norms and values, a society differs from a culture in that a society...

is a self-perpetuating independent group who occupies a definitive territory.

The concept of job clubs as promoted by Adrian et al.

is very behavioristic. It is where the clients share job leads and work on actual skills (e.g. interviewing) which are necessary in order to secure work. Job clubs are highly recommended for the disabled.

What is the Q-sort design?

it involves a procedure in which an individual is given cards with statements and asked to place them in piles of "most like me" to "least like me." Then the subject compiles them to create the "ideal self." The "ideal self" can then be compared to his current self-perception in order to assess self-esteem.

The "Kuder," created by Frederick Kuder

it is an interest inventory based on career search, just like the "Strong." Individuals can complete it online in 20 to 30 minutes.

What is verbal tracking

it is attending behavior that is verbal.

Transition stage in group work

it is the group stage which occurs after the first or so-called initial stage. In the initial stage, members get acquainted and learn norms. In the second or transition stage members are often judgmental, resistant or involved in a struggle for power to establish a hierarchy or "pecking order."

What is a "measure"?

it merely connote that a number or score has been assigned to the person's attribute or performance.

What is the term "reentry women"

it refers to women who go from working within the home to outside the home. They typically experience an extremely high degree of career indecision.

typical AB design

it relies on "continuous-measurement"; It is the simplest type of design of single-subject research. A baseline is secured (A); intervention is implemented (B); and if it is an ABA design then there is the additional that the outcome is examined via a new baseline (A).

What are examples of informal assessment techniques?

keeping a journal of irrational thoughts, self-reports, case notes, checklists, sociograms of groups, interviews, and professional staffings.

Robert Carkhuff

known for his 5 point scale measuring empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect. A rating of 1 is the poorest and a rating of 5 is the most desirable. A rating of 3 is considered the minimum level of acceptance.

According to Holland, the "investigative" personality type

likes to think his way through problems. Occupations congruent with this type include scientists, design engineers, geologists, mathematicians, and philosophers.

The most useful measure of central tendency is the

mean often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it. The median is best for skewed distributions. If a counselor decides to figure the average income of incoming graduate freshmen in a crisis intervention class, and one of the students is a millionaire, then the median will be more valuable statistic than the mean since the mean would be raised significantly by the millionaire's income.

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why? He lists 6 stages of moral development which fall into 3 levels.

Mesokurtic

normal curves that have peaks of medium height and distributions that are moderate in breadth. "Meso" means middle, and kurtic refers to the peakedness of a curve. The normal Gaussian curve is said to be mesokurtic since the peak is in the middle.

What is a test?

objective and standardized procedure for measuring a psychological construct using a sample of behavior; it is simply an instrument which measures a given sample of behavior.

Tarasoff Duty

obligation of counselor to report patients who are potentially harmful to others, + obligation to warn potential victims of impending threat

leniency/strictness bias

occurs when a rater tends to give employees very high/lenient or very low/strict ratings while avoiding the middle or so-called average range. Raters who do the opposite (i.e. rate almost everybody in the average range) are said to display a "central tendency bias."

ambivalent transference

occurs when the client rapidly shifts his or her emotional attitude toward the counselor based on learning and experiences related to authority figures from the past. It is a psychoanalytic notion which suggests that a client will treat a therapist with ambivalence, as he or she would any person viewed as an authority figure. Ambivalence implies that the client will experience contradictory emotions, such as love and hate, alternating from one to the other.

Holophrases

one-word utterances that depend on the particular context in which they are used to determine meaning, like "me eat."

Equilibration (Piaget)

organize their schemas to achieve the best possible adaptation to their environment; process for reaching equilibrium. The balance between assimilation and accommodation. When new information is presented, which the child's current cognitive structures known as "schemas" cannot process, a condition referred to as "disequilibrium" sets in. The child therefore changes the schemas to accommodate the novel information, and equilibration or equilibrium is mastered.

social exchange theory

our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

F.H. Allport created the concept of social facilitation. According to this theory, an individual who is given the task of memorizing a list of numbers will

perform better if he or she is part of a group. Social facilitation consists of an increase of a response merely from the sight or sound of others making the same movement.

The newest model to explain career development is the decision approach. The Gelatt Decision Model refers to informational as the "fuel of the decision." The Gelatt Model asserts that information can be organized into three systems...

predictive, value, and decision. The predictive system is concerned with the probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities. The person's value system is concerned with one's relative preferences regarding the outcomes (personal likes, dislikes), while the decision system provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome.

Primary groups are

preventive and attempt to ward off problems. A primary group stresses a healthy life-style or coping strategies which can reduce the occurrence of a given difficulty (talking of birth control to prevent pregnancy). In a secondary group a problem or disturbance is present but not usually severe. It works to reduce the severity or length of a problem and generally includes aspects of prevention (a group that deals with grief). The third group deals with individual differences that are more serious and longstanding.

symptom substitution

psychoanalytic concept which means if one symptom is stopped, a new symptom may start in its place since the real problem is in the unconscious mind. Behaviorists do strive for symptom reduction and do not believe in the concept of symptom substitution.

Nathan Ackerman

psychoanalytic family therapy; greatly influenced and concentrated on the study on psychosexual stages on character formation and was one of the first clinicians to attempt to integrate insights from individual psychotherapy of the psychodynamic approach to family therapy. He incorporated the idea of "the family being a social and emotional unit." His main focuses were intergenerational ties and conflicts, the influence of long-term social change impacting the family, the developmental stages of the family as a single unit, the importance of emotion within the family structure, and equal amounts of authority among parents.

The two basic classes of intermittent reinforcement schedules are based ________________, on the number of responses and the _________________, based on the time elapsed.

ratio; interval. The terms "fixed" and "variable" are often used with ratio and interval. "Fixed" implies that the reinforcement always takes place after a fixed time or number of responses, while "variable" implies that an average number of responses or time may be used. Variable ratio is the most difficult intermittent schedule to extinguish.

A client who wishes to work on an assembly line would fit into Holland's __________ typology.

realistic. The "realistic" or "motoric" person likes machines. This individual might become a truck driver, an auto mechanic, or might fancy plumbing. Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines; generally avoids social activities like teaching, counseling, nursing, and informing others; Is also a practical person.

Mores are beliefs:

regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior. Mores - the plural of mos--develop as a given group decides what is good and bad for the welfare of the people. People are usually punished for violating the mores. Breaking a folkway generally results in embarrassment, while breaking a more causes harm to others or threatens the existence of the group. "Mores" begins with "m" as does the word "morals." Mores are behaviors that are based on morals.

Chi-Square

relating to or denoting a statistical method assessing the goodness of fit between observed values and those expected theoretically. Involves categorical variables. Looks at 2 distributions of categorical data to see if they differ from each other. It us merely used to determine whether an obtained distribution differs significantly from an expected distribution. A woman determines whether you will seek therapy for an elevator phobia. You must be able to have mutually exclusive categories to use the chi-square (such as "will seek therapy" or "won't seek therapy").

Topographic

relating to the arrangement of the physical features of an area; a "map" so-to-speak.

Teachers, counselors, speech therapists, and social workers would fit into the ________________ category, according to Holland.

social. Holland said that the person in the "social" category prefers to solve problems using interpersonal skills and feelings.

Another career theorist who drew upon psychoanalytic doctrines was A. A. Brill. Brill emphasized _______ as an ego-defense mechanism.

sublimation. Sublimation occurs when an individual expresses an unacceptable need in a socially acceptable manner. A person, for example, who likes to cut things up might pursue a career as a butcher or a surgeon.

Karpman's triangle (from transactional analysis)

suggested 3 roles necessary for manipulative drama (a 'game' in transaction analysis): -persecutor, rescuer, and victim Games have a predictable outcome as a result of ulterior transactions. An ulterior transaction occurs when a disguised message is sent. It contains hidden transactions as two or more ego states are operating at the same time. HINT: an act of looking at the consequence of games is known as "game analysis." Games are said to prevent true intimacy. Karpman's drama triangle is used most often in conjunction with transactional analysis as a teaching device to illuminate the roles of prosecutor, rescuer, and victim in interpersonal relationships.

Holland

suggested that a person's personality needs to be congruent with the work environment.

Culture Epoch Theory

suggests all cultures--like children--pass through the same stages of development in terms of evolving and maturing.

The simplest form of descriptive research is the _____________, which requires a questionnaire return rate of __________ to be accurate.

survey; 50%-75%

Halo effect

tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics (that are not supposed to be evaluated) of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements. Such as a researcher who unconsciously rated attractive females as better counselors.

the recency effect

tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information; it occurs when a rater's judgment of an employee reflects primarily his most recent performance.

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

tests 2 or more groups while controlling for extraneous variables that are called covariates

The APGA, which became the AACD until 1992 and is now the ACA, contributed to the growth of cross-cultural counseling by:

the 1972 formation of the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, later known as the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development. The Civil Rights Act if 1964 prohibiting discrimination for reasons of gender, race, religion, or national origin was instrumental in terms of setting the stage for minority concerns.

When career counselors speak of the OOH they are referring to

the Occupational Outlook Handbook. It was originally published by the U.S. Department of Labor in 1946 to aid war veterans. The OOH highlights the salient factors of the job, necessary training, earnings, and advancement opportunities.

The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis is also known as the

the abscissa. The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs (the experimental data). The y axis is also known as the ordinate.

human capital theory

the argument that individuals make investments in their own "human capital" in order to increase their productivity and earnings. It purports that individuals secure training and education to get the best possible income.

Stimulus-response model

the belief that behavior is the result of a reaction to some event.

According to Osgood and Tannenbaum's Congruity theory, a client will accepts suggestions more readily if

the client likes the counselor, "balance theory." This theory also implies that the stronger the attitude is, the less likely your feelings will change about something. But the closer your attitude is to neutral, the more it will change.

underemployment

the condition when people work at jobs for which they are overqualified or that do not utilize their skills; it is when a worker is engaged in a position which is below his skill level. This phenomenon can occur when an abundance of educated people flood a labor market that does not have enough jobs which require a high level of training. .Hence, the more people go to college the rate of underemployment is expected to increase.

construct validity

the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring like intelligence, self-esteem, artistic talent, mechanical ability, or managerial potential. It refers to the extent that a test measures an abstract trait or psychological notion; any trait you cannot "directly" measure or observe can be considered a construct, so not like weight or height.

concurrent validity

the degree to which the measures gathered from one tool agree with the measures gathered from other assessment techniques; deals with how well the test compares to other instruments that are intended for the same purpose. Criterion validity could be "concurrent" or "predictive."

Freudians refer to the ego as

the executive administrator of the personality and the reality principle, since it governs or acts like the police officer to control the impulses from the id (instincts) and the superego (conscience). The ego is a mediator. The ego is also called the reality principle and houses the individual's identity.

"collecting trading stamps" (in TA)

the experience of trying to secure feelings from childhood.

associationism

the idea that all complex ideas are combinations of two or more simple ideas. Behaviorism. It asserts that ideas are held together by associations. Names to recognize for associationism: John Locke, David Hume, James Mill, or David Hartley. Locke associationism with behaviorism into memory.

Behaviorism

the idea that psychology should concern itself exclusively with behavior with the use of reinforcement and punishment. B.F. Skinner (founder of radical behaviorism) experimented with the Skinner box- a chamber that was big enough for a rat or a pigeon to fit in comfortably and contained mechanisms with which to reinforce or punish the behavior of the animal. One of the hallmark's of Skinner's operant conditioning was his cumulative recorder (a simple device that recorded every response of the research subject). EX: a rat may be rewarded with a food pallet after pressing a bar, or it may be punished with a small shock of electricity if it does not press the bar. Skinner proved that behavior could be controlled by a stimulus administered after the action. Key Figures: John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike (known for law of effect).

convergent validity

the measure should correlate more strongly with other measures of the same constructs. The relationship or correlation of a test to an independent measure or trait.

In terms of the labor market

the number of employees employers want to hire goes down as salary goes up & the number of employees willing to work for you goes up as the salary increases.

Epictetus

the philosopher most closely related to REBT; suggested we feel the way we think

Egocentrism (according to Piaget)

the pre operational child's inability to perceive the world from anyone else's point of view/vantage point. Ex: Piaget and Inhelder showed children a model mountain from all sides. The children then sat in front of the model and were asked to pick a picture that best described what the experimenter was seeing. Children continuously picked pictures of their own view.

incremental validity

the process by which a test is refined and becomes more valid as contradictory items are dropped. It also refers to a test's ability to improve predictions when compared to existing measures that purport to facilitate selection in business or educational settings.

Appraisal can be defined as

the process of assessing or estimating attributes. It is a broad term which includes more than merely "testing clients." Appraisal could include a survey, observation, or clinical interviews.

acquiescence

the reluctant acceptance of something without protest; when a client always agrees to something.

Rosenthal effect

the result when an experimenter's preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior. experimenter belief about the individual may cause the individual to be treated in a special way so the individual begins to fulfill the expectancy. the phenomenon of experimenters treating subjects differently depending on what they expect from the subjects; also called the Pygmalion effect or "experimenter effect."

ethnographic research

the study of human behavior in its natural context; involves observation of behavior and physical setting. Research that is collected via interviews, observations, and inspection of documents.

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average if the test is administered again. This concept is based on "the law of filial regression," which is a genetic principle that asserts that generational traits move toward the mean.

halo effect

the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic; for example, an attractive examinee of the same race of the rater might be given a higher rating.

independent group comparison design

the two groups in an experiment are independent of each other (the change in one group did not influence the change in the other group)

Today, the most popular approach to career choice reflects

the work of John Holland. He can be best described by his four assumptions. First, in our culture, there are six basic personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional. Second, most work environments correspond to six personality types. Third, people search out an agreeable environment which lets them express their personality type. Fourth, the individual's behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment. Possible memory device for the 6 personality types: "as rice." Holland's Self-Directed Search (SDS) is designed to measure the six personality types.

A major group dynamic is group development. This is usually expressed in terms of

theories of group stages. The first stage is known as the "initial stage." Others have termed this stage as "orientation and exploration," "pre affiliation," or "forming." The next is transition stage, which often termed as the "power and control" or "storming," which logically comes after "forming." The third major stage is "working stage," "norming stage," the "termination stage," and "adjourning."

P (probability) =.05 really means that

there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors. Differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 out of 100 times. Although lowering the significance level (e.g. .01 to .001) lowers Type I errors, it "raises" the risk of committing a Type II or so-called beta error.

"Forced choice" items on a test

they are sometimes known as "recognition items". This format is used to control for the "social desirability phenomenon" which asserts that the person puts the answer he feels is socially acceptable (i.e. the test provides alternatives that are all equal in terms of social desirability). Like the NCE or MMPI tests.

What are ipsative measures?

they compare traits within the same individual. The Kuder Vocational measure is one such example. The ipsative test allows the person being tested to compare items. It does NOT reveal absolute strengths.

Jacob L. Moreno

this person introduced the term "group psychotherapy" into counseling literature in the 1920's, and invented the term psychodrama. The term "group therapy" was coined by him in 1931.

J.P. Guilford isolated 120 factors which added up to intelligence. He also is remembered for his

thoughts on convergent and divergent thinking. Using factor analysis, he used these two terms. Convergent thinking occurs when divergent thoughts and ideas are combined into a singular concept. Divergent thinking is the ability to generate a novel idea

T-scores are sometimes called "transformed scores." The T-score uses a mean of 50 with each SD as 10. Hence, a z-score of -1.0 would be a T-score of 40. A z-score of -1.5 would be a T-score of 35 and so on.

true

Emic vs. Etic Perspective

try to understand cultures as a whole. Emic is an anthropological term based on the word "emigration." J.G. Draguns suggested the emic-etic distinction in cross-cultural counseling. The emic viewpoint emphasizes that each client is an individual with individual differences, while the etic view adheres to the theory that humans are humans--regardless of background and culture--thus, the same theories can be applied to any client the counselor helps. A counselor who values the emic view will try to help clients by understanding the client's specific culture, while the etic counselor emphasizes the sameness among clients that literally transcends cultural boundaries. The etic counselor would not alter his or her technique when working with a client from a different culture or a minority group.

Type I and Type II Errors

type I (alpha) errors occur when you believe things to be true that are in fact not true/ rejecting the null when it is true. To minimize type I errors you should be skeptical and only believe things if there is supporting evidence. Type II (beta) errors occur when you refuse to believe something that is in fact true / accepting the null when it is false. You minimize type II errors by believing things to be true when there is supporting evidence. A 95% confidence level is generally used because it is believed to be a good balance between type I and type II errors.

risky shift phenomenon

type of group polarization effect in which a group discussion leads to the adoption of a riskier course of action than the members would have endorsed initially; it describes the fact that a group decision is typically more liberal than the average decision of an individual group member prior to participation in the group. Simply put, the individual's initial stance will generally be more conservative than the group's decision.

An achievement test measures maximum performance while a personality test or interest inventory measures

typical performance.

Biological similarities and sameness are indicated by:

universal culture. The Human Genome Project has verified that biologically we are all more alike than different

rackets (in Transactional analysis)

unpleasant feelings after a person creates a game. It is when a client manipulates others to experience a childhood feeling.

Bibliotherapy

use of books or writings pertaining to self-improvement. (is a form of homework) and other reading materials as part of therapy treatment.

According to Holland, the "conventional" personality type

values conformity, structure, rules, and feels comfortable in a subordinate role. Statisticians, bank clerks, and controllers fit this stereotype.

One of Adler's students, Rudolph Dreikurs,

was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice. He also introduced Adlerian principles to the treatment of children in school setting.

summarization

when a counselor reviews what has transpired in past counseling sessions he is using (constitutes a 'synthesis' regarding general tone and feeling of helping process). The act of bringing together a number of important thoughts, insights, feelings, or transactions.

Blocking (in group therapy)

when a leader uses an intervention to stop or block a negative or counterproductive behavior which could hurt another member in the group.

Erikson's ego identity concept

when an adolescent is able to integrate all his or her previous roles into a single self-concept, the person has achieved ego identity. The ego is striving to produce a unique, autonomous self. His belief that the ego is not content with the mere assimilation of parental values. Erikson believed the individual is the one who has to make something of his or her life. A person is not merely the values of others he or she admires.

In cross-cultural counseling, structuring is very important. This concept asserts that counseling is most effective:

when the nature and structure of the counseling situation is described during the initial session. In the context of multicultural counseling, structure indicates that the counselor will explain the role of the helper as well as the role of the helpee. The greater the social/cultural gap, the more important the need for structuring.

Triadic consultation

where the consultant works with a mediator to provide services to a client.

Roe spoke of three basic parenting styles: overprotective, avoidant, or acceptant. The result is that the child

will develop a personality which gravitates (i.e. moves) toward people or away from people. The avoidant child rearing style can be seen as "rejecting." It is an emotionally cold or hostile style. The acceptant style is "democratic." If the person moves "toward" people, he or she would chose the fields of service, business, organization, or general cultural while an individual who moves away from people would gravitate toward outdoor, science, or perhaps technology.