Psychology Test 2 (Set 2)

situation

Findings suggest that human behavior is determined not so much by the kind of person one is, as by the kind of ___________ one is in.

internal

Making attributions is a two-step process: 1. In the first step, which occurs automatically, observers make an ________ attribution because they are focusing on the person rather than the situation. 2. In the second step, observers weigh the impact of the situation on the target person's behavior and adjust their inference.

situation

Making attributions is a two-step process: 1. In the first step, which occurs automatically, observers make an internal attribution because they are focusing on the person rather than the situation. 2. In the second step, observers weigh the impact of the __________ on the target person's behavior and adjust their inference.

reciprocity principle

Most people have been socialized to believe in the _________________- the rule that one should pay back in kind what one receives from others.

likability

Other than credibility,____________ is also a major source factor for persuasion and it includes a number of subfactors. -physical attractiveness; attractive sources more successful -people also respond better to sources who are similar to them in ways that are relevant to the issue at hand.

right-wing authoritarianism

Over the past 50 years, both the definition and the measurement of authoritarianism have evolved. The construct is now termed ____________________________, and it is characterized by authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism.

attributions

People are most likely to make _________: -When others behave in unexpected or negative ways -When events are personally relevant -When they are suspicious about another person's motives

social dominance orientation

People high in ________________ prefer inequality among social groups, believing in a hierarchy where some are destined to dominate others, such as men over women, majorities over minorities, or heterosexuals over homosexuals.

ingroup, outgroup

People perceive others who are similar to them to be members of their _________ ("us"), and those who are dissimilar to them, in the _________ ("them").

discrimination

______________ involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group.

persuasion

______________ involves the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person's attitudes.

person perception

______________ is the process of forming impressions of others.

compliance

______________ occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed.

normative influence

______________ operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences. Compliance often results from subtle, implied pressure.

informational influence

______________ operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations. People are likely to conform when they are uncertain how to behave.

systematic judgements

_______________ about others occur when people take the time to observe the person in a variety of situations and to compare that person's behavior with that of others in similar situations. Used in forming impressions of those who can affect people's welfare and happiness.

defensive attribution

_______________ is a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way.

social categorization

_______________ predisposes people to divide the social world into ingroups and outgroups.

defensive attributions

_______________, in which people unfairly blame victims of adversity to reassure themselves that the same thing won't happen to them, can also contribute to prejudice.

snap judgments

________________ about others are those made quickly and based on only a few bits of information and preconceived notions. Thus, they may not be particularly accurate.

superordinate goals

________________ are goals are goals that require two or more groups to work together to achieve mutual ends.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A ______________ occurs when expectations about a person cause the person to behave in ways that confirm the expectations.

attributions

____________ are inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior, others' behavior, and events.

confirmation bias

____________ is the tendency to seek information that supports one's beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information.

attitudes

_____________ are defined as beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas.

prejudice

_____________ is a negative attitude toward members of a group.

foot in the door

A commitment-based strategy, the _______________ ____________ involves getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request.

prejudice

It seems that people are particularly likely to make the fundamental attribution error when evaluating targets of __________.

primacy effect

A ___________ occurs when initial information carries more weight than subsequent information.

consistency

A key theme in person perception: Cognitions that contradict each other tend to create tension and discomfort.

efficiency

A key theme in person perception: in forming impressions of others, people prefer to exert no more cognitive effort or time than is necessary. Thus, much social information is processed automatically and effortlessly. -This has two advantages: people can make judgments quickly and it keeps things simple. -The big disadvantage is that judgments are error-prone.

selectivity

A key theme in person perception: people see what they expect to see. A person is preceded by his or her reputation.

alike

A result of social categorization: Individuals usually see outgroup members as being much more ______ than they really are, whereas they see members of their ingroup as unique individuals.

visibility

A result of social categorization: It heightens the __________ of outgroup members when there are only a few of them within a larger group.

favorable

A result of social categorization: People usually have less ____________ attitudes toward outgroup members than ingroup members.

elaboration likelihood model

According to the _________________, an individual's thoughts about a persuasive message (rather than the actual message itself) will determine whether attitude change will occur.

social identity theory

According to the ___________________, self-esteem is partly determined by one's social identity, or collective self, which is tied to one's group memberships.

subjective, accurate

Although the process of person perception is highly ___________, people are relatively ________ perceivers of others.

lowball technique

Another commitment-based strategy is the _______________, which involves getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed.

size and unanimity

Group ________ and __________ are key determinants of conformity. As the number in the group increases, conformity increases-up to a point. Also, the presence of another dissenter lowers conformity.

verbal behavior

In forming impressions of others, this is one of the five key sources of observational information: -An obvious source of information about others is what they say. People form impressions based on what and how much others self-disclose, how often they give advice and ask questions, and how judgmental they are.

actions

In forming impressions of others, this is one of the five key sources of observational information: -Because people don't always tell the truth, you have to rely on their behavior to provide insights aobut them.

nonverbal messages

In forming impressions of others, this is one of the five key sources of observational information: -Facial expressions, eye contact, body language, and gestures provide information about people's emotional states and dispositions.

appearance

In forming impressions of others, this is one of the five key sources of observational information: -Physical features such as height, weight, skin color, and hair color are some of the cues used to "read" other people. Regardless of their accuracy, beliefs about physical features are used to form impressions of others.

situations

In forming impressions of others, this is one of the five key sources of observational information: -The setting in which behavior occurs provides crucial information about how to interpret a person's behavior.

fear

In persuasion, ______ appeals are most likely to work when your listeners view the dire consequences that you describe as exceedingly unpleasant, as fairly probably if they don't take your advice, and as avoidable if they do.

credibility

Persuasion tends to be more successful when the source has high ____________.

moods

Receptivity to a persuasive message can sometimes depend on people's ________: optimistic people process uplifting messages better than pessimists, who are drawn to counter-attitudinal communications, or those opposing their current views.

perception

The ____________ of threats to one's in-group is much more likely to cause hostility between groups than actual threats to the ingroup are.

bystander effect

The ______________ is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone. -it is most likely to occur in ambiguous situations, because people look around to see whether others are acting as if there's an emergency.

door in the face technique

The __________________ involves making a large request that is likely to be turned down in order to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later.

fundamental attribution error

The ___________________ refers to the tendency to explain other people's behavior as the result of personal, rather than situational factors. -inferences are based on actual behavior, but those inferences may be inaccurate.

authoritarian personality

The ____________________ is a personality type characterized by prejudice toward any group perceived to be different from oneself. This study was found to have serious methodological weaknesses and it is now termed right-wing authoritarianism.

outgroup homogeneity effect

The phenomenon called the ________________________ is when people frequently explain the behavior of outgroup members on the basis of the characteristic that sets them apart, but attribute the same behavior by an ingroup member to individual personality traits.

reactance

The term ___________ describes the situation where telling people that they can't have something only makes them want it more.

what is beautiful is good

The widespread perception termed the __________________ stereotype is that physically attractive people are believed to have desirable personality traits. Specifically, beautiful people are usually viewed as more socially competent, more assertive, better adjusted, and more intellectually competent than those who are less attractive.

ultimate

Thomas Pettigrew suggests that perceiving negative characteristics as being dispositional (personality based) and due to group membership is the ______________________ attribution error.

need for cognition

When receiving persuasive messages, some people want to think deeply about issues, having a so-called ______________, the tendency to seek out and enjoy effortful thought, problem solving activities, and in-depth analysis.

message, channel

Two elements in the process of persuasion: The ___________ is the information transmitted by the source; the _________ is the medium through which the message is sent.

source, receiver

Two elements in the process of persuasion: The ____________ is the person who sends a communication, and the _____________ is the person to whom the message is sent.

expertise and trustworthiness

Two subfactors make a communicator credible: ___________ and ___________.

aversive racism

Well-intentioned whites can engage in ______________, an indirect, subtle, ambiguous form of racism that occurs when their conscious endorsement of egalitarian ideals is in conflict with unconscious, negative reactions to minority group members.

ingroup favoritism

When collective self-esteem is threatened, individuals react in two key ways to bolster it: 1. The most common response is to show _____________-for example, tapping an ingroup member for a job opening or rating the performance higher than that of an outgroup member. 2. The second way to deal with threats to social identity is to engage in outgroup derogation-in other words, to "trash" outgroups that are perceived as threatening.

outgroup derogation

When collective self-esteem is threatened, individuals react in two key ways to bolster it: 1. The most common response is to show ingroup favoritism-for example, tapping an ingroup member for a job opening or rating the performance higher than that of an outgroup member. 2. The second way to deal with threats to social identity is to engage in _______________-in other words, to "trash" outgroups that are perceived as threatening.

stereotypes

___________ are widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group.

obedience

___________ is a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority.

conformity

___________ occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure.