PY385 Exam 4

Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases?

"Because he always jogs a mile"

Consider the sentence "Gloria, the glorious poodle, won the dog show. She has won this award for the second time." A correct anaphoric reference from this sentence would be ___.

"She" refers to Gloria the poodle.

by ________ msec after hearing the word rose as a verb, the flower meaning of rose is gone.

200

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify

50 percent of the words spoken by their own voices.

Subject-relative constructions account for _____ percent of relative clause constructions (Reali & Christiansen, 2007), and being more prevalent has an important effect—we have more exposure to subject-relative constructions, so we have more practice understanding these constructions.

65

Language development is similar across cultures. No matter what the culture or the particular language, children generally begin babbling at about ____ months, a few meaningful words appear by their first birthday, and the first multiword utterances occur at about age ____ (Levelt, 2001).

7 2

___________ ___________ is the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined. An experiment by Dedre Gentner and Susan Goldin-Meadow (2003) illustrated analogical encoding by showing that it is possible to get participants to discover similar problem features by having them compare two cases that illustrate a principle. Their experiment involved a problem in negotiation. In the first part of the experiment, participants were taught about the negotiation strategies of trade-off and contingency. The _________-_______ _________ refers to a negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, "I'll give you A, if you'll give me B." This is illustrated by two sisters who are quarreling over who should get an orange. Eventually, they reach a trade-off solution when they realize that one wants the juice and the other wants just the peel, so one takes the juice and the other takes the peel. (This example is attributed to management consultant Mary Parker Follet in Gentner & Goldin-Meadow, 2003.) The _________ __________ refers to a negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens. This is illustrated by a situation in which an author wants 18 percent royalties, but the publisher wants to pay only 12 percent. The contingent solution would be to tie royalties to sales: "You can have 18 percent if sales are high, but less if sales are low."

Analogical encoding trade-off strategy contingency strategy

Studying Language in Cognitive Psychology •______ ________ (1957) Verbal Behavior -Language learned through reinforcement •_________ __________ (1957) Syntactic Structures -Human language coded in the genes -Underlying basis of all language is similar -Children produce sentences they have never heard and that have never been reinforced •________________: discover psychological process by which humans acquire and process language -Comprehension -Speech production -Representation -Acquisition

B.F. Skinner Noam Chomsky Psycholinguistics

In a syntactic priming experiment, two people engage in a conversation, and the experimenter determines whether a specific grammatical construction used by one person causes the other person to use the same construction. In ______________ experiment, participants were told that the experiment was about how people communicate when they can't see each other. They thought they were working with another participant who was on the other side of a screen (the person on the left in Figure 11.14a). In reality, person A, on the left, was working with the experimenter, and person B, on the right, was the participant in the experiment.

Branigan's

condition characterized by labored ungrammatical speech and difficulty in understanding some types of sentences

Broca's aphasia

Broca's study of patients with brain damage led to the proposal that an area in the frontal lobe (________ _______) is responsible for the production of language. Wernicke proposed that an area in the temporal lobe (________ _______) is responsible for comprehension.

Broca's area Wernicke's area

Understanding Text and Stories •____________: -Representation of the text in one's mind that creates clear relations... ▪between parts of the text and ▪between parts of the text and the story's main topic •____________: readers create information during reading not explicitly stated in the text -___________: connecting objects/people -___________: tools or methods -_________: events in one clause caused by events in previous sentence •__________ __________: mental representation of what a text is about -Represent events as if experiencing the situation -Point of view of protagonist •___________ of _____________ -Approximately the same areas of the cortex are activated by actual movements and by reading related action words -The activation is more extensive for actual movements

Coherence Inference Anaphoric Instrument Causal Situation model Physiology of simulations

In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?

Comma

The goal of psycholinguistics is to discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language (Clark & Van der Wege, 2002; Gleason & Ratner, 1998; Miller, 1965). The four major concerns of psycholinguistics are as follows: _____________. How do people understand spoken and written language? This includes how people process language sounds; how they understand words, sentences, and stories expressed in writing, speech, or sign language; and how people have conversations with one another. _________________. How is language represented in the mind? This includes how people group words together into phrases to create meaningful sentences and how they make connections between different parts of a story. _________ __________. How do people produce language? This includes the physical processes of speech production and the mental processes that occur as a person creates speech. __________. How do people learn language? This includes not only how children learn language but also how people learn additional languages, either as children or later in life.

Comprehension Representation Speech production Acquisition

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?

Connecting the fortress with the tumor

Things Creative People Do Differently •____________ -__________ ____________: purposeful mind wandering •___________ -Avoiding distractions; giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning •_________ -_________ ___________ meditation: focus on one thing, such as the breath, and return to it when distracted -__________ ____________ meditation: pay attention to whatever comes up and follow it until the next thing

Daydreaming Volitional daydreaming Solitude Mindfulness Focused attention Open monitoring

The Universality of Language •________ children invent sign language that is all their own •All humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules •Language is universal across cultures •Language development is similar across cultures •Languages are "__________ but the _________" -Different words, sounds, and rules -All have nouns, verbs, negatives, questions, past/present tense

Deaf unique but the same

Creative Problem Solving •Creativity -Innovative thinking -Novel ideas -New connections between existing ideas -__________ __________: open-ended; large number of potential "solutions" •_________ ___________: technique to train people to think creatively -___________ __________: ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

Divergent thinking Creative cognition Preinventive forms

Which of the following BEST illustrates the use of problem solving with analogies

Duncker's radiation problem

Which term best reflects the process of reading and understanding sentences in a story?

Dynamic

___________ are people who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that particular field. For example, by spending 10,000-20,000 hours playing and studying chess, some chess players have reached the rank of grand master (Chase & Simon, 1973a, 1973b). Not surprisingly, __________ tend to be better than nonexperts at solving problems in their field. Research on the nature of expertise has focused on determining differences between the way experts and nonexperts go about solving problems.

Experts experts

Which of the following correctly pairs a process with a stage in Basadur's problem-solving model?

Fact finding: Problem generation

Obstacles to Problem Solving •___________ ___________: restricting use of an object to its familiar functions -Candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports -Two-string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight •_________ ______ -A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem -Based on a person's past experiences with the problem (or similar problems) -________ _________ problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution The Luchins (1942) water jug problem. Each problem specifies the capacities of jugs A, B, and C and a final desired quantity. The task is to figure out how to use the jugs with these capacities to measure out the desired quantity. (b) The first step in solving Problem 1; (c) the second step; (d) the third step. All of the other problems can be solved using the same pattern of pourings, indicated by the equation Desired quantity= B−A − 2C, but there are more efficient ways to solve Problems 7 and 8.

Functional fixedness Mental set Water jug

Results of ___________ and __________-__________ (2003) study of negotiating strategies. In the test case, participants who had compared trade-off examples were more apt to find trade-off solutions, whereas those who had compared contingency examples were more apt to find contingency solutions.

Gentner and Goldin-Meadow's

Producing Speech: Conversations •__________-_________ __________: speaker constructs sentences so they include -Given information -New information -"New" can then become "given" information •Common ground -____________: synchronization between conversation partners •__________ ____________ -Using similar grammatical constructions •___________ ___________ -Production of a specific grammatical construction by one person increases chances other person will use that construction -Reduces computational load in conversation •Other skills are necessary for people to engage in effective conversations. -_______ of _________: being able to understand what others feel, think, or believe -Nonverbal communication: being able to interpret and react to the person's gestures, facial expressions, tones of voice, and other cues to meaning

Given-new contract Entrainment Syntactic coordination Syntactic priming Theory of mind

Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem?

Has one correct answer

The Creativity of Human Language •___________ _________ -Components that can be combined to form larger units •_______ by ________ -Specific ways components can be arranged

Hierarchical system Governed by rules

Using Analogies to Solve a Problem •____ __________ __________-__________ _________ -People are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world ▪Advantage: naturalistic setting ▪Disadvantages: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables

In vivo problem-solving research

________ occurs when a person gives up trying to solve a tough problem and then suddenly comes up with the answer while doing something else.

Incubation

The Information-Processing Approach •Newell and Simon •Problem space -_______ _________ -________ _________ -_______ _______

Initial state Intermediate state(s) Goal state

_________ _________ and ________ ____________ (1964) showed that words are more difficult to understand when taken out of context and presented alone, by recording the conversations of participants who sat in a room waiting for the experiment to begin. When the participants were then presented with recordings of single words taken out of their own conversations, they could identify only half the words, even though they were listening to their own voices! The fact that the people in this experiment were able to identify words as they were talking to each other, but couldn't identify the same words when the words were isolated, illustrates that their ability to perceive words in conversations is aided by the context provided by the words and sentences that make up the conversation.

Irwin Pollack and J. M. Pickett

An early demonstration of inference in language was an experiment by _________ _________ and _________ _________ (1973), in which they had participants read passages and then tested them to determine what they remembered. One of the passages ___________ and ____________ participants read was John was trying to fix the birdhouse. He was pounding the nail when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work. After reading that passage, participants were likely to indicate that they had previously seen the following passage: "John was using a hammer to fix the birdhouse when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work." They often reported seeing this passage, even though they had never read that John was using a hammer, because they inferred that John was using a hammer from the information that he was pounding the nail. People use a similar creative process to make a number of different types of inferences as they are reading a text.

John Bransford and Marcia Johnson Bransford and Johnson's

_________ __________ and _________ __________ (1986) measured participants' eye movements and the durations of the fixations that occur as the eye pauses at a particular place (see Chapter 4) while they read sentences that contained either a high-frequency or a low-frequency target word, where frequency refers to how often a word occurs in normal language usage. The average frequencies were 5.1 times per million for the low-frequency words and 122.3 times per million for the high-frequency words.

Keith Rayner and Susan Duffy

What is ______________? •System of communication using sounds or symbols •Express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

Language

Understanding Ambiguous Words •__________ __________ -Words often have multiple meanings •________ __________ -Tanenhaus (1979) -People briefly access all meanings of a word before relying on context to determine accurate meaning •__________ ___________ —some words are used more frequently than others -__________ ___________ ▪When words have two or more meanings with different dominance -_________ __________ ▪When words have two or more meanings with about the same dominance

Lexical ambiguity Lexical priming Meaning dominance Biased dominance Balanced dominance

_________ _________ is priming that involves the meaning of words. Lexical priming occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning. For example, presenting the word rose and then the word flower can cause a person to respond faster to the word flower because the meanings of rose and flower are related. This priming effect does not, however, occur if the word cloud is presented before flower because their meanings are not related. The presence of a lexical priming effect therefore indicates whether two words, like rose and flower, have similar meanings in a person's mind.

Lexical priming

Understanding Words •___________: all words a person understands •__________: the meaning of language •_________ ____________: the meaning of words -Each word has one or more meanings

Lexicon Semantics Lexical semantics

How would you best describe the results of Warren's study?

Listeners tended to report that the sentence was not missing any phonemes. Listeners tended to inaccurately report the location of the missing phoneme.

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

Meaning dominance

Parsing of a sentence is influenced not only by the context provided by stories but also by context provided by scenes. To investigate how observing objects in a scene can influence how we interpret a sentence, ____________ ____________ and coworkers (1995) developed a technique called the ________ _________ _________, which involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed. Participants' eye movements were measured as they saw objects on a table, as in Figure 11.6a. As participants looked at this display, they were told to carry out the following instructions: Place the apple on the towel in the box. The important result of this study is that the participants' eye movements occur as they are reading the sentence and are influenced by the contents of the scene. Tanenhaus therefore showed that participants take into account not only information provided by the syntactic structure of the sentence, but also by what Tanenhaus calls _______-__________ ____________—in this case, information provided by the scene. This result argues against the idea proposed by the _________ ________ ________ that syntactic rules are the only thing taken into account as a sentence is initially unfolding.

Michael Tanenhaus visual world paradigm non-linguistic information garden path model

The Importance of How a Problem is Stated •___________ ___________ _____________ -Conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares -Easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem •________-_________ ___________ -Say aloud what one is thinking -Shift in how one perceives elements of a problem

Mutilated checkerboard problem Think-aloud protocol

One role of inference is to create connections between parts of a story. This process is typically illustrated with excerpts from narrative texts. __________ refers to texts in which there is a story that progresses from one event to another, although stories can also include flashbacks of events that happened earlier. An important property of any _________ is __________—the representation of the text in a person's mind that creates clear relations between parts of the text and between parts of the text and the main topic of the story. Coherence can be created by a number of different types of inference.

Narrative narrative coherence

These results led Gick and Holyoak to propose that the process of analogical problem solving involves the following three steps: 1. ____________ that there is an analogous relationship between the source problem and the target problem. This step is obviously crucial in order for analogical problem solving to work. However, as we have seen, most participants need some prompting before they notice the connection between the source problem and the target problem. Gick and Holyoak consider this noticing step to be the most difficult of the three steps. A number of experiments have shown that the most effective source stories are those that are most similar to the target problem (Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Holyoak & Thagard, 1995). This similarity could make it easier to notice the analogical relationship between the source story and the target problem, and could also help achieve the next step—mapping. 2. __________ the correspondence between the source problem and the target problem. To use the story to solve the problem, the participant has to map corresponding parts of the story onto the test problem by connecting elements of the source problem (for example, the dictator's fortress) to elements of the target problem (the tumor). 3. __________ the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem. This would involve, for example, generalizing from the many small groups of soldiers approaching the fortress from different directions to the idea of using many weaker rays that would approach the tumor from different directions.

Noticing Mapping Applying

_________ and _________ are the most difficult steps in analogical problem solving. One way to help people notice similarities is through a training procedure called __________ ___________.

Noticing and mapping analogical encoding

Information-Processing Approach •Tower of Hanoi problem •__________:rules specify which moves are allowed and which are not •________-______ __________:reduce differences between initial and goal states -__________: create intermediate states closer to goal

Operators Means-end analysis Subgoals

What is a ____________? •An obstacle between a present state and a goal •Not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle •Difficult to solve

Problem

The Four Stages of Solving a Problem:

Problem generation, Problem formulation, Problem solving, Solution implementation

Music and Language •__________: the pattern of intonation and rhythm in spoken language -Often creates emotion in spoken language (a speaker's "soaring oratory") •Music as the "language of ________" -Music creates emotion through sounds that have no meaning •Language combines words and music combines tones to create structured sequences that unfold over time.

Prosody emotion

What is a conclusion of creating situation models?

Readers create perceptions that match the situations described in sentences.

Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?

Representation

The Gestalt Approach •Representing a problem in the mind •_____________: changes the problem's representation -Kohler's "circle" problem

Restructuring

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the _________________ problem.

Russian marriage

Which of the following is NOT a factor in prosody?

Semantics

Understanding Sentences •___________: meanings of words and sentences •_________: rules for combining words into sentences •Sentences are merely strings of words in sequence •__________: mentally groups the words into phrases -helps the listener create meaning •________ _________ __________ -Sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else •__________ ___________ -When the initial words are ambiguous, but the meaning is made clear by the end of the sentence •The _________ _________ ________ of ________ -Listeners use heuristics (rules) to group words into phrases -Grammatical structure of sentence determines parsing -Late closure: parser assumes new word is part of the current phrase •_________-__________ approach to parsing combines: -Syntax -Word meaning -Story context -Memory load ▪Subject-relative and object-relative sentence construction

Semantics Syntax Parsing Garden path sentences Temporary ambiguity garden path model of parsing Constraint-based

Which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment? Group of answer choices

Similarity

_________ _________ and _________ ___________ (1974) demonstrated the consequences of not following the given-new contract by presenting pairs of sentences and asking participants to press a button when they thought they understood the second sentence in each pair.

Susan Haviland and Herbert Clark

Understanding Sentences: Story Context •__________ and ___________ (1995) -Visual world paradigm, the context of a scene -Eye movements change when information suggests revision of interpretation of sentence is necessary -Linguistic and nonlinguistic information used simultaneously

Tanenhaus & Trueswell

Research conducted by Chi and Snyder demonstrated that the Gestalt-style perceptual grouping of items occurs in which region of the brain?

Temporal lobe

Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?

The frontal and temporal lobes

Consider the following sentence proposed by _________ _________ (1970), which has been called the most famous garden path sentence because of the confusion it causes: The horse raced past the barn fell

The horse raced past the barn fell

Which phrase would be a good slogan for problem solving among experts?

Think things through.

task used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis

Tower of Hanoi problem

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem?

Two-string problem

Complications in Understanding Words •_________ _________ _________ -We respond faster to high-frequency words -Rayner and Duffy (1986) fixation and gaze times -Eye movements while reading -Look at low-frequency words longer •_________ word pronunciation -"Didjoo?" "Gonna" -Use context to understand words with unfamiliar pronunciations •__________ ____________ -Perception of individual words even though there are no silences between spoken words -Context -Understanding of meaning -Understanding of sound and syntactic rules -Statistical learning

Word frequency effect Variable Speech segmentation

In this experiment, by ________ and coworkers (2002), the picture of an eagle with wings outstretched elicited a faster response when it followed sentence (1) than when it followed sentence (2). Again, reaction times were faster when the picture matched the situation described in the sentence. This result, shown in Figure 11.10b, matches the result for the orientation experiment, and both experiments support the idea that the participants created perceptions that matched the situation as they were reading the sentences.

Zwaan

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents

a mental set.

In the comic strip Calvin & Hobbes, the boy Calvin wants winter to be over. So he takes a blow dryer outside and aims it at his yard to melt away all the snow. Which term best reflects this situation?

alternate use task

Baird's experiment began with a baseline task, called the ___________ _______ ___________ (AUT; also called the unusual uses task), in which participants had 2 minutes to think of unusual uses for common objects. For example, how many unusual uses can you think of for bricks? (A few examples: use as a weapon, a paperweight, a steppingstone, as a weight for an anchor.) The baseline AUT task was followed by a 12-minute incubation period, during which participants carried out a difficult task, which resulted in a low rate of mind wandering, or an easy task, which resulted in a higher rate of mind wandering. When participants then repeated the AUT task for the same objects they had considered before, the results were clear-cut: Following the easy task, which was accompanied by a high rate of mind wandering, performance on the repeat AUT tasks increased by 40 percent compared with the baseline. Following the hard task, performance was unchanged. Mind wandering, concluded Baird, facilitates creative incubation.

alternate uses task

From the perspective of the listener, as a person speaks, each sentence often is characterized by ________ until the sentence is completed.

ambiguity

A person who inherited difficulty in perceiving music would be diagnosed with congenital ________.

amusia

technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle

analogical encoding

So far, our examples of analogy problems have involved laboratory research. But what about the use of analogy in the real world? Many real-world examples of analogical problem solving illustrate what Kevin Dunbar (2001) has called the __________ ___________: While it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, people routinely use analogies in real-world settings. Dunbar studied the use of analogies in real-world settings using a technique called in-vivo problem-solving research.

analogical paradox

difficulty using comparisons in laboratory settings while routinely using them in real-world settings

analogical paradox

use of comparison as an aid to figuring out issues

analogical problem solving

This process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution for one problem to other problems is called __________ __________.

analogical transfer

shift of experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem

analogical transfer

The starting point for much of the research on analogical problem solving has been to first determine how well people can transfer their experience from solving one problem to solving another, similar problem. This transfer from one problem to another is called __________ _________. Two key terms that are used in research on __________ ___________ are __________ _________, which is the problem the participant is trying to solve, and _________ __________, which is another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that illustrates a way to solve the target problem.

analogical transfer analogical transfer target problem source problem

The ability to shift experience from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem is known as

analogical transfer.

Dr. Chan is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Chan is studying the effect of _________________ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

analogies

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that _________________ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of _________________ in problem solving.

analogy

act of making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things

analogy

A person is faced with a problem and wonders how to proceed. Questions such as "What move should I make?" or "How should I begin thinking about this problem?" arise. One tactic that is sometimes helpful is to consider whether another problem that the person has solved before is similar to the new problem and ask "Can I apply the same methods to solving this problem?" This technique of using an __________—that is, using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem—is called __________ _________ __________. Using the Russian marriage problem to help solve the mutilated checkerboard problem is an example of an effective use of __________ to solve a problem. Research on __________ _________ __________ has considered some of the conditions in which using analogies to solve problems is effective or ineffective.

analogy analogical problem solving analogy analogical problem solving

___________ based problems Problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience.

analytically based problems

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) ____________________ inference.

anaphoric

drawing a conclusion by connecting an object in one sentence to an object in another sentence

anaphoric inference

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference.

situation when a word has more than one meaning and all meanings are equally likely

balanced dominance

situation when a word has more than one meaning and one meaning is more likely

biased dominance

task used to study functional fixedness

candle problem

An example of functional fixedness is provided by the __________ ___________, which was first described by Karl Duncker (1945). In his experiment, he asked participants to use various objects to complete a task. The fact that seeing the boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports is an example of __________ ___________. Another demonstration of ___________ ___________ is provided by Maier's (1931) _____-_________ ___________, in which the participants' task was to tie together two strings that were hanging from the ceiling. This was difficult because the strings were so far apart that it was impossible to reach one of them while holding the other (Figure 12.9). Other objects available for solving this problem were a chair and a pair of pliers.

candle problem functional fixedness functional fixedness two-string problem

drawing the conclusion that events described in one sentence were prompted by events in a previous sentence

causal inference

An experiment by William Chase and Herbart Simon (1973a, 1973b) compared how well a chess master with more than 10,000 hours of experience and a beginner with fewer than 100 hours of experience were able to reproduce the positions of pieces on a chessboard after looking at an arrangement for 5 seconds. The results showed that experts excelled at this task when the chess pieces were arranged in actual game positions (Figure 12.19a) but were no better than the beginners when the pieces were arranged randomly (Figure 12.19b). The reason for the experts' superior performance with actual positions is that the chess masters had stored many of the patterns that occur in real games in their long-term memory, so they saw the layout of chess pieces not in terms of individual pieces but in terms of four to six ___________, each made up of a group of pieces that formed familiar, meaningful patterns. When the pieces were arranged randomly, the familiar patterns were destroyed, and the chess masters' advantage vanished (also see DeGroot, 1965; Gobet et al., 2001). We will now see that in addition to the fact that experts possess more knowledge than novices, experts also organize this knowledge differently.

chunks

For thousands of years, telling stories has been an important method of sharing news and information across generations. To ensure that stories are accurately shared, a good storyteller needs to provide ________.

coherence

information in one part of a text is related to information in another part

coherence

"Yeah" is a good example of ___ in conversations.

common ground

No offense to his old high school buddies, but after a visit back to his hometown, Reggie is always happy to get back to grad school where he can talk to people using words that have more than two syllables. Which term best reflects Reggie's experience?

common ground

set of knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions shared between two speakers

common ground

condition, present at birth, in which people have problems with music perception

congenital amusia

The idea that information in addition to syntax participates in processing as a person reads or hears a sentence is called the ________-_________ ___________ to ____________. As we consider some examples that show how parsing can be influenced by factors in addition to syntax, we will encounter a theme we introduced at the beginning of the chapter: Information contained in the words of a sentence, and in the context within which a sentence occurs, is used to make predictions about how the sentence should be parsed (Kuperberg & Jaeger, 2015).

constraint-based approach to parsing

___________-__________ __________ to _____________ An approach to parsing that proposes that semantics, syntax, and other factors operate simultaneously to determine parsing.

constraint-based approach to parsing

What is the key difference between focused attention (FA) meditation and open monitoring (OM) meditation?

control

If you're asked to construct an object with three random parts, then you're likely engaged in an exercise designed to demonstrate ___.

creative cognition

technique developed by Finke to train people to think imaginatively

creative cognition

Animals use a limited number of sounds or gestures to communicate about a limited number of things that are important for survival. In contrast, humans use a wide variety of signals, which can be combined in countless ways. One of the properties of human language is, therefore, ____________.

creativity

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to

decide whether a string of letters is a word or a nonword.

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.

All humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules, even though they are usually not aware of these rules. Although many people find the study of grammar to be very __________, they have no trouble using language.

difficult

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _________________ approach developed by Ronald Finke.

divergent thinking

method of generating ideas that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions

divergent thinking

Many examples of creativity focus on ___________ ____________—thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential "solutions" (although some proposals might work better than others; see Guilford, 1956; Ward et al., 1997). James Kaufman (2009), in his book Creativity 101, notes that __________ ___________ is the cornerstone of creativity, but it is not all that creativity can be. Kaufman proposes that in addition to being original, a creative response to a problem must be useful (Simonton, 2012). This approach to creativity is captured in the definition of creativity as "anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility" (Smith et al., 2009). This definition works well, especially when considering creativity in designing products for people to use. It doesn't do as well in describing the creativity involved in creating visual art, music, or theater. Is a Picasso painting, a Beethoven symphony, or a play by Shakespeare creative? Most people would say yes, without any consideration of "usefulness." (Although it could be argued that great visual art, music, and theater are, in fact, useful, as they meet basic human needs for aesthetic experience.) For the purposes of our discussion, we will begin by considering some examples of how some practical products were invented.

divergent thinking divergent thinking

Sandra worked hard to improve her diction and accent so she could be a successful stage actress in theaters around the world. But whenever she went home to visit her family, after a couple days she could hear her old New Jersey accent loud and clear. What is Sandra experiencing on these visits to her hometown?

entrainment

synchronization between partners in a conversation

entrainment

The process of creating common ground results in _____________—synchronization between the two partners. In this example, synchronization occurs in the naming of the objects on the cards. But entrainment also occurs in other ways as well. Conversational partners can establish similar gestures, speaking rate, body positions, and sometimes pronunciation (Brennan et al., 2010). We now consider how conversational partners can end up coordinating their grammatical constructions—an effect called ___________ _____________.

entrainment syntactic coordination

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ____________________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations.

environmental context

The _________ ________ ___________, which is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks, plays a crucial role in creativity. An experiment by Melissa Ellamil and coworkers (2012) supports a link between the ECN and creativity. Participants carried out the creative task of designing book covers while in a scanner that used fMRI to determine which areas of the brain were activated. An important feature of this experiment is that participants were instructed to create their book cover design in two phases: After reading a description of what the book was about, they were told to generate ideas for the cover. Then, after a short break, they were told to shift their thinking to evaluating the designs that they had generated. This sequence—generating followed by evaluating—is often used to describe the process involved in creativity (see Figure 12.22). Ellamil found that regions of the DMN and ECN were both more strongly activated during idea _____________ than during ___________. Based on this result, they concluded that activity of the DMN and ECN was coordinated during creative evaluation.

executive control network (ECN) evaluation generation

In general, __________ are __________ only within their own field and perform like anyone else outside of their field (Bedard & Chi, 1992). This makes sense when we remember that the superior performance of _________ occurs largely because they possess a larger and better organized store of knowledge about their specific field.

experts are experts experts

Heuristics have two properties: On the positive side, they are _______, which is important for language, which occurs at about 200 words per minute (Traxler, 2012). On the negative side, they sometimes result in the ________ decision. These properties become apparent in a sentence like After the musician played the piano was wheeled off the stage, in which the initial parse of the sentence turns out to be incorrect. The garden path model proposes that when this happens, we reconsider the initial parse and make appropriate corrections.

fast wrong

The process of analogical encoding is focused on ________.

finding similarity

Peter is stuck trying to understand some extraneous information with regards to a math problem, and, as such, he finds it difficult to proceed. Peters appears to be showing ___.

fixation

pausing of the eyes on places of interest while observing a scene

fixation

In addition to highlighting the phenomenon of insight, the Gestalt psychologists also described various obstacles to problem solving. One of the major obstacles to problem solving, according to the Gestalt psychologists, is __________—people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution. One type of __________ that can work against solving a problem, focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object, is called __________ ___________ (Jansson & Smith, 1991).

fixation fixation functional fixedness

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _________________ may be more important than _________________ in creative thinking

flexibility; experience

Before leaving our discussion of expertise, we should note that being an expert is not always an advantage. One disadvantage is that knowing about the established facts and theories in a field may make experts less open to new ways of looking at problems. This may be why younger and less-experienced scientists in a field are often the ones responsible for revolutionary discoveries (Kuhn, 1970; Simonton, 1984). Thus, it has been suggested that being an expert may be a disadvantage when confronting a problem that requires ____________ _____________—a problem whose solution may involve rejecting the usual procedures in favor of other procedures that might not normally be used (Frensch & Sternberg, 1989).

flexible thinking

___________ ___________ ___________ A type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath.

focused attention (FA) meditation

Which of the following terms best reflects the process of open monitoring (OM) meditation?

freeform

our ability to hear and understand spoken words is affected by (1)how ___________ we have encountered a word in the past; (2)the ___________ in which the words appear; (3)our knowledge of __________ ____________ of our language; and (4)our knowledge of word ___________.

frequently context statistical regularities meanings

John Kounios and coworkers (2006), in a paper titled "The Prepared Mind," showed that whether a problem is solved by an insight-driven process or an analytical process is associated with the state the brain is in just before the problem is presented. Participants in their experiment were fitted with electrodes, as shown in Figure 5.26, which measured the electroencephalogram (EEG). The EEG is a response like the one in Figure 12.27a, recorded from the thousands of neurons under the electrodes. The EEG was measured for two seconds, followed by presentation of a compound remote-associate problem, in which three words are presented, such as pine, crab, and sauce, and the task is to determine one word that, when combined with each of these words, forms a new word or a phrase (pineapple, crabapple, and applesauce, in this example). This type of problem can be solved both by insight or analytically. Participants solved about 50 percent of the problems within 30 seconds, and immediately after solving each problem indicated whether their solution was by insight (56 percent of the solutions) or noninsight (44 percent) The results in Figure 12.27 show that EEG activity increased in the __________ __________ just before the insight solutions (Figure 12.27b) and increased in the __________ _________ just before the noninsight solutions (Figure 12.27c).

frontal lobe occipital lobe

Soraya is walking her dog when her dog's leash suddenly breaks. Soraya realizes that she needs a new leash right then and there but, at first, she doesn't know how to proceed. Unfortunately, she fails to consider that she could fashion a temporary leash by using the shoelaces from her boots. This example specifically illustrates ___.

functional fixedness

knowledge of an object's standard purpose limits an individual's ability to use the object differently

functional fixedness

The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the ____________________ approach to parsing.

garden path

________ _______ _________ of ___________ A model of parsing that emphasizes syntactic principles as a major determinant of parsing.

garden path model of parsing

One of the early proposals to explain parsing, and garden path sentences in particular, is called the _________ ________ _________ of __________. This approach, proposed by ________ _________ (1979, 1987), states that as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called __________. As we will see when we discuss reasoning and decision making, a _________ is a rule that can be applied rapidly to make a decision. The decisions involved in parsing are decisions about the structure of a sentence as it unfolds in time.

garden path model of parsing Lynn Frazier heuristics heuristic

group of words that appears to mean one thing but ends up meaning something else

garden path sentence

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share.

The _________-_________ ___________ states that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of information: (1)given information—information that the listener already knows; and (2)new information—information that the listener is hearing for the first time (Haviland & Clark, 1974).

given-new contract

idea that a speaker should construct sentences that contain both known information and unknown information

given-new contract

condition that occurs when a problem has been solved

goal state

The idea that preconceptions can inhibit creativity led Alex Osborn (1953) to propose the technique of _________ ___________. The purpose of this technique is to encourage people to freely express ideas that might be useful in solving a particular problem. Instructions given to participants in brainstorming groups emphasize that they should just say whatever ideas come into their mind, without being critical of their own ideas or of the ideas of others in the group. The basis of these instructions is to increase creativity by opening people to "think outside the box."

group brainstorming

technique whereby people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express all ideas without censorship

group brainstorming

"rule of thumb" that provides a best-guess solution to a problem

heuristic

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language.

hierarchical

__________ __________ of ____________ The idea that language consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units. For example, words can be combined to create phrases, which in turn can create sentences, which themselves can become components of a story.

hierarchical nature of language

Which of the following would be a process directly tied to the problem formulation stage of creative problem solving?

idea finding

What term did Kaufman and Gregoire use to reflect the default mode network?

imagination

____________ ____________ Kaufman and Gregoire's (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN).

imagination network

Which of the following terms has the strongest connection to the analogical paradox?

in vivo

observation of people to determine how they find answers to complex issues in real-world situations

in vivo problem-solving research

After meeting with the art director to discuss the new ad campaign they were just assigned, Chantal left the office to go for a walk in the local park. She was hoping that ________ would help her come up with a catchy slogan for the client's product.

incubation

phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a "time-out" from working on a problem

incubation

process by which readers create information that is not explicitly stated in the text

inference

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference.

An important part of the process of creating a coherent story is making _____________—determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text.

inferences

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

set of conditions at the beginning of problem in problem-solving

initial state

Newell and Simon (1972) saw problems in terms of an _________ ________—conditions at the beginning of the problem—and a _________ _________—the solution of the problem. Figure 12.11a shows the initial state of the Tower of Hanoi problem as three discs stacked on the left peg, and the goal state as these discs stacked on the right peg. In addition to specifying initial and goal states of a problem, Newell and Simon also introduced the idea of __________—actions that take the problem from one state to another. For the Tower of Hanoi problem, the operators are moving the disc to another peg. The rules in the demonstration specify which actions are allowed and which are not (see Figure 12.11b).

initial state goal state operators

The "Aha!" moment often depicted in cartoons with a light bulb over someone's head best reflects the concept of ________.

insight

sudden realization of a problem's solution

insight

In addition to identifying restructuring as being important in problem solving, the Gestalt psychologists also noted that restructuring is often the outcome of a process called __________ (Weisberg & Alba, 1981). _________ has been defined as any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person's mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious (adapted from Kounios & Beeman, 2014). This definition contains the central ideas behind the Gestalt approach. "Reorganization of a person's mental representation" corresponds to restructuring, and "sudden comprehension" corresponds to the Gestalt emphasis on suddenly realizing the problem's solution (Dunbar, 1998).

insight Insight

drawing a conclusion about methods that occurs while reading text or listening to speech

instrument inference

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument inference.

set of conditions that exists along the pathways between the initial and goal states in problem-solving

intermediate state

Newell and Simon conceived of problem solving as involving a sequence of choices of steps, with each action creating an __________ _________. Thus, a problem starts with an initial state, continues through a number of intermediate states, and finally reaches the goal state. The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem make up the _________ __________.

intermediate state problem space

Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they

invent a sign language themselves.

What is the primary difference between an expert and a nonexpert?

knowledge

system of communication that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

language

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition.

Cassie thought that Rhonda, the new girl at school, was long-winded and spoke in never-ending, circular sentences. Cassie had to pay close attention to each word Rhonda said and decide where a logical phrase ended based on the next word that was spoken. Cassie is engaging in a very deliberate act of ________.

late closure

The principle of ________ __________ states that when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible (Frazier, 1987).

late closure

principle that a person encountering a new word assumes it's part of the current phrase

late closure

Creativity and the Brain •Chi and Snyder (2012) -Deactivated _______ __________ ___________ lobe causing people to think "outside the box" in nine-dot problem •Kounios and coworkers (2006): "The Prepared Mind" -Used EEG on compound remote-associate problem -__________ lobe activity increased before insight solutions -__________ lobe activity increased before noninsight solutions •________ _________ _________ -__________: getting ideas after taking "time out" from working on a problem •Mayseless and coworkers (2015): -Participants suggest alternate uses for an object -Higher originality ratings associated with higher activity of structures in default mode network •Ellamil et al. (2012) -Regions of default mode network (DMN) and executive control network (ECN) more strongly activated during idea ___________ than idea ___________ -Normally DMN and ECN work in opposition ▪Creative thinking is different.

left anterior temporal Frontal Occipital Default mode network Incubation evaluation generation

The phrases "First National Bank" and "river bank" illustrate ___.

lexical ambiguity

situation when a word can have more than one meaning

lexical ambiguity

One way to illustrate processing differences between high- and low-frequency words is to use a ________ ________ _______ in which the task is to decide as quickly as possible whether strings of letters are words or nonwords. Try this for the following four words: reverie, cratily, history, garvola. Note that there were two real words, reverie, which is a low-frequency word, and history, which is a high-frequency word.

lexical decision task

Michael Tanenhaus and coworkers (1979) showed that people briefly access multiple meanings of ambiguous words before the effect of context takes over. They did this by presenting participants with a tape recording of short sentences such as She held the rose, in which the target word rose is a noun referring to a flower, or They all rose, in which rose is a verb referring to people standing up. Tanenhaus and coworkers wanted to determine what meanings of rose occurred in a person's mind for each of these sentences. To do this, they used a procedure called _________ _________. To determine if presenting the word rose caused faster responding to flower, a control condition was run in which a sentence like She held a post was followed by the same probe word, flower. Because the meaning of post is not related to the meaning of flower, priming would not be expected, and this is what happened. As shown in the left bar in Figure 11.2a, the word rose, used as a flower, resulted in a ______ msec faster response to the word flower than in the control condition. This is what we would expect, because rose, the flower, is related to the meaning of the word flower. Tanenhaus's results become more significant when we consider Condition 2, when the sentence was They all rose, in which rose is a verb (people getting up) and the probe word was still flower. The control for this sentence was They all touched. The result, shown in the right bar in Figure 11.3a, shows that priming occurred in this condition as well. Even though rose was presented as a verb, it still caused a faster response to flower!

lexical priming 37

meaning of words

lexical semantics

knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they relate to other words

lexicon

Our _________ is all of the words we know, which has also been called our "mental dictionary." ___________ is the meaning of language. This is important for words, because each word has one or more meanings. The meaning of words is called _________ ___________.

lexicon Semantics lexical semantics

Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's Group of answer choices

lexicon.

The basic premise of preinventive forms particularly presumes that ___.

many ideas precede a finished creative product

What is the foundation of lexical priming?

meaning

Which of the following is NOT a key concern of psycholinguists regarding language?

meaning

situation where some definitions of words occur more frequently than others

meaning dominance

problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the starting and ending conditions

means-end analysis

Given all of the possible ways to reach the goal, how can we decide which moves to make, especially when starting out? It is important to realize that the problem-solver does not have a picture of the problem space, like the one in Figure 12.12, when trying to solve the problem. According to Newell and Simon, the person has to search the problem space to find a solution, and they proposed that one way to direct the search is to use a strategy called ________-________ ____________. The primary goal of _________-______ ___________ is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating ___________—intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

means-end analysis means-end analysis subgoals

preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person's experience

mental set

Both the candle problem and the two-string problem were difficult because of people's preconceptions about the uses of objects. These preconceptions are a type of _______ ______, a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience of what has worked in the past. In these experiments, ______ ______ was created by people's knowledge about the usual uses of objects.

mental set mental set

paying attention on purpose, in the moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment

mindfulness

Another aspect of the situation model approach is the idea that a reader or listener simulates the _________ characteristics of the objects in a story. According to this idea, a story that involves movement will result in simulation of this movement as the person is comprehending the story. For example, reading a story about a bicycle elicits not only the perception of what a bicycle looks like but also properties associated with movement, such as how a bicycle is propelled (by peddling) and the physical exertion involved in riding the bicycle under different conditions (climbing hills, racing, coasting).

motor

A checkerboard consists of 64 squares, which can be completely covered by placing 32 dominos on the board so that each domino covers two squares. The __________ __________ __________ asks the following question: If we eliminate two corners of the checkerboard, as shown in Figure 12.15, can we now cover the remaining squares with 31 dominos? See whether you can solve this problem before reading further. A solution would be either a "yes" or "no" answer plus a statement of the rationale behind your answer.

mutilated checkerboard problem

task to study how statement of a problem influences the ability to reach a solution

mutilated checkerboard problem

For ____________ problems, Metcalfe and Wiebe used algebra problems like the ones following, which were taken from a high school mathematics text. These problems are also called analytically based problems because they are solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience. For the _________ problems (solid line), warmth ratings began at 2 and then didn't change much, until all of a sudden they jumped from 3 to 7 at the end. Thus, 15 seconds before the solution, the median rating was a relatively cold 3 for the __________ problems, meaning at this point participants didn't feel they were close to a solution. In contrast, for the algebra problems (dashed line), the ratings began at 3 and then gradually increased until the problem was solved. Thus, Metcalfe and Wiebe demonstrated that solutions for problems that have been called __________ problems do, in fact, occur suddenly, as measured by people's reports of how close they feel they are to a solution.

noninsight insight insight insight

A possible drawback to expertise is ___.

not being able to look at a problem with flexible thinking

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

novel object.

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

novel objects before a function was described.

__________-__________ __________ A sentence construction in which the subject of the main clause is the object in the embedded clause, as in this sentence: The senator who the reporter spotted shouted.

object-relative construction

From a formal-definition perspective, a problem is considered to be a(n) ________.

obstacle

permissible move that can be made toward a problem's solution in problem-solving

oeprator

achieving mindfulness by paying attention to whatever comes into the mind, and following that thought

open monitoring (OM) meditation

Carlos is trying to solve a puzzle. In doing so, he knows that a stipulated rule is that red pieces cannot touch blue pieces. This example specifically highlights the function of ___.

operators

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

operators.

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT

operators.

What mental processes are occurring as a person hears a sentence? A simple way to answer this question would be to picture the meaning as being created by adding up the meanings of each word as they occur. But this idea runs into trouble right away when we consider that some words have more than one meaning and also that a sequence of words can have more than one meaning. The key to determining how strings of words create meaning is to consider how meaning is created by the grouping of words into phrases—a process called __________.

parsing

mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases

parsing

The examples we've considered so far—the defendant being examined, the falling horse, the apple on the towel, and the shouting senator—all have something in common. They illustrate how people make ___________ about what is likely to happen next in a sentence.

predictions

object in Finke's creative cognition experiment that precedes the creation of a finished product

preinventive form

____________ _____________ Objects created in Finke's "creative cognition" experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product.

preinventive forms

Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to the

previously understood information that we bring into the conversation.

situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state

problem

A __________ occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle (Duncker, 1945; Lovett, 2002). Thus, a __________, as defined by psychologists, is a situation in which you need to accomplish a goal and the solution is not immediately obvious.

problem problem

set of all possible conditions for a particular difficult situation

problem space

In the information-processing approach to problem solving, an operator is most closely associated with ________.

progress

Whenever Vera is with Parker she ends up feeling depressed. When Parker talks, every sentence starts out sounding normal but then seems to get low and soft at the end. The ________ of Parker's speech is bringing Vera down.

prosody

pattern of intonation and rhythm in spoken language

prosody

Chomsky's criticism of behaviorism was an important event in the cognitive revolution and began changing the focus of the young discipline of _____________, the field concerned with the psychological study of language.

psycholinguistics

field concerned with the mental and emotional study of language

psycholinguistics

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics.

A problem that has been widely used in research on analogical problem solving is Karl Duncker's ________ ___________.

radiation problem

task used to study the role of analogy in resolving issues

radiation problem

Another way of studying how common ground is established is through the ___________ _________ ___________, a task in which two people are exchanging information in a conversation, when this information involves reference—identifying something by naming or describing it (Yule, 1997). An example of a referential communication task is provided by an experiment by P. Stellman and Susan Brennan (1993; described in Brennan et al., 2010) in which two partners, A (the director) and B (the matcher), had identical sets of 12 cards with pictures of abstract geometrical objects. A arranged the cards in a specific order. B's task was to arrange her cards in the same order. Because B couldn't see A's cards, she had to determine the identity of each card through conversation.

referential communication task

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement.

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

representation and restructuring.

Coherence refers to the

representation of the text in a reader's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

One of the central ideas of the Gestalt approach is that success in solving a problem is influenced by how it is _____________ in the person's mind. This idea—that the solution to a problem depends on how it is ____________—is illustrated by the problem in Figure 12.2. This problem, which was posed by Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Kohler (1929), asks us to determine the length of the segment marked x if the radius of the circle has a length r. What is important about this solution is that it doesn't require mathematical equations. Instead, the solution is obtained by first perceiving the object and then representing it in a different way. The Gestalt psychologists called the process of changing the problem's representation _____________.

represented represented restructuring

process of changing a problem's representation

restructuring

Insight in Problem Solving •A sudden realization of a problem's solution •Often requires ____________ the problem •Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) -_________: triangle problem, chain problem -__________: algebra -Warmth judgments every 15 seconds -Insight problems solved suddenly -Noninsight problems solved gradually

restructuring Insight Noninsight

Organizing pitches around a tonic creates a framework within which a listener generates expectations about what might be coming next. One common expectation is that a song that begins with the tonic will end on the tonic. This effect, which is called __________ to the ____________, occurs in "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star," which begins and ends on a C in the example in Figure 11.16.

return to the tonic

________ to the __________ In a musical composition, coming back to the tonic note that was at the beginning of the composition.

return to the tonic

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution _________________ prior to the solution of an insight problem and _________________prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

idea that there are principles specifying the permissible ways for arranging words and phrases in a system of communication

rule-based nature of language

In the context of language, another term for "heuristics" is ________.

rules

At its foundation, language enables people to communicate because it is based on ________.

rules and structure

A problem space is best defined by which concept?

scope

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

meanings of words and sentences in a language

semantics

The idea that many things associated with a particular scenario are activated is connected with the idea that we create a _________ _________ while we are reading. What the ERP results show is that as we read, models of the situation are activated that include lots of details based on what we know about particular situations (also see Kuperberg, 2013; Paczynski & Kuperberg, 2012). In addition to suggesting that we are constantly accessing our world knowledge as we read or listen to a story, results like these also indicate that we access this knowledge rapidly, within fractions of a second after reading a particular word.

situation model

This approach to how we understand sentences proposes that as people read or hear a story, they create a ________ _________, which simulates the perceptual and motor (movement) characteristics of the objects and actions in a story. This idea has been tested by having participants read a sentence that describes a situation involving an object and then indicate as quickly as possible whether a picture shows the object mentioned in the sentence.

situation model

mental representation of what a text is about

situation model

The water jug problem is to the candle problem as _____ is to _____.

situation; preconceptions

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem.

source

Using Analogies to Solve Problems •Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to new problem -The Russian marriage problem (________ problem) --> mutilated checkerboard problem (_________ problem) -"Analogical problem solving" -_________ ___________:The transfer from one problem to another ▪Source problem to target problem •Gick and Holyoak -__________ relationship -_________ correspondence between source and target -__________ mapping •Duncker's ____________ problem -Analogies aid problem solving -Often hints must be given to notice connection ▪Surface features get in the way ▪Structural features must be used •__________ __________: process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined •Negotiation strategies -_______-_______ strategy: "I'll give you A if you give me B." -____________ strategy: Person gets what they want if something else happens •_________ ___________ -It can be difficult to apply analogies in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world setting

source target Analogical transfer Noticing Mapping Applying radiation Analogical encoding Trade-off Contingency Analogical paradox

task analogous to the current task that can help solve the current task

source problem

While traveling in Mexico, Ken overheard a shopkeeper say, "Encuentra la camisa verde y dársela a ese chico." Although the woman's speech sounded like a fast jumble of sounds, his one year of high school Spanish enabled him to pick out the words "verde" and "chico"—for "green" and "boy." Which term best describes Ken's experience at the shop?

speech segmentation

process of perceiving individual words within the continuous flow of words

speech segmentation

intermediate condition that is closer to the solution

subgoal

________-_________ __________ A sentence construction in which the subject of the main clause is also the subject in the embedded clause, as in the sentence, The senator who spotted the reporter shouted.

subject-relative construction

How Experts Solve Problems •What is an expert? -"A person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field." •Experts solve problems in their field more quickly and with a higher success rate than beginners •Experts possess more knowledge about their fields •Knowledge is organized so it can be accessed when needed to work on a problem -Novice: __________ features -Expert: ___________ features •Experts spend more time __________ problem •Experts are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field •Experts less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems

surface structural analyzing

specific element that make up a problem

surface feature

idea that a statement with particular construction leads to a subsequent statement being similarly constructed

syntactic priming

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in his or her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming.

Henry's first date with Malcolm was not going well. Malcolm had a habit of interrupting him by saying "Yeah, yeah, yeah" whenever he understood or agreed with something Henry said. It was very annoying. Yet after an hour, as their conversation became more animated, Henry found himself saying "Yeah, yeah, yeah" whenever he grasped what Malcolm was saying. Which term best describes what is occurring in this conversation?

syntactical priming

set of rules for combining words into sentences

syntax

The garden path model specifies not only that rules are involved in parsing, but that these rules are based on _________—the structural characteristic of language. We will focus on one of these __________-based principles, which is called late closure.

syntax syntax

To understand how we determine the meaning of a sentence, we need to consider __________—the structure of a sentence—and the study of ________ involves discovering cues that languages provide that show how words in a sentence relate to one another (Traxler, 2012).

syntax syntax

Experts _________________ than novices.

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

For the mutilated checkerboard problem, the checkerboard problem is the __________ problem, and the Russian marriage problem is the _________ problem. Evidence that __________ ___________ has occurred is provided when presentation of the Russian marriage problem enhances the ability to solve the mutilated checkerboard problem. We saw that _________ __________ occurs in this example, because participants readily see that the principle governing the solution of the Russian marriage problem is similar to the principle that needs to be applied to solve the checkerboard problem.

target source analogical transfer analogical transfer

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

Laura was given the nine-dot problem to solve as part of a research project at the university's cognitive science lab. After reading the instructions and looking at the puzzle, Laura quickly came up with the answer. Which part of Laura's brain played a key role in helping her devise a creative solution to the problem?

temporal lobe

Which of the following is exemplified by garden path sentences?

temporary ambiguity

situation in which the meaning of a sentence is unclear because multiple meanings are possible

temporary ambiguity

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

temporary ambiguity.

What does the phonemic restoration effect demonstrate?

that meaning can be crucially important to helping us perceive spoken words

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because

the solution is immediately obvious.

After Ahmad finished complaining about the stress of having a new baby in the house, Peter responded, "I have three kids, my friend. I know where you're coming from." What is Peter exhibiting in this conversation?

theory of mind

ability to understand what others think, feel, or believe

theory of mind

While doing a jigsaw puzzle containing 1,000 small pieces, Rashid suddenly said, "Oh, this piece isn't someone's hair. It's part of the thatched roof!" Which term best reflects Rashid's experience?

think-aloud protocol

procedure used to help determine people's thought processes as they are solving a problem

think-aloud protocol

In the _______-________ ____________ procedure, participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while solving a problem. They are instructed not to describe what they are doing, but to verbalize new thoughts as they occur. One goal of a ________-_________ __________ is to determine what information the person is attending to while solving a problem.

think-aloud protocol think-aloud protocol

first note of a scale in a particular key

tonic

In the school cafeteria, DeShaun offered Maureen his bag of chips if she would give him her strawberry yogurt. Which term best reflects what DeShaun and Maureen engaged in?

trade-off

Richard Chi and Alan Snyder (2012) considered the results of previous experiments that showed that the left anterior temporal lobe (ATL; see Something to Consider: The Hub and Spoke Model) is associated with grouping lower level information into meaningful patterns, just as individual stars are grouped into constellations, and the nine dots in Figure 12.26 are grouped into a square. Chi and Snyder wondered whether deactivating the left ATL might open up people's thinking about patterns like the nine-dot problem. To test this idea, they deactivated the left ATL and activated the right ATL using _____________ ________ __________ ___________ while their participants attempted to solve the nine-dot problem. Chi and Snyder placed a cathodal electrode over the left ATL, to decrease excitability of this area, and an anodal electrode over the right ATL, to increase excitability of this area. When they did this, 40 percent of the participants were able to solve the nine-dot problem. This matches the 40 percent who can solve the problem if they are told that the solution involves drawing lines outside the square. Thus, deactivating an area of the brain that causes us to interpret the world in certain ways can help us to think "outside the box" (or "outside the square" in this case).

transcranial direct current stimulation

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for ____________________ because of the ____________________ effect.

trial 1; word frequency

A fairly common way to test for the word frequency effect is to ___.

utilize the lexical decision task

determining how subjects process information in a scene while responding to specific instructions about it

visual world paradigm

In ______-________ ________-__________ __________ involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations (Dunbar, 2002). This method has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and brainstorming sessions in which the goal was to develop a new product. Discussions recorded during these meetings have been analyzed for statements indicating that analogy is being used to help solve a problem. The advantage of the in vivo approach is that it captures thinking in naturalistic settings. A disadvantage is that it is time-consuming, and, as with most observational research, it is difficult to isolate and control specific variables.

vivo problem-solving research

____________ ____________ The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.

volitional daydreaming

The Gestalt psychologists also showed how mental set can arise out of the situation created as a person solves a problem. An example is provided by the Luchins _________ _______ ___________, in which participants were told that their task was to figure out on paper how to obtain a required volume of water, given three empty jars for measures. Luchins (1942) presented the first example to his participants, in which the three jugs had the following capacities: A = 21 quarts, B = 127 quarts, C = 3 quarts, and the desired volume was 100 quarts. The question Luchins asked was: How will participants solve Problems 7 and 8 with and without mental set? He determined this by running two groups: Mental set group: Using the procedure described above, he presented Problem 1 first as a demonstration, then had participants solve Problems 2-8, beginning with Problem 2. This established a mental set for using the B − A − 2C procedure. No mental set group: Participants just solved Problems 7 and 8, beginning with 7. In this case, participants weren't exposed to the B − A − 2C procedure. The result was that only 23 percent of the participants in the mental set group used the simpler solutions for Problems 7 and 8, but all of the participants in the no mental set group used the simpler solutions. Thus, mental set can influence problem solving both because of preconceptions about the functions of an object (candle and two-string problems) and because of preconceptions about the way to solve a problem (water jug problem).

water jug problem

task that illustrates how mental set can influence strategies people use to solve a problem

water jug problem

The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine

what information a person is attending to while solving a problem.

The crucial question in comparing garden path and constrain-based approaches to parsing is ____________________ is involved.

when semantics

Some words occur more frequently than others in a particular language. For example, in English, home occurs 547 times per million words, and hike occurs only 4 times per million words. The frequency with which a word appears in a language is called ________ _________, and the _______ _________ __________ refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like home than to low-frequency words like hike. The reason this is important is because a word's frequency influences how we process the word.

word frequency word frequency effect

phenomenon of faster reading time for words that are highly common compared with unusual words

word frequency effect