Psychology

managing stress

3 components of stress: 1. physiological- sympathetic NS releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (fast response to increase HR and RR), HPA releases cortisol (slow response to save glucose for brain), cortisol inhibits immune system, increases brain activity, increases glucose metabolism 2. emotional- negative mood causes worst medical things 3. behavioral- PTSD involves avoidance, hyperarousal, and re-experiencing learned helplessness- believe you cannot control situation and averse stimuli, stress causes PTSD adaptive ways to manage stress: 1. exercise 2. biofeedback- adjust physiological with yoga, meditation 3. social support maladaptive ways to manage stress: 1. aggression 2. dependence 3. status-seeking

stress

4 types of stressors: 1. catastrophes- large scale events, natural disasters and war, associated with PTSD, depression, anxiety 2. significant life changes- moving, losing job, death 3. daily hassles- everyday irritations, traffic, bills 4. ambient stressors- environmental, pollution 3 more types of stressors: distress, eustress, neustress anger, anxiety, addiction

working memory

7+/-2 items

priming

A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory increases likelihood of activation of nearby nodes relies on implicit memory to work

humanist perspective

Abraham Maslow says that self-actualization is an innate drive, we have free will Carl Rogers says that humans are driven to realize their highest potential, personality conflicts arise when this is blocked unconditional positive regard from parents is key to self-actualization goal of development is to establish self-concept incongruence- contradiction between ideal self and real self

social cognitive perspective (2)

Albert Bandura says that personality is not just behavioral, but also affected by cognitive and environmental factors observational learning- Bobo doll study, behaviors are learned, *mirror neurons* for imitation reciprocal determinism/causation- complex interactions of behavior, cognition, environment influencing each other

behaviorist perspective

B.F. Skinner says that humans learn behaviors based on environment, conditioning determinism- people are blank slates, personality determined by reinforcement and punishment babbling is reinforced by adults, babies learn behavioral therapy- use conditioning to shape patient's behavior, desensitization and relaxation techniques cognitive behavioral therapy- thoughts are behaviors, Beck's cognitive triad describe how depression comes from negative views of self, world, and future

biological perspective

Hans Eysenck says that personality is brain biology and genetics personality traits are hierarchical, basic traits giving rise to larger array of traits graph of extraversion and neuroticism explain array of personality temperament, social potency, and other fixed traits

theories of emotion (3)

James Lange- physiological arousal causes emotion Cannon Bard- physiological arousal and emotion happen at same time Schachter Singer- use situation to cognitively interpret physiological arousal to determine emotion

psychoanalytic perspective

Sigmund Freud, personality shaped by unconscious and childhood libido- life instinct, drives behavior focused on pleasure, survival, and avoidance of pain death instinct- drives dangerous behavior, desire to hurt others/oneself id- generally unconscious, *pleasure principle* is to avoid pain and seek pleasure ego- generally conscious, *reality principle* uses logic and reality, deals with the id and the superego, attempts to compromise superego- morality, right and wrong

Piaget's stages of cognitive development (4)

sensorimotor- 0-2, achieve: *object permanence*, stranger anxiety preoperational- 2-7, achieve: pretend play, egocentrism concrete operational- 7-11, achieve: *conservation*, logical reasoning formal operational- 11-17, achieve: *hypothetical reasoning*, moral reasoning

habituation

sensory adaption, decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

perceptual constancy

shape constancy- despite changes in dimensions or orientation size constancy- despite changes in depth brightness constancy- despite changes in lighting

Weber's Law

size of just noticeable difference is proportional to original stimuli value, its more like a noticeable percentage

stages of sleep (5)

sleep cycle lasts 90 minutes awake- beta waves sleepy- alpha waves stage 1 sleep- theta waves stage 2 sleep- theta waves, K-complexes, sleep spindles that suppress awakeness stage 3 sleep- delta waves (slow waves, regular RR/HR) stage 4 sleep- delta waves REM sleep- dreaming, quick eye movements, paradoxical sleep (small muscle movements)

Treisman attenuation model of selective attention

some information not attended to can be detected, just turned down to lower volume, processed but not consciously cocktail party effect- name is salient and shifts your attention shadowing- repeating out loud what you hear in attending ear

perception

stimulus- environmental, attended, receptors electrochemical processes- transduction (activating receptor), transmission, processing experience- perception, recognition, action

gestalt psychology

sum is greater than the parts perceptual organization- to transform sensory information, we organize it Gestalt principles: 1. emergence- patterns from randomness 2. pragnanz- seeing simplest form rather than complex one 3. figure/ground- focus on an object, turns everything else to background 4. multistability- 3d illusions, switching between two logical interpretations 5. laws of grouping- group by proximity, continuity, closure, common fate, connectedness

limbic system (4)

thalamus- center for incoming/outgoing stimuli hypothalamus- homeostasis, base drives (sex, pain, hunger, etc.), send info to body via hormones and autonomic nervous system hippocampus- consolidates STM into LTM amygdala- emotions and fear, irrational thinking, electrical stimulation causes aggressive behavior, PTSD has overactive amygdala that prefrontal cortex cannot inhibit

sensory receptors

tonic receptors- generate action potential as long as stimuli is present, may decrease over time due to habituation (sensory adaption), noiceptors (pain receptors) phasic receptors- generate action potential only at changes in stimuli, depolarization/hyperpolarization can occur

problem solving techniques (4)

trial-and-error- attempt potential solutions algorithm- step-by-step procedure to exhaust all possible options, guarantees solution heuristic- mental shortcut or guideline insight- complete solution comes all at once, incubation gives time for this to occur

signal detection theory

type I error- false positive type II error- missed signal depends on acquisition of information and application of criteria external noise (instrument) and internal noise (physician) can cause errors

classical conditioning

unconditioned response- original, natural response to stimuli Ivan Pavlov did first experiment with bell and dog phobias are conditioned through classical conditioning, can be made extinct through exposure therapy

emotion

universal emotions- happy, sad, anger, fear, surprise, disgust facial expressions are recognized by almost all cultures Yerkes-Dodson Law- emotion is adaptive, there is an optimal emotional arousal for performance 3 components: 1. physiological- arousal 2. behavioral- expressions 3. cognitive- subjective experience, appraisal, interpretation

categorical perception

a continuous change in one dimension is perceived as distinct categories

source monitoring error

a specific type of recollection where a memory is incorrectly attributed to the wrong source

Alzheimer's disease

abnormalities in brain include amyloid plaques (amyloid beta, protein aggregates outside cells), neurofibrillary tangles (tau tangles, protein aggregates inside cells) death of neurons cause memory failure and personality changes cognitive dysfunction reduces performance on all tasks

sensory thresholds

absolute threshold- lowest level of stimuli to detect 50% of time difference threshold- minimum difference between two stimuli to detect 50% of time, known as *Just Noticeable Difference* subliminal stimuli- stimuli below aboslute threshold

sensory memory

activated before working memory

post-decisional conflict

after making a decision, we consider that it might be wrong

theories of stress

appraisal theory of stress- stress arises from interpretation 1. primary appraisal- consider how significant an event is, whether it is a good or bad event 2. secondary appraisal- consider ability to cope or take advantage of the event Selye general adaptation syndrome- human stress response is not specific to the type of stressor 1. alarm- stress reaction kicks in 2. resistance- flee, all the cortisol 3. exhaustion- if no recovery, then tissue damage and decreased immune system (long term affects of stress)

approach-avoidance conflict

approach-approach conflict- both options are positive avoidant-avoidant conflict- both options are negative approach-avoidant conflict- one option is positive and negative double approach-avoidant conflict- both options are positive and negative

motion perception

assume that changing size of object suggests object is moving towards or away larger objects should change size slowly phi phenomenon- blinking lights next to each other give illusion of movement

attitude influences behavior (4)

attitude predicts behavior when: social influences are reduced talking about general behaviors not specific instances, principle of aggregation- attitude affects person's average behavior talking about specific attitudes, which are good at predicted specific behavior self-reflection occurs, not impulse

behavior influences attitude (3)

behavior has more powerful effect on attitude than the other way around role-playing- we adjust attitude to align with expected behavior of role, Stanford prison experiment public declarations- the more we express ourselves, the more we believe what we say justification of effort- convince ourselves that the effort we put into something is worthwhile

belief perseverance

belief bias- cling to old beliefs despite contrary evidence hindsight bias- overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome confirmation bias- seek evidence to support ideas more than we seek evidence to refute, stronger for emotional topics, affects the way we search for and interpret evidence leads to overconfidence

types of processing (2)

bottom-up processing- starts with sensory information to construct final representation in mind, learning Chinese, *inductive reasoning is always correct* top-down processing- starts with a concept/idea that is imposed on sensory details, reading English, *deductive reasoning can be wrong*

Parkinson's disease

caused by low dopamine levels, dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra of basal ganglia die off basal ganglia- voluntary motor movement, procedural learning, routine behavior symptoms include tremors, hypokinesia Lewy bodies- protein aggregates of alpha-synuclein inside neurons

Baddeley's model of working memory (4)

central executive- coordinates slave systems, selective attention and inhibition, task shifting phonological loop- short-term store, auditory rehearsal, links to semantic verbal memory visuospatial sketchpad- temporary store of spatial and visual information, links to semantic visual memory episodic buffer- integrate information across domains, links to episodic memory and links to LTM

autobiographical memory

childhood amnesia- no memory of first 5 years, although during childhood you can of course form LTM reminiscence bump- heightened autobiographical memory for events that occurred between ages 10 and 30

representative heuristic

comparing to existing prototype already existing in our mind

encoding specificity principle

conditions of encoding match conditions of testing

consciousness

conscious- aware preconscious- not aware but can be made aware unconscious- inaccessible instinct and desire Freud does not speak of subconsciousness

neurocognitive disorders

delirium- problems with attention/awareness alzheimer's, parkinson's

consciousness altering drugs (3)

depressants depress sympathetic NS, decrease brain activity, decrease glucose metabolism: 1. alcohol- stimulate GAPA and dopamine, suppress REM 2. *barbiturates*- sedatives, sleep aids, depress sympathetic NS 3. *opiates*- mimic endorphins to relieve pain, examples are morphine and heroin 4. *benzodiazepines*- stimulate GABA, anti-anxiety stimulants activate sympathetic NS, increase brain activity, increase glucose metabolism: 1. release neurotransmitter or prevent reuptake 2. caffeine, nicotine- cause a rush 3. cocaine- release dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine 4. ecstasy- release dopamine and serotonin 5. amphetamines- meth hallucinogens make you see things, can be either stimulating or depressing, no dependence: 1. marijuana- THC stimulates cannabinoid receptors, amplifies sensory perception 2. LSD- emotional, out-of-body

psychological disorders

diagnosable, treatable psychological influences (paranoia, anxiety), sociocultural influences (isolation, stigma), biological influences (neurotransmitters) anxiety disorders are most common (20%), then dissociative and mood disorders, then personality disorders

types of stimuli

distal stimuli- objects and events out in the world proximal stimuli- patterns from these objects and events that actually reach your senses

cognitive dissonance

don't like to hold two thoughts that are incompatible, so we do something to reduce the unpleasant tension we prefer to change attitude rather than behavior

sleep disorders (2)

dyssomnias- abnormalities in amount or quality of sleep 1. insomnia- can't fall asleep or remain asleep 2. narcolepsy- periodic overwhelming sleepiness 3. sleep apnea- intermittent cessation of breathing during sleep, causes awakening parasomnias- abnormal behavior during sleep 1. *somnambulism*- sleep-walking, occurring during stage 3, first 3rd of the night, children can grow out of it 2. *night terrors*- terrified, screaming during stage 3 unlike nightmares, which occur during REM sleep closer to the morning

opponent process theory

each emotion comes with a secondary opposite emotion that pushes in the other direction give a baby a toy, baby is happy take the toy away, baby is sad eventually baby returns to neutral addiction- with repeated exposures, withdrawal (sad) starts to outweigh the high (happy) colors- opposite colors cannot both be activated

attitude (3)

evaluation of people and things, formed from experiences 3 components: 1. cognition- thoughts and beliefs about it 2. affect- feelings about it 3. behavior- response to it

anxiety disorders (4)

fear is immediate, anxiety is anticipatory, avoidance behavior phobia- specific fear/anxiety, agoraphobia is fear of crowds social anxiety disorder- fear/anxiety around social situations panic disorders- panic attacks, anxiety about future attacks generalized anxiety disorder- excessive anxiety without a cause withdrawal and medical conditions can mimic anxiety symptoms

problem solving obstacles (4)

fixation- structuring a problem in a certain way, unable to rethink it mental set- tendency to approach problem in same way because it worked in the past functional fixedness- think of objects only based on their typical use framing- good things make us avoid risk

attention

focus awareness on some stimuli and not others, selective attention and divided attention resource model, spotlight model, filter model (Broadbent), attenuation model (Treisman)

diathesis-stress theory

genes predispose people to certain disorders, stressors elicit onset of disease

extinction

gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing occurs with both classical and operant conditioning

Erikson's stages of development (6)

includes social and interpersonal factors trust/mistrust- infancy autonomy/shame- early childhood initiative/guilt- preschool industry/inferiority- school identity/role confusion- adolescent intimacy/isolation- young adult generativity/stagnation- middle age integrity/despair- later life

rehearsal (3)

maintenance rehearsal- repetition, encodes to STM and working memory elaboration rehearsal- connection to info already stored in memory, encodes to LTM chunking- organize items into group to hold more in memory

mood disorders (4)

major depressive disorder- fatigue, insomnia, loss of interest monoamine hypothesis- basis of depression is decreased serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine bipolar I disorder (manic-depressive)- mainly manic, needs manic episode, doesn't need depression to diagnose bipolar II disorder- mainly depressive, needs depression, no manic episode, just hypomania dysthymia- chronic depression, milder symptoms hypomania- lots of energy, creativity cyclothymic disorder- cycles of dysthymia and hypomania

neurodevelopmental disorders (2)

manifest early in development, intellectual disability, communication disorders ADHD- impulsivity (can hinder performance on questions), motor restlessness, distractability autism- males more more likely to have it, impaired social interaction, repetitive behavior

parallel processing

many aspects of visual stimulus are processed simultaneously rather than serial processing retinal processing- rods and cones activated 1. feature detection- feature neurons activated in visual cortex 2. abstraction- higher level visual cortex 3. recognition- match to memory automatically process space, time, frequency, but need conscious effort to process novel information and interpret

somatic symptom disorders (5)

medically unexplainable symptoms somatic symptom disorder- general, vague symptoms illness anxiety disorder- fear of illness even w/o symptoms conversion disorder- specific disruption of nervous system, unexplainable paralysis or blindness, emotion is converted to neurological symptom factitious disorder- falsification, to get attention, Munchhausen syndrome

schema (2)

mental framework to organize experiences and respond to new ones, created by implicit attitudes and memories assimilation- new info interpreted using old info accommodation- new info is incorporated into old info

encoding of sensory stimuli

modality- type of stimuli, encoded by type of receptor firing location- encoded by receptive field of stimulus intensity- how strong, encoded by rate of firing of action potentials (frequency matters since action potentials are 1 or 0) duration- how long stimulus is present

obsessive-compulsive disorders (4)

obsessions (urges) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors) OCD- no distinct emotions, impossible to control body dysmorphic disorder- obsessive preoccupation that some aspect of one's own appearance is severely flawed hoarding disorder- distress at the thought of getting rid of personal items trichotillomania- urges to pull out body hair

personality traits

openness to experiences, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

disruptive disorders (5)

oppositional defiant disorder- annoyed and angered easily, argue with authority intermittent explosive disorder- bursts of anger greater than cause conduct disorder- most severe, recurring destructive/aggressive behavior, feeling no remorse (may be diagnosed with antisocial), ex. bullying, fights, weapons, torturing pyromania- impulsive fire-starting kleptomania- impulsive stealing

Freud's stages of development (5)

oral- 0-1, mouth, weaning anal- 1-3, anus, toilet training phallic- 3-6, genitals, gender, oedipus/electra latency- 6-12, sexual feelings dormant to focus on friendship genital- 12+, other people's genitals, intimacy if a child does not resolve the conflict, he becomes fixated and struggles with things later in life

spreading activation theory

originates from hierarchical semantic network, where categories order the nodes but this semantic network has no hierarchy, activating one node increases the likelihood of associated nodes becoming active activation increases the ease of access to that material and makes retrieval of that node easier confabulation- false memories can be triggered by activation of associated nodes

partial reinforcement schedules (4)

partial reinforcement- learning is slower than continuous reinforcement, but more resistant to extinction fixed ratio- reinforcement after set number of behavior, dip in response after each reinforcement variable ratio- reinforcement after random number of behaviors, strongest schedule with no dips after reinforcements fixed interval- reinforcement after set time, worse than ratio, dip in response after each reinforcement variable interval- reinforcement after random times, worse than ratio but still no dips after reinforcements

feature detection theory

parts of brain are activated for specific features of visual stimuli, visual cortex passes sensory info to parts of the brain responsible for shape, angle, motion, etc. ex. one feature detection neuron fires more action potentials at straight vertical lines

trait perspective

personality is a result of traits, which are stable over time cardinal traits- dominate person's life, rare and tend to develop later in life, Hitler is ruthless central traits- terms you would use to describe someone, major characteristics secondary traits- attitudes or preferences, situational aspects INTP, OCEAN, dimensions of personality, etc.

drive-reduction theory

physiological needs creates arousal that drives organism to act to reduce arousal, seeking return to homeostasis depression is a reduction in the motivating forces of arousal

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem needs, self-actualization while you cannot achieve higher needs until lower needs are met, you still have those higher needs differs from Freud and Erikson, who say you don't have to resolve lower stage to move to higher ones

eating disorders (4)

pica- eating non-food items anorexia nervosa- starving bulimia nervosa- binge eating and purging binge eating disorder- no purging

positive/negative reinforcement

positive reinforcement- give good when desired behavior performed negative reinforcement- remove bad when desired behavior performed positive punishment- give bad when desired behavior not performed negative punishment- remove good when desired behavior not performed

monocular cues for depth

relative size- smaller is closer interposition- object blocking another is closer relative clarity- sharper is closer texture gradient- coarse is closer relative height- higher in visual field is further motion parallax- faster objects as we move are closer linear perspective- greater convergence the further light and shadow- brighter is closer

availability heuristic

rely on examples that immediately come to mind

ego defense mechanisms (8)

repression- completely forget a memory denial- refuse to acknowledge a memory reaction formation- express opposite emotion (I hate her, not sexually attracted to her) projection- attribute feelings to someone else or thing (computer is dumb, not you) displacement- redirect forbidden impulses onto less dangerous one (kick dog, not boss) rationalization- justify impulsive behavior regression-revert to earlier stage in development (adult wets bed after trauma) sublimation- channel forbidden impulses into positive activities (paint picture, don't kill)

interference

retroactive interference- newly learned information interferes with recall of previously learned information proactive interference- previously learned information interferes with recall of new learned information interference cannot occur if you have retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia, or a memory disorder like Alzheimer's, Korsakoff syndrome, etc.

memory over time

semantic memory improves, episodic memory declines implicit memory is stable, explicit memory declines emotional reasoning improves, attention/processing declines recognition memory is stable, recall memory declines prospective memory decreases, where you remember to do something in the future

operant conditioning

*continuous reinforcement*- during initial part of acquisition phase, teach subject the correct behavior, type of fixed ratio reinforcement *shaping*- reinforcing simple steps to condition a more complex behavior *instinctual drift*- conditioned responses are replaced by instinctual behavior

binocular cues for depth

*retinal disparity*- greater difference in image between eyes, the shorter the distance *convergence*- greater extent to which eyes converge to look at object, the shorter the distance

theories of dreaming (4)

1. Freud says dreams have manifest content, symbolic of unconscious latent content 2. activation-synthesis theory- random brain activation 3. evolutionary purpose for threat simulation and problem solving 4. sleep helps encode to LTM

dissociative disorders (3)

DID- abnormal integration of consciousness dissociative amnesia- lost part of autobiographical memory, wander aimlessly in dissociative fugue can also selectively forget distracting elements of autobiographical memory depersonalization/derealization disorder- associated with PTSD common with abuse and trauma

anxiety disorders (trauma)

PTSD- flashbacks, distress around similar experiences, derealization (everything feels unreal), depersonalization (out of body experience), hypervigilance acute stress disorder- symptoms last longer, more persistent adjustment disorders- severity of trauma not correlated to severity of symptoms (milder)

behavioral genetics

individuals explained by nature and nurture, differences in behaviors, personality, disease incidence shared environment- shared by siblings in the same family nonshared environment- environment unique to individual heritability- how much variation is caused by genetics, need large sample sizes epigenetics differences- posttranslational changes in DNA, caused by environment, development, can be inherited methodologies- family studies (not helpful, b/c environment and genetics play role), twin studies (study genetics), adoption studies (study environment) phenylketonuria (PKA)- when treated, people are perfectly normal autism- pesticides, plastics, drugs taken while pregnant, early diagnosis key

personality disorders (3)

inflexible pattern of socially deviant behaviors, begins in adolescence and not diagnosed in children odd/eccentric (cluster A): 1. paranoid- mistrust everything 2. schizoid- detached loner 3. schizotypal- odd/magical beliefs and behaviors dramatic/erratic (cluster B): 1. antisocial- disregard safety and rights of others, common in criminals 2. borderline- mood swings, self-harm 3. histrionic- dramatic, attract attention 4. narcissistic- grandiose and egotistical anxious/fearful (cluster C): 1. avoidant- avoid people, fear of criticism/conflict 2. dependent- submissive and clingy to people, doesn't take responsibility 3. obsessive-compulsive- perfectionist, needs control

Broadbent filter model of selective attention

input enters sensory store, selective filter removes unattended input and allowed to decay, then input goes to higher level processing and WM

motivation

instinct- unlearned behaviors needs- physiological needs and higher-level needs, creates a drive drives- aroused internal state created by a need (*need is water, drive is thirst*) arousal- need optimal level of stimulation external motivator- external incentive triggers action internal motivator- internal desire triggers action 3 components: 1. behavioral 2. cognitive 3 emotional/affective

latent learning

latent learning- learning without reinforcement, learning with no explicit change in behavior while being taught, but it manifests later when the learned behavior is needed insight learning- previously learned behaviors are combined in unique ways related to social cognitive perspective and observational learning

schizophrenia

positive symptoms: hallucinations (sensation), delusions (beliefs), disorganized speech dopamine may be hyperactive, creates euphoria, explains positive symptoms negative symptoms: avolition (loss of motivation, flattened affect, reduced social interactions), alogia (decreased speech) frontal lobe may be be hypoactive, explains negative cognitive symptoms- poor WM, attention, executive functioning genetic factors- only influence risk environmental factors- stress/cortisol during pregnancy types of schizophrenia: 1. paranoid- delusions and hallucinations, normal cognitive function 2. catatonic- extremes of behavior 3. disorganized- disorganized behavior and speech 4. undifferentiated- mixed symptoms other types: 1. schizophreniform disorder- milder, not life-long 2. schizoaffective disorder- mood disorder 3. prodrome- deterioration before schizophrenia diagnosis neuroleptics were first antipsychotics used, increased negative symptoms though

Kohlberg's stages of moral development (3)

preconventional: 1. obedience (avoid punishment) 2. self-interest (personal gain) conventional: 1. conformity (approval) 2. authority (social order), most adults are here postconventional: 1. social contract (fairness) 2. universal principles (ethics)

serial position effects

primacy effect and recency effect, hard to remember things in the middle

primary/secondary reinforcement

primary reinforcers- biological like food, drink, and pleasure secondary reinforcers- conditioned over a lifetime, like money, grades in schools, and tokens

types of memory

procedural memory sensory memory working memory short term memory long term memory STM and LTM are separate memory systems implicit memory- responses influenced by experience, no awareness of remembering explicit memory- intentional retrieval, semantic and episodic are the two types semantic- facts and general knowledge episodic- declarative memory, events iconic memory- visual memory echoic memory- auditory memory *retrograde*- memory before event, going back in time *anterograde*- memory after event, going forward in time

kinesthesis

proprioception, allows us to sense position of body in space mechanoreceptors that detect mechanical movement- muscle spindle (muscle stretching), Golgi tendon organs (tension in tendons), joint capsule receptors (pressure/tension in joints)

substance-related disorders

psychological dependence- anxiety, depression physical dependence- taking away the drug triggers *withdrawal* has physical symptoms, usually the opposite of the symptoms of the drug *tolerance*- sensitivity to drug decreases craving- strong desire to ingest a drug reinforcing effects- operant condition, when you take the drug it feels good, when you don't take the drug it feels bad, so withdrawal due to an inhibitor of the drug would strengthen the reinforcing effects of the drug nucleus accumbens- pleasure center that produces dopamine, responsible for addiction Korsakoff's syndrome- long term memory loss from alcohol abuse, due to deficiency of thiamine

sensation/perception

psychophysics- study of how stimuli is translated to psychological experience sensation- detecting and encoding physical stimuli perception- selecting and interpreting sensations

ROC curve

receiver operating characteristic curve compares false alarm rate on x axis to hit rate on y axis steeper curve means more accurate