quiz 2
How is job performance frequently measured?
(1) ratings of employees' performance on specific tasks (2)ratings of overall job performance
Organizational justice
(Greenberg, 2011): people's perceptions of fairness in organizations along with their associated behavioral, cognitive, & emotional reactions
Faces Scale
(Kunin, 1955): respondents are presented with a series of faces with different emotional expressions & are asked to select the one that best represents their feelings of overall job satisfaction
Range of Affect Theory
(Locke, 1976): when making their assessments of job satisfaction, employees tend to differ in the importance they place on various facets of work
3-component model (components of commitment)
(Meyer & Allen, 1991): general organizational commitment is made up of 3 components, (1) affective commitment, (2) continuance commitment, & (3) normative commitment
Job Descriptive Index
(Smith et al., 1969): scale requires respondents to describe their jobs & provides scores for individual facets of work, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision, & coworkers
PREDICTORS OF JOB PERFORMANCE
-Declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, & motivation (i.e., Campbell's model of job performance) -General cognitive ability -Job experience -Personality
(CAMPBELL'S MODEL OF JOB PERFORMANCE) knowledgeMotivation
-Demonstrating effort -Maintaining personal discipline
Campbell's (1990, 2012) model of performance (extra-role performance)
-Demonstrating effort -Maintaining personal discipline -Facilitating peer & team performance -Supervision/leadership -Management/administration -Written & oral communication
Murphy's (1994) model (Extra-role performance)
-Interpersonally oriented behaviors -Downtime behaviors -Destructive/hazardous behaviors
Campbell's (1990, 2012) model of performance (In-role performance)
-Job-specific-task proficiency -Nonjob-specific-task proficiency
What are sources of error in performance ratings?
-Many potential sources of error -The more objective performance measures are actually measures of effectiveness or productivity.
(GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY) Cognitive ability
-is the best predictor of job performance
Agreeableness
-tendency to avoid conflict & be easy to get along with -Predictive of job performance for jobs that require employees to interact frequently with others
Openness to Experience
-tendency to be open to new ideas & experiences -Predictive of job performance for jobs that require employees to continuously adapt to change
Extraversion
-tendency to exhibit traits such as being sociable, lively, & active -Predictive of job performance for jobs that require employees to interact frequently with others
typical performance
Also called "normal performance" Considered to be an employee's average performance Most commonly measured when interested in studying job performance
maximum performance
Also called "peak performance" Considered to be an employee's performance when they exert full effort on the job Most commonly measured during a particular time period at work or at an assessment center
A supervisor may give all employees high ratings because of a concern they will be laid off if ratings are less than stellar.
Artifactual restriction
How can these errors in performance ratings be reduced?
Behaviorally anchored rating scales: rating scales that clearly reflect those employee behaviors that are considered poor, average, and superior performance.
Job performance (productive behavior)
Behaviors employees engage in while at work that contributes to the organization's goals. (what employees do)
(productive behavior)Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Behaviors that are not part of employees' formal job descriptions, or behaviors for which employees are not formally rewarded
Cheating on an exam is a result of lack of effort (i.e., studying) from the student.
Destructive/hazardous behaviors
A student who goes out partying all night is more likely to skip their 8:30 AM class than another student who went to sleep at 10:00 PM.
Downtime behaviors
Narcissism is positively related to CWB
Individuals high in narcissism are likely to react negatively, even aggressively, when they experience conditions in the organization that are not congruent with their view of themselves.
(productive behavior)Innovation
Instances in which employees come up with very novel ideas or concepts that further the goals of the organization
Forming a study group involves interpersonal behaviors.
Interpersonally oriented behaviors
Job-Demands Control Model (JDR model)
Job demands: high levels of workload Outcome: level of stress Negative effects of stress can be mitigated by control
Job-Demands Resources Model (JDR model)
Job demands: high levels of workload, time pressure, long hours, etc. Outcomes: strains, motivation, employee's well-being, organizational outcomes Negative effects of stress can be mitigated by resources, including control, rewards, social support, etc.
(CAMPBELL'S MODEL OF JOB PERFORMANCE) Declarative & procedural knowledge
Job-specific-task proficiency
OCB-I
OCBs directed toward individuals within the organization
OCB-O
OCBs directed toward the organization
Completing assignments is a major task associated with being a student
Task-oriented behaviors
Conscientiousness is negativelyrelated to CWB
Those low in conscientiousness most likely don't care a great deal about the effects of their actions, & most likely have little fear of the consequences of engaging in CWB.
Self-control is negatively related to CWB
Those low in self-control find it harder to resist negative impulses, & thus, are more likely to engage in deviant behaviors
Trait anger is positively related to CWB
Trait anger is related to a number of forms of CWB, especially given that many acts of CWB are often responses to frustrating conditions in the workplace.
An abusive supervisor of a Product Development department is stifling innovation because employees are afraid to propose new ideas.
True restriction
(COMMONLY STUDIED STRESSORS) role
a set of behaviors that are expected of an individual (e.g., employee, spouse, student) -Role-related information is provided through formal & informal sources
(EXTRA-ROLE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS) Maintaining personal discipline
abiding by specific rules & refraining from from negative behaviors
(EXTRA-ROLE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS) Written & oral communication
ability to write & communicate effectively
(5-FACTOR MODEL)Theft
act of employees taking property or materials that do not belong to them (e.g., stealing supplies from the organization or a coworker)
(MURPHY'S MODEL OF JOB PERFORMANCE) Interpersonally oriented behaviors
all interpersonal transactions that occur on the job
Behavioral perspective
an employee's behavioral tendencies toward their job
Cognitive perspective
an employee's beliefs about their job or job situation
(EXTRA-ROLE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS) Demonstrating effort
an employee's level of motivation & commitment to their job tasks
Job insecurity
an individual's expectations about continuity in a job
Organizational constraints
aspects of the work environment that inhibit or interfere with one's job performance
(5-FACTOR MODEL)Withdrawal
attempts by employees to disengage from the workplace (e.g., calling in sick when not actually feeling sick, arriving to work late)
Normative commitment
based on an employee's feeling of obligation to the organization, wherein remaining a member is the morally right thing to do
Continuance commitment
based on an employee's perceptions of the relative investments they have made in the organization, & the relative costs associated with seeking membership in another organization
Job-specific-task proficiency
behaviors associated with the core tasks that are unique to a particular job Example 1: A bank teller performs behaviors such as counting money, recording deposits, and cashing checks
(MURPHY'S MODEL OF JOB PERFORMANCE) Downtime behaviors
behaviors outside of work that affect job performance
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
behaviors that are not part of employees' formal job descriptions, or behaviors for which employees are not formally rewarded
Nonjob-specific-task proficiency
behaviors that must be performed by some or all members of an organization, but are not specific to a particular job Example 2: All professors, regardless of specialty area, are usually required to perform common tasks, such as advising students, serving on university committees, etc.
Courtesy
behaviors that reflect basic consideration for others, like being mindful of others when on the phone with clients
Conscientiousness
being a good citizen in the workplace, like arriving on time for meetings
(EXTRA-ROLE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS) Facilitating peer & team performance
degree to which employees are helpful to their coworkers when they need assistance, as well as degree to which employees are working to further the goals of their work group
(5-FACTOR MODEL)Production deviance
deliberate attempts by employees to work below their capabilities (e.g., purposely doing work incorrectly, purposely working slower than one is capable of working)
Sabotage(5-FACTOR MODEL)
deliberate attempts to directly or indirectly undermine the work that is being done within an organization (e.g., purposely damaging organizational property, purposely wasting supplies)
(Personality) Conscientiousness
dependable, goal-oriented, & achievement-oriented
(EXTRA-ROLE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS) Management/administration
effectively organizing & keeping track of critical information
(EXTRA-ROLE PERFORMANCE DIMENSIONS) Supervision/leadership
effectively supervising & leading others
Job characteristics approach
employees cognitively evaluate their jobs & organizations & make some determination of their relative level of satisfaction
effectiveness (what job performance is not)
evaluation of the results of an employee's job performance (job performance is only one part of effectiveness)
Sportsmanship
exhibited by not engaging in certain forms of behaviors, like complaining about problems or minor inconveniences
Affective commitment
extent an employee identifies with the organization & feels a genuine sense of loyalty toward it
Altruism
helping behavior in the workplace, like helping a coworker with a computer problem
Emotional perspective
how an employee feels about their job
(COMMONLY STUDIED STRESSORS) Role conflict
inconsistent or conflict information provided by different members of an employee's role set
job performance
is different from the other types of productive behaviors because it represents behavior formally evaluated by the organization as part of the employee's responsibilities and duties.
(campbell's model)declarative knowledge
knowledge about facts & things; having a good understanding of the tasks required by the job
(RESTRICTION IN THE VARIABILITY OF JOB PERFORMANCE) True restriction
occurs when measures of performance are relatively accurate but there is a true lack of meaningful variation in actual job performance; may be that all employees are performing at a high or low level within an organization due to some factor
Distributive justice
perceived fairness of how rewards & costs are shared by (or distributed) across groups (e.g., salary)
Procedural justice
perceived fairness of procedures used to make decisions (e.g., requirements for pay raise)
Interactional justice
perceived fairness of the explanations given for decisions being made, as well as being treated with dignity & respect Outcomes:
(MURPHY'S MODEL OF JOB PERFORMANCE) Task-oriented behaviors
performing major tasks associated with job
Workplace violence
physical acts of aggression carried out in organizational settings Predictors: gender, past history of violent behavior, alcohol & drug abuse, lack of conscientiousness, low agreeableness, low emotional stability, highly hostile, perceived provocation Outcomes: fired from the organization, legal prosecution, poor reputation
(campbell's model) motivation
reflective of an employee's choices regarding (a) whether to expend effort directed at job performance, (b) level of effort expended, & (c) whether to persist with the level of effort chosen
Importance of defining job performance (3 reasons)
reliability:(we can't measure it consistently)without a clear understanding & consistent conceptualization, how can we expect to consistently measure it? validity: we have to know the full breadth of the construct (job performance) to know if we have measured it fully interpretability: if we can't define what we've measured, how would we interpret any statistically significant findings that come from the data?
(RESTRICTION IN THE VARIABILITY OF JOB PERFORMANCE) Artifactual restriction
results from factors such as errors in performance ratings or the performance measurement system; true differences among employees' levels of job performance may be masked because of an error in the performance rating process
(MURPHY'S MODEL OF JOB PERFORMANCE) Destructive/hazardous behaviors
safety violations, sabotage, accidents
Internal dispositions approach
some employees have a tendency to be satisfied (or dissatisfied) with their jobs, regardless of the nature of the job or organization in which they work
productivity(what job performance is not)
takes into account the cost of achieving a given level of performance and effectiveness
Civic virtue
target is the organization or work group rather than the individual, like attending a charitable function sponsored by the organization
In-role performance
tasks that must be performed within a given occupational position
Workload
the amount of work an employee has to do in a given period of time -Can be measured objectively or subjective -workload is cyclical -can be evaluated quantitatively (i.e., volume of work) or qualitatively (i.e., difficulty of work)
efficiency(what job performance is not)
the level of performance that can be achieved in a given period of time
COPING WITH STRESS
the manner in which employees adapt to the stressors they experience
utility(what job performance is not)
the value of a given level of performance, effectiveness, or productivity for the organization
Role set COMMONLY STUDIED STRESSORS)
the various sources of information, both formal & informal, that employees utilize in defining their roles in organizations
(campbell's model)procedural knowledge
understanding not only what needs to be done but how to do it & carry out those behaviors
(5-FACTOR MODEL)Abuse toward others
verbal or physical behaviors that mistreat others in the workplace
What is CWB?
voluntary work behaviors that hurt or are intended to hurt the organization or it's members
Layoffs
when a company eliminates jobs regardless of how good the employees' performance -Those who do not get laid off experience... Guilt Vulnerability Increased workload -Those who do get laid off experience... Poor physical health Moderated by active coping techniques Poor mental health
Role overload(COMMONLY STUDIED STRESSORS)
when an employer demands more of an employee than they can accomplish in a given time; or the employee perceives the demands of the work as excessive
Problem-focused coping
when an individual tries to do something about the stressor they are experiencing
Emotion-focused coping
when an individual tries to regulate the emotions that have in response to a stressor
(COMMONLY STUDIED STRESSORS) Role ambiguity
when role-related information is unclear (not enough information)
Challenge stressors
work demands that can potentially be reduced through motivated action by the employee (e.g., heavy workload, looming deadline, taking over a problematic work group)
Hindrance stressors
work demands that people tend to appraise as obstacles to successful performance that cannot be overcome through increased effort (e.g., unclear performance expectations, office politics)
