Psychology of Adolescents PSY20003 - Week 5: Gender

Gender and Maths

Although the difference in math performance between males and females in this study was statistically significant, there was a great deal of overlap in performance between the 2 groups. Most human characteristics fall into something resembling what is called a normal distribution or a bell curve; that is, a small proportion of people rate much higher than most other people, a small proportion rate much lower than most people, but most people fall somewhere in the middle, somewhere around average. Think of height as an example. you may have a friend who is 4 foot 10 inches and another friend who is 6 feet 10 inches, but most of the people you know are probably between 5 and 6 feet tall. The point, with regard to gender, is that even when gender differences exist between males and females, for most characteristics the portion of the two bell curves that overlaps is much greater than the portion that is distinctive to either gender. (The same is true for children and adults as well as adolescents.) For example, the figure below shows the distribution of male and female adolescents from a famous study that found a significant gender difference in math performance (Benbow & Stanley, 1980). As you can see, the two distributions overlap far more than they differ. When people hear that "adolescent boys do better at math than adolescent girls," they tend to think of the two distributions as mostly or entirely separate, without realizing that the similarity between the genders is actually greater than the difference between them. Indeed, whenever you read about studies reporting gender differences (incl. this text) keep in mind that the distributions of males and females usually overlap a great deal.

Overview

As opposed to our sex (being male or female), gender refers to the psychological and cultural dimensions of being male or female. At an early age, children adopt many gender-linked standards of their culture. Gender is one of the most significant aspects of an individual's identity and there are some differences between the genders that have little to do with biology. Gender Schema Theory, an information-processing view of how children acquire gender-typed knowledge, combines social learning and cognitive-developmental approaches. Gender stereotypes (views of "appropriate" characteristics for males and females) and gender roles (the reflections of those stereotypes in everyday behaviour) are the public face of gender; gender identity - one's self-perception as masculine or feminine - is its private face. Finally, gender typing encompasses all of these gender-linked responses. In traditional cultures gender roles tend to be sharply divided, and during adolescence boys' and girls' daily lives are often separate. Girls spend their time with adult women learning skills important for child care and running a household. From middle childhood to adolescence, the freedom of girls often becomes restricted, in order to protect them from boys and avoid the possibility of sexual activity. Boys in traditional cultures have to achieve manhood by developing the required skills for providing, protecting, and procreating. The price of failing to meet these requirements is humiliation and rejection. One striking difference between gender expectations for girls and gender expectations for boys in traditional cultures is that for boys, manhood is something that has to be achieved, whereas girls reach womanhood inevitably, mainly through their biological changes. Life in developing countries has changed in terms of gender roles because of globalisation, but it remains true that adolescent girls have less in the way of educational and occupational opportunities, not only compared with boys in their own countries but compared with girls in the West. However, as globalisation proceeds and traditional cultures become increasingly industrialised, traditional gender roles may change, because the greater physical strength of males is less economically valuable. Despite changes over the past four decades, strong beliefs persist about sex differences in personality. In general, femininity is associated with being nurturing (sympathetic, compassionate, gentle, etc.) and compliant (yielding, soft-spoken, childlike, etc.). In contrast, masculinity is associated with being independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient, individualistic, etc.) and aggressive (assertive, forceful, dominant, etc.). The difference in traits associated with each gender role has been described by scholars as a contrast between the expressive traits ascribed to females and the instrumental traits ascribed to males.

Learning Objectives

Distinguish between sex and gender Summarise the gender roles of adolescent girls and boys in traditional cultures, including how economic changes in developing countries are changing gender roles Describe how gender socialisation changes from middle childhood to adolescence Explain how gender schemas guide expectations for how males and females should behave Describe the challenges facing transgender youth We readily make assumptions about male and female roles and are often surprised when our gender stereotypes turn out to be wrong. Thinking about the world in terms of gender comes easily so much so that we do not even realise how deeply our assumptions about gender shape our perceptions. By the end of this lesson you should have a good grasp of the learning objectives as listed above. These lecture slides and notes form a valuable supplement to your own reading from the text. Read that part of the text which deals with the topic - this means that you will start to become familiar with the main ideas and new terms.

Gender Stereotype

Gender Stereotype in Emerging Adulthood - Social psychologists have focused on gender stereotypes * college students often evaluate womens work performance less favourably then mens - There are more similarities than differences between genders * stereotypes are the result of gender schemas and social roles A gender stereotype reflects sweeping explanations that are believed to characterise patterns of thought and behaviour. Like all stereotypes, gender stereotypes carry with them a certain image of what a typical member (in this case male or female) is like. Stereotypes act as a way to simplify the bombardment of information we perceive in the environment. If we assign a label to someone, it means we have much less to think about. However, the problem is, once a stereotype has been placed, it is often very difficult to abandon, even if the person no longer fits that particular stereotype. Stereotypes are often very ambiguous and they are also influenced by culture. Due to the negativity that is often related to stereotypes, they often reflect prejudice. Sexism is prejudice and discrimination against an individual based solely on their sex. For example, saying that a male cannot be a nurse or a female cannot drive a truck represents sexist attitudes.

Social Roles Theory

Gender Stereotypes in Emerging Adulthood continued... Social Roles Theory - differential gender socialization leads males and females to develop different skills and attitudes, which leads to different behaviours Why do so many people continue to think of the genders as radically different in many ways, as "opposite" sexes? Two reasons can be offered: 1. Development of gender schemas. Gender schemas tend to shape the way we notice, interpret, and remember information according to our expectations about the genders. once we have formed ideas about how males and females are different, we tend to notice events and information that confirm our expectations and disregard or dismiss anything that does not. In several studies of children and adolescents, for example, boys and girls recalled gender-stereotyped people and activities better than those that were nonstereotyped, and this tendency was strongest for the boys and girls who already possessed the strongest gender stereotypes 2. Persistence of beliefs about gender differences in capabilities is that the social roles of men and women seem to confirm those beliefs. According to Social Roles Theory, social roles for males and females enhance or suppress different capabilities (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Koenig, 2006). Differential gender socialisation leads males and females to develop different skills and attitudes, which leads to different behaviours. The differences in behaviour seem to confirm the appropriateness of the different roles.

Socialisation in the West

Gender socialisation: family, peers and school Greater for females than males - differential gender socialisation - begins early in virtually every culture - parents encourage gender-specific activities, restrict girls more than boys - teachers also reinforce traditional gender roles * implicit bias The Social Cognitive Theory of Gender argues that gender development is influenced by the observation and imitation of others' gender behaviour, as well as by the rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and inappropriate actions. Siblings are quite influential in gender development, with research finding that adolescents become more similar to their older siblings in terms of gender-roles. During adolescence, the vast majority of individuals spend much of their time in educational institutes. So it should be no surprise that peers, schools, and teachers have a robust influence on gender. As adolescents spend such large amounts of time with peers and friends, they begin to develop preferences of being with and liking same-sex peers and friends. Such preferences lead to boys reinforcing masculine behaviours to each other and girls reinforcing feminine behaviours to one another. Schools and teachers also have a strong influence on gender and gender roles. For example, compliance, following rules, and being neat are valued and reinforced in the classroom. When a large majority of teachers are female, boys are more likely to have learning problems, and to be criticised; and school staff tend to stereotype boys' behaviour as problematic. More gender biases are present in the school setting, and there is evidence of bias against both males and females. Research findings have suggested that girls are seen as more compliant and boys as more rambunctious in the classroom; boys receive more instruction and help with work; boys are more likely to receive lower grades and to repeat a year; and male primary school children are more likely to describe more career options than girls. There is often a lack of awareness of gender biases in the school setting, suggesting that the design of schools fits male patterns of learning Media and Gender - Media also promotes gender stereotypes * social media * focus on physical appearance promotes body image issues, especially among girls The final social influence on gender to consider is the media. Typically, television shows that are aimed at adolescents are stereotyped in their portrayal of both sexes, particularly teenage girls. For example, girls in some television shows are portrayed as being mainly concerned about shopping, dating, and their appearance. Further, intelligent girls are often portrayed as being unattractive while attractive girls are portrayed as being unintelligent. Music videos provide another good example of gender stereotyping. Females are often dressed in very provocative and sexually loaded ways. The media has been shown to influence adolescents' body images, with research finding that the more adolescents watch the entertainment type of television shows, the more negative is their body image.

Gender and Globalisation

In developing countries, adolescent girls have much less in the way of educational and occupational opportunities Economic development can level the gender roles playing field Life in places such as rural Mexico and the Brazilian rain forests of the Mehinaku has changed dramatically in recent decades due to globalisation, and gender socialisation for adolescents has begun to change accordingly. Nevertheless, it remains true that in developing countries, for the most part adolescent girls have much less in the way of educational and occupational opportunities, not only compared with boys in their own countries but compared with girls in the West.

Cognition and Gender

Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender - based on Piagets theories - 3 years old - gender identity - self-socialisation, especially in early adolescence - gender schema theory Socialisation interacts with cognitive development to produce adolescents' ideas about gender (Bussey, 2011). Lawrence Kohlberg, whose ideas about moral development were discussed earlier, also proposed an influential theory of gender development known as the cognitive-developmental theory of gender. Kohlberg (1966) based this theory on Piaget's ideas about cognitive development, applied specifically to gender. According to Kohlberg's theory, gender is a fundamental way of organising ideas about the world. By the time children are about 3 years old, they understand gender identity; that is, they understand themselves as being either male or female (Leaper, 2015). Once children possess gender identity, they use gender as a way of organising information obtained from the world around them. Certain toys become "toys that girls play with," whereas others are "toys that boys play with." Certain clothes become "clothes that boys wear" and others become "clothes that girls wear." By age 4 or 5, children identify a wide range of things as appropriate for either males or females including toys, clothing, activities, objects and occupations (Hyde, 2014)

Gender vs. Sex

Learning Objective 1 Sex implies that the characteristics of males and females have a biological basis Gender implies that characteristics of males and females may be due to cultural and social beliefs, influences and perceptions Gender socialization As opposed to our sex (that of being male or female), gender refers to the psychological and cultural dimensions of being men and women, boys or girls. Gender is one of the most significant aspects of an individual's identity. It is clear that biology has an influence on gender, especially puberty. However, Social Psychologists argue that gender differences are due mainly to social experience rather than biological influence, one of which is an individual's parents. Parents influence their child's gender development through action and example. During the transition from childhood to adolescence, boys may be given more independence than girls, and concerns about girls' sexual vulnerability can lead to parents being more protective of them by monitoring their behaviour. Research also suggests that mothers and fathers may act in different ways towards their sons and daughters. Mothers' socialisation strategies include teaching their daughters to be more obedient and responsible and placing more restrictions on their daughter's autonomy. On the other hand, fathers' socialisation strategies include paying more attention to their sons, engaging in more activities with their sons, and putting more effort into promoting intellectual development. Through observing parents, other adults, as well as peers and siblings, adolescents are exposed to a wide range of people who model masculine and feminine behaviour

Gender roles in traditional cultures

Learning Objective 2 From girl to woman - in traditional cultures, girls experience narrow socialization - boys typically have more contact with peers and broader socialization From boy to man - in traditional cultures, manhood is something that has to be achieved, whereas girls reach womanhood inevitably, mainly through their biological changes - Male roles * Provide * Protect * Procreate For adolescents in traditional cultures, gender roles and expectations infuse virtually every aspect of life, even more so than in the West. Girls in traditional cultures typically work alongside their mothers from an early age. By adolescence, girls work alongside their mothers as near-equal partners. The authority of mothers over their daughters is clear, but by adolescence daughters have learned the skills involved in child care and running a household so well that they can contribute an amount of work that is more or less equal to their mothers' work. In traditional cultures socialization becomes broader for boys in adolescence and stays narrow or becomes even narrower for girls. reason for the narrower socialization of girls at adolescence is that the budding sexuality of girls is more likely to be tightly restricted than is the budding sexuality of boys. For boys, manhood is something that has to be achieved, whereas girls reach womanhood inevitably, mainly through their biological changes. in most cultures an adolescent boy must demonstrate three capacities before he can be considered a man: provide, protect and procreate

Gender Socialisation from Middle Adolescence

Learning Objective 3 The gender intensification hypothesis - intensified social pressure to conform to culturally prescribed roles - results in increased differences between males and females as adolescence progress Developmental changes associated with puberty have a tremendous impact on genderbased behaviour. The gender intensification hypothesis explains that psychological and behavioural change during maturation signals others to impose social expectations for the adolescent to demonstrate appropriate gender roles. Carol Gilligan explained that females are expected to adapt to different levels of sensitivity between males and females, and adapt to male dominated societies. An unfortunate side effect occurs as females suppress their ideas and sometimes become self-destructive. Feminine girls appear to lower their voices and adopt gender appropriate expectations in public settings; androgynous females maintain strong voices in all settings. Feminists are concerned about the study of women in the context of a male dominated theme. Carol Gilligan encourages women to establish their own perspective from personal development and experience. Assertive, independent, and authentic selves present a distinct female voice and perspective on gender. Critics of Gilligan believe that she exaggerates the differences between males and females. Biology and social factors influence gender expectations, yet determining individual roles serves as a central task of adolescent development - one task adolescents are highly motivated to complete

Gender Schemas

Learning Objective 4 Gender Schema Theory - Gender typing emerges as individuals gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender appropriate and gender inappropriate in their culture - A schema is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide an individuals perceptions - A gender schema organises the world in terms of female and male. Individuals are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas Critics of the Social Cognitive approach argue that this explanation of gender role pays too little attention to the child's own mind and understanding. Another cognitive theory of gender that uses Piaget's ideas is gender schema theory Gender Schema Theory proposes that gender-stereotyping emerges as individuals develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate (or not) in their own culture over time. The paths adolescents choose are determined by the combined factors of cognitive, societal, and biological influences. A schema is a cognitive structure or a network of associations that guide an individual's perceptions about the world around them. An individual has many different schemas for the many different perceptions and understandings they have. A gender schema organises the world in terms of female and male. Thus, the individual is motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schema. As the individual develops, they slowly pick up what is appropriate gender-wise, which then becomes part of their gender schema

Gender Nonconformity

Learning Objective 5 Gender Nonconformity and Transgender Adolescents - Gender Identity * gender nonconforming * transgender * transsexual - Challenges * risk for verbal and physical aggression * more likely to be homeless * higher risk of suicide Some scholars who study gender argue that we need to move beyond the simple binary division of females and males. Alternatives are multiplying, and psychological research increasingly addresses gender in ways that go beyond the binary. As described previously, gender identity refers to a person's self-categorisation as female or male. Psychological research is expanding on adolescents and emerging adults whose gender behaviours and self-identifications fall outside these two broad categories. Gender nonconforming is a term that refers to people who typically identify as either female or male but whose behaviours are androgynous to a degree that falls outside conventional norms (Diamond et al., 2015). Some degree of androgyny has become increasingly acceptable and common, especially in girls. However, gender nonconforming youth are at risk for harassment and social ostracism