public speaking final

Persuasive Theories

- Elaboration Likelihood Method (ELM) = two routes of persuasion (central route = logos, reason & peripheral route = uses pathos) -Affective Cognitive Dissonance = confused between emotions and reason -Attribution Theory (Discounting Effect) = when talking about a cause, when the cause is not the only cause to a given problem, there are additional factors to the cause -Self Perception Theory = we are not going to change if it is not a part of our environment or personality

Source Qualifier

-A brief description of the source's qualifications to address the topic

Summary

-A brief overview of someone else's ideas, opinions, or theories. While a paraphrase contains approximately the same number of words as the original source material stated in the speaker's own words, a summary condenses the same material, distilling only its essence

Trustworthiness

-A combination of honesty and dependability; speakers demonstrate their trustworthiness by supporting their points truthfully and by not presenting misleading or false information

Identification

-A feeling of commonality

Paraphrase

-A restatement of someone else's ideas, opinions, or theories in the speaker's own words. Because paraphrases alter the form but not the substance of another person's ideas, you must acknowledge the original source

Questionaire

-A series of fixed-alternative scale or open-ended questions

Communication Ethics

-Addresses our responsibilities when seeking influence over other people and for which there are positive and negative, or "right" and "wrong" choices of action

Scale Questions

-Also called attitude scales, measure the respondents' level of agreement or disagreement with specific positions or indicate how important listeners judge something to be

Open-ended Questions

-Also called unstructured questions, begin with a how, what, when, where, or why, and they are particularly useful for probing beliefs and opinions

Preparation Anxiety

-Anxiety arises only when they actually begin to prepare for the speech. -These individuals might feel overwhelmed by the time and planning required or hit a road-block that puts them behind schedule. Preparation pressures produce a cycle of stress, procrastination, and outright avoidance, which contribute to preparation anxiety.

Hate Speech

-Any offensive communication--verbal or nonverbal--directed against people's race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and the like.

Ethos

-Appeal to credibility; how does the speaker invoke trustworthiness?; directed at establishing one's authority as a speaker and person -Initial credibility -Derived credibility -Terminal credibility -Competence - demonstrating mastery of the subject matter -Moral Character - reflected in an honest presentation of the message -Goodwill - demonstrated by the speaker's interest in and concern for the needs of the audience relative to the speech

Direct Quotations

-Are verbatim--or word for word--presentations of statements made by someone else. Direct quotes should always be acknowledged in a speech

Ethnocentrism

-Attitude that one's own group, ethnicity, or nationality is superior to others

Guidelines for Evaluating a Speech

-Be honest and fair in your evaluation of the speech. Assess the speech as a whole and remain open to ideas and beliefs that differ from your own. -Adjust to the speaker's style. Each of us has a unique communication style, a way of presenting ourselves through a mix of verbal and nonverbal signals. Don't judge the content of a speaker's message by his or her style. -Be compassionate in your criticism. Always start by saying something positive, and focus on the speech, not the speaker. -Be selective in your criticism. Make specific rather than global statements. Give the speaker something he or she can learn from.

Responsibility

-Being accountable for what you say

Stress-Control Breathing

-Breathing in the stomach rather than chest Stage 1: inhale air & let abdomen go out, exhale air & let abdomen go in Stage 2: as you inhale, use a soothing word such as calm or relax or use a personal mantra Use stress-controlled breathing several days before a speech; perform while awaiting your turn at the podium and just before you start your speech.

Respect

-By treating audience members with civility and courtesy

Relaxation Response

-Can use meditation and controlled breathing to counteract the physiological reactions

Civic-Minded

-Caring about your community as expressed in your speeches and your deeds

Types of Reasoning

-Cause/Effect -Reasoning from Symptoms = looking at what's going on to come to a conclusion -Criteria to Application = criteria by which we will find the solution/decision -Reasoning from Comparison or Contrast = comparing one thing to another -Deductive Reasoning = inference based on widely accepted fact (major premise) -Inductive Reasoning = drawing conclusions from a set of observations (minor premises lead to a conclusion)

Pillars of Character

-Certain moral ground rules like trustworthy, respectful, responsible, fair, and civic-minded

Types of Visual Aids

-Chalkboard/Flipchart -Overhead Projection -Handouts -Tables & Graphs -Multimedia -Powerpoint: do not overuse the presentation tho

Ethos

-Character; the foremost duty speakers have toward their audience is to demonstrate positive ethos, or good character -Credibility; reveals that people place their greatest trust in speakers who have a solid grasp of the subject, are honest and straightforward, are genuinely respectful and interested in the welfare of their listeners

Oral Citation

-Credits the source of speech material that is derived from other people's ideas -Cite author/origin of source, type of source, date of the source

Information

-Data that is presented in an understandable context

Free Speech

-Defined as the right to be free from unreasonable constraints on expression thereby assuring protection both to speakers who treat the truth with respect and to those whose words are inflammatory and offensive

Evidence - Statistics

-Descriptive Statistics = deals with what has happened or what is currently happening (past and present) -Inferential Statistics = infers the future

Common Knowledge

-Do not need to credit sources for these ideas; information that is likely to be known by many people and described in multiple places

Heckler's Veto

-Drowning out a speaker's message with which you disagree -Dignity: refers to bearing and conduct that is respectful to self and others

Perusasive Appeals

-Evidence -Emotion -Fear -Reward -Appeal to motivating factors -Appeal to alternative values -Right will triumph -Winning is everything -Foot in the door -Door in the face

Pyschographics

-Focuses on the audience's attitudes, beliefs, and values--their feelings and opinions, including those related to the topic, speaker, and occasion

Performance Anxiety

-For most people, anxiety is highest just as a speech begins. -Usually is most pronounced during the introduction of the speech when we are most aware of the audience's attention. Audiences we perceive as negative usually cause us to feel more anxious than those we sense are positive or neutral.

Audience-Centered Perspective

-From selections and treatment of the speech topic to making decisions about how you will organize, word, and deliver it-- will help you prepare a presentation that your audience will want to hear

Types of Warrants

-Generalized Warrant = general knowledge so, it must be true -Expert Warrant = because an expert said it, it must be true -Causal Warrant = accepting the cause of an event -Analogical Warrant = because they give similarities, it must be true

Fallacies of Argument

-Hasty Generalization -False Analogy/Cause -Post Hoc or Sequential -Slippery Slope -Red Herring -Faulty Statistics -Appeal to Tradition -False Dilemma -False Authority -Bandwagon -Ad Hominem -Ad Populum

Reckless Disregard for the Truth

-If you knew that what you were saying was false but said it anyway

Propaganda

-Information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired response

Testimony Evidence (2 kinds)

-Lay = testimony by nonexperts such as eyewitnesses which can be compelling first hand info that may be unavailable to others -Expert = includes findings, eyewitness accounts, or opinions from professionals trained to evaluate a given topic

Attitudes

-Our general evaluations of people, ideas, objects, or events

Values

-Our most enduring judgements or standards of what's good and bad in life and of what's important to us. Values shape how we see the world and form the basis on which we judge the actions of others

Guidelines for Preparing the Introduction

-Prepare the introduction after you've completed the speech body so you will know exactly what you need to preview. -Keep the introduction brief--as a rule, no more than 10-15 percent of the entire speech. -Practice delivering your introduction until you feel confident you've got it right.

Secondary Sources

-Provide analysis or commentary about things not directly observed or created -Found in books, newspapers, periodicals, and reference books

Primary Sources

-Provide firsthand accounts or direct evidence of events, objects, or people -Can be personal experience, government documents, and data -Can be found in letters, diaries, old newspapers, photographs, or other sources: a blog or interview or survey that you conduct yourself

Vocal Delivery

-Rate (Pauses) = slow and steady -Volume = do not yell -Pitch = natural, not memorized -Tone = accents

Evidence - Example or Narration

-Real = real experiences -Hypothetical = do not use this to prove a point

Fairness

-Refers to making a genuine effort to see all sides of an issue and acknowledging the information listeners need in order to make informed decisions

Source Credibility

-Refers to our level of trust in a source's credentials and track record for providing accurate information

Misinformation

-Refers to something that is not true

Cultural Values

-Related to their personal relationships, religion, occupation, and so forth, and these values can significantly influence how audience members respond to a speaker's message

Integrity

-Signals the speaker's incorruptibility--that he or she will avoid compromising the truth for the sake of personal expediency

Pre-performance Anxiety

-Some people experience anxiety as they rehearse their speech. -This is when the reality of the situation sets in: they worry that the audience will be watching and listening only to them, feel that their ideas aren't expressed ideally, or sense that time is short.

Pre-Preparation Anxiety

-Some people feel anxious the minute they know they will be giving a speech. -It can be a problem when we delay planning for the speech, or when it so preoccupies us that we miss vital information needed to fulfill the speech assignment. Start very early using stress-reducing techniques.

Public Discourse

-Speech involving issues of importance to the larger community, such as race relations or immigration reform

Slander

-Speech that can be proved to be defamatory or potentially harmful to an individual's reputation at work or in the community

Fighting Words

-Speech that incites people to imminent violence

First Amendment

-State that racist, sexist, or ageist slurs, gay-bashing, and other forms of negative or hate speech clearly are unethical

Fight-or-Flight Response

-The body's automatic response to threatening or fear-inducing events Includes: -Rapid heart rate and breathing -Dry mouth -Faintness -Freezing up -Other uncomfortable sensations

Effective Delivery

-The controlled use of voice and body to express the qualities of naturalness, enthusiasm, confidence, and directness

Disinformation

-The deliberate falsification of information

Audience Analysis

-The process of gathering and analyzing information about audience members' attributes and motivations with explicit aim of preparing your speech in ways that will be meaningful to them

Plagarism

-The use of other people's ideas or words without acknowledging the source

Beliefs

-The ways in which people perceive reality

Captive Audience

-Who are required to hear the speaker, may be less positively disposed to the occasion

Voluntary Audience

-Who attend of their own free will

Listening

-pre-listening stage, the while-listening stage, and the post-listening stage -The conscious act of receiving, comprehending, interpreting, evaluating, & responding to messages

Toulmin Model

1. Claim (fact: what is & will be, value: beneficial or not beneficial, policy: what can be done or what should be done) 2. Grounds (data) = types of evidence 3. Warrant = not stated, what we hope the audience does with the evidence to accept the claim (different types: generalized, expert, causal, analogical) 4. Backing = explanation of the warrant 5. Qualifier = how strong the speaker is (possibly, probably, never) 6. Rebuttal (when a claim might not be true) = unless, except if

Dangers of True Belief

Accept without evidence Confirmation Bias Belief not data driven Rationalization Accept even when disproven Shift Burden of Proof "Prove true belief is false" rather than "prove true belief is correct" Decline in scientific literacy Decrease in informed decision Promotion of simplistic answers Creation of false hopes

Question and Answer Techniques

Assume questions exist Be pleasant Repeat/Rephrase Succinct Answers "Don't Know" → acceptable if you truly don't know All parts of audience Postpone Label/Loaded Questions Prime the pump: leave something out of her speech on purpose Have others answer Redirect

Monroe Motivated Sequence

Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, Action

Types of Sources

Book Reference Work Article in Journal, Newspaper, or Magazine Website Blog Television or Radio Program Online Video Testimony (Lay or Expert) Interview and Other Personal Communication

Fixed-Alternative Questions

Contain a limited choice of answers

Physical Delivery

Eye Contact, Gestures, Stance, Hands & Feet

Channels

Face to face, electronic, written

Delivery Styles

Memorized, Manuscript, Impromptu, Extemporaneous

Burke's Five Dogs

Primal - first Jingle - rhymes, songs Lexical - denotative Entelechial - perfect Tautological - associations

Message

Verbal (style, organization of material, content) + nonverbal (gesturing, hands moving)

Circular Pattern

a pattern that is useful when you want listeners to follow a line of reasoning; here you develop one idea, which leads to another, etc. until you arrive back at speech thesis

Pathos

appeal to emotion; what does the speaker invoke in the audience?; directed at appealing to listeners' emotions

Logos

appeal to reason; look at different logics; fallacies of argument; directed at the audience's systematic reasoning on a topic

Sharpening

certain ideas become emphasized

Chronological Pattern

follows the natural sequential order of the main points

Environment

impacts the audience and speaker; types: Physical, Social, Pyschological

Noise

interrupts the message getting to the receiver; types: physical- (slamming door) , psychological - (saying uh, uhm) , social (audience members speaking) , semantic (using words that the audience will not understand), organizational (outside noise)

Problem-Solution Pattern

organizes main points to demonstrate the nature & significance of a problem & provide justification for a proposed solution

Source

person giving the speech; to inform, to persuade, to entertain; must be credible/trustworthy (3 types of credibility)

Spatial Pattern

the main points are arranged in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to one another; for example, select this when your speech provides audience with a "tour" of a particular place

Receiver

the receiver creates the meaning of the message; purpose- why is the audience there + knowledge - avoid using topics everyone knows

Feedback

verbal + nonverbal (looking at audience to see how they receive the message)

Invective

verbal attacks, designed to discredit and belittle those with whom you disagree

Assimilation

we change unfamiliar ideas to more familiar ones; cannot change the most important details

Leveling

we level off ideas that are not as important as others

Topical Pattern

when each of the main points is a subtopic or category of the speech topic; the points are of relatively equal importance, so they can be arranged in any order without affecting one another or the speech purpose negatively

Causal Pattern

when speeches represent cause-effect relationships, they should take the form cause and then effect

Narrative Pattern

when the speech consists of a story or series of short stories, replete with character, settings, plot & vivid imagery