Quiz 2 Combined SOP #3
Discrimination in Promotion
- once women are hired, are they given promotions equitably? - Glass ceiling: artificial barrier in organization that prevents women and ethnic minorities from rising based on their abilities - Labyrinth
Koss' Methodological Innovations (1987)
- previous stats based on FBI Uniform Crime Reports - just cases reported to law enforcement - serious understatement (rape is rare) - sampled the general population (college students) - new method of measurement: * don't ask "have you ever been raped?" * ask a series of questions on behaviors (ex. have you ever had sexual intercourse when you didn't want to because a man used his position of authority to make you?)
Who is missing from prodominant images of mothers in our society?
- racial and ethnic minority women -older mothers -adoptive mothers -mothers who are not straight -mothers from low socioeconomic groups -mothers with disabilities
age related physiological changes in reproductive system are not a main obstacle to older women's sexual satisfaction.. what may be more important?
- societal factors?
The field of psychology is generally geared toward detecting and reporting differences, not similarities.
-Statistical tools to detect difference, not similarity.
why is his work so popular?
-people like binaries -people want their relationships to work -gray is trying to create evidence to justify our differences and stereotypes
medical procedures on intersex bodies
-purely cosmetic - don't benefit and can even harm physical health
Social Capital
-relationships between people and feelings of mutual obligation and support that these relationships create - networking, schmoozing - gain information, access to help and resources, career sponsorship
postpartum psychosis
-serious condition that often includes delusions, hallucinations, and thoughts (or deeds) of hurting oneself or the infant -very serious, occurs 2 months after childbirth, and very rare
comprehensive sex education programs
-teach that abstinence is the best method for avoiding unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections -but also provide information about condoms and contraception
influences on gender development
1. parents 2. siblings 3. school 4. peers 5. media
Children only spend _________ of their time with peers of other genders
10%
what percentage does the world health organization recomment?
10-15%
What proportion of girls were tomboys in childhood?
2/3
What is the U.S. divorce rate?
40-50
What percent of female students have been harassed in some way by professors?
50%
What percent of students report their sexual harassment?
7%
Regarding orgasm consistency, research shows that _________________.
75% of men, but only 29% of women, always have an orgasm during sex with their partner.
Token
A member of a group that is less than 15% of the larger.
What did maria have?
Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome
The physiological responses of women and men to sexual stimulation from any source
The sexual response cycle
Gender constancy
The understanding that even if a change in physical appearance takes place, a girl will still be a girl and a boy will still be a boy
The term "mother mandate" refers to the ______________.
Demand from society for women to be mothers
Second Wave Feminism
Emerged in the 60's, 10 years post WWII when there was a spark of renewed interest in workplace equality
Cognitive development theories
Emphasize that children's understanding of gender goes through stages corresponding to the development of cognitive skills
Women of color more interested than White females
Ethnic identity
What is the problem in not reporting findings that are not statistically significant?
This means we failed to detect a difference. File drawer problem
Anorexia Nervosa
Extreme fear of becoming obese, refusal to maintain an adequate body weight (85% of expected weight), and extremely distorted body image - 75-90% of people with anorexia are female, and 0.5-4% of girls experience anorexia - Amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual period), heart, lung, kidney, and gastrointestinal disorders, osteoporosis - death - very difficult to treat
The anatomical structure that produces ejaculation in some women is the ______________.
G-spot
Increased pressures for gender conformity at the beginning of adolescence is termed ______________.
Gender intensification
Girls like girls; boys like boys
Gender prejudice
A woman who is emotionally and sexually attracted to other women
Lesbian
How does media promote weight worries
Media exposure leads to increased weight concerns
The spontaneous loss of a pregnancy before the 20th week of gestation; 1 in 7 pregnancies
Miscarriage
_________ of boys and men in children's books is widespread
Overrepresentation
Dyspareunia
Painful intercourse.
More
Research findings suggest that female sexual orientation is ________ fluid than male sexual orientation.
the contents of the uterus are removed by suction; most common type of abortion
Vacuum aspiration
External female sexual organs
Vulva
No
Were boys treated differently in school by their peers based on attractiveness (unlike girls)?
85%
What is the % of lone-parent households that are headed by women?
25%
____% of births in the US are induced.
Intersexuality
a collective term for a number of specific variations on the theme of biological sex;
Leader
a person who exercises authority over other people
Gender identity
a person's perception of having a particular gender, which may or may not correspond with their birth sex.
Turner Syndrome
a single X chromosome rather than a pair.
Affirmative Action (1968)
amended to prohibit sex discrimination (in addition to race, color, national origin, religion); this only applies to employers who hold contracts with federal government (like IU)
5 alpha-reductase deficiency
an inherited condition in a genetic male that prevents the prenatal differentiation of the external genital tissue into a penis; male reproductive organs; female external genitalia; gender and gender identity depends on age; unknown sexual orientation
Girls are valued for ____, boys are valued for ____
appearance; athletics
access discrimnation
at the time of hiring
Wolffian ducts
basis for male internal reproductive structures
IQ tests are designed to (be free of/contain) sex-gender bias. Women and men typically score ______ on IQ tests.
be free of score similarly
What is a major factor contributing to the maternal death rate in the U.S.?
c-sections
life expectancy in richmond differences
can differ up to 20 years in neighborhoods that are only 5 miles apart
Modeling
demonstrating gendered behavior for children
Activating effects of hormones
effects occurring during and post puberty that activate or deactivate certain behaviors.
relational aggression
harming other through nonphysical hurtful manipulation of their peer relationships
chapter 10
here
chapter 13
here
chapter 7
here
chapter 8
here
chapter 9
here
what kind of settings might a midwife provide birthing care?
hospital, birthing centers, or a home
romantic ideology
love is all you need
What is an "at will" state?
means you can get fired for absolutely no reason at all; Indiana is an "at will" state
glass escalator
men are likely to earn more and get promoted faster
Dual Earner Couples
more economic stability in face of recession - hidden benefit - NY times article
Observation Learning
occurs through watching others behavior
Trait Self-objectification
overall propensity to view self through the lens of others
sex/gender binary is ....
overly simplistic and exclusionary
Compulsory Motherhood
people may believe that women have a responsibility to become mothers
Describe Eagly's role congruity theory and its explanation of prejudice against women in the workplace
peoples perception of leadership is incongruent with the female role women seated at the head of the table was recognized at leaders only if the rest of the people were women women are given fewer leadership opportunities leadership behavior viewed less favorably
Doing gender
performing or enacting behaviors associated with a specific gender in day-to-day life
Sexual Differentiation
prenatal development
When are girls and boys motor skills most similar?
preschool and elementary years
MIH
prevents the internal embryonic structure from developing into female organs such as a uterus
What types of colleges are more likely to have more sexual harassment?
private colleges
Medical gaze
process of dehumanization that occurs when medical providers treat a person's body separate from that person's sense of self.
What are the three was of learning gender socially?
reinforcement imitation observation
Know the outcome of the 2015 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges.
same-sex marriages allowed
Sexualization
sexually objectifying a person.
Binegativity:
social stigma directed specifically at bisexual people
Why might children spend very little time with peers of other genders?
stereotyped play the more time spent in gender segregated groups, the more gender-typed behavior becomes.
characters tend to be portrayed in the media in
stereotypical ways !!!!!!
Describe microaggressions
subtle insults
Patronizing behavior
supervisors give subordinates considerable praise while withholding valued resources.
sex/gender binary
the idea that there are only two sexes, and that a person must be assigned a sex of either female or male that will align with a predictable gender.
XYY and XYYY
these people look pretty much like other men, except they are taller than average
Intersex individuals face a dilemma in deciding...
when and how to bring up their intersex identity with a potential romantic/sexual partner.
what are the gender differences in attitudes toward masturbation and reported engagement in masturbation?
women are less likely to admit they masturbate
gender differences in reports of first sexual intercourse on feelings of guilt and pleasure
women are more likely to feel guilty rating their first time having sex at 2.95
Sexual desire disorder
women having a lack of desire for sexual activity
Girls and women are mostly shown in....
~traditional roles~ so shocking
The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
Which two parts of the brain govern the menstrual cycle?
Spatial memory tasks:
Women have a small advantage on spatial memory tasks. Differences disappear when objects are stereotypically masculine!
how have rates changed in other developing countries
all other rates have dropped
Queer
all sexual minorities.
Partial Androgen insensitivity
external sex organ that can be identified as an enlarged clitoris or small penis -internally have male testes located in the abdomen
Employment Status and Marital Satisfaction
In general, a woman's employment status is not related to her marital satisfaction
Black girls
Which ethnicity (+gender) is the least likely to be given clear feedback in school?
Girls
Which gender is more likely to choose neutral or cross-gender toys and activities?
girls get better grades, but boys have slight advantage on _______
standardized tests. we are not sure why this happens
Intersectionality
the intermingling of female and male sexual characteristics.
Internalized homophobia, biphobia, heterosexism, or homonegativity
the internalization of negativity about one's sexual minority identity
The female underprediction effect refers to __________________.
the phenomenon that females' SAT scores predict lower grades for them in college than they actually get.
Not effective in decreasing sex or STDs
"Just say no" sex education
Be familiar with laws affecting gay couples. "don't ask, don't tell" marriage (or equivalent benefits)
"don't ask, don't tell"- prohibited military personal from harassing closeted homosexual or bi service members or applicants (prohibited openly homosexual behaviors) marriage (or equivalent benefits)
Conclusions
- kids supply "he" in neutral context - don't understand rule about "he" as neutral - "he" therefore refers to males ** androcentrism is created in minds of children through language - article was rejected --> why? * missing group 4: she * reviewers weren't convinced of causality that sex-biased language is influenced by children's thought
Middle-Age
- empty nest or prime of life - body worries - grandmotherhood
sex/gender difference and similarities for personality traits
- men are more assertive than women. (more true for self-report than behavioral observations) - women are more tender-minded and slightly more anxious.
Wisconsin Task Force on Glass Ceiling
- survey of women managers in Wisconsin - "is there a glass ceiling in your company?" - pilot data: always do; small sample of women and phone interviewed them about answers - changed question to "is there a glass ceiling at your current or previous employer?" * 58% said yes * 80% said the glass ceiling was an important reason for leaving - moved to more hospitable companies - started their own business, often competing with previous employer - shows women's resistance!
some factors that may increase or decrease woman's potential for orgasm?
-Masturbation -The length of time spent during sex play "foreplay"
structural role definition
-Where there is a partner, redefine roles of taking care of the home and children (if applicable) so partners are equally involved. -Executive function = the management, thinking, planning, brainwork
Women in STEM/EMCP face discrimination based _____
on sex/gender, race, and disability.
3 stages in career development
-preparation choice -implementation of choice; work adjustment
post abortion trauma
-severe psychological trauma (post-traumatic stress disorder, clinical depression, etc.), resulting in long-term damage to their mental health -research shows this does not exist!
4. Resolution
-the body returns to pre arousal state -within 15-30 min blood is released from engorged areas
vocational psychology
-the study of people's career development -has been around since ~ 1905.
Why are Women's Health Problems Important?
1) gender makes a difference in the kinds of health problems that people experience 2) gender makes a difference in the way a disease is diagnosed, viewed, and treated 3) illness is an important part of many women's experience
Four Factors that Predispose Men to Rape
1. Violent home environment 2. Delinquency (peers encourage hostile behaviors) 3. Sexual promiscuity (coercion seen as way to make conquests) 4. A hostile masculine personality (hostility towards women)
Gender Ratios: 60-69 years
115 women: 100 men
Among 80-89-year-olds, there are ______ women for every 100 men.
180
Gender Ratios: 80-89 years
180 women: 100 men
systematic racism in Richmond that led to a concentration of poverty in the east end
1930 (great depression) Redlining -Home owners loan corporation, to prevent home foreclosure/refinance homes -predominantly black neighborhoods were rated red and not suitable for funding
When is the "prime of life"
70% of 60-65 year old women describe current lives as better than when they were younger
What was the Baby X study?
A baby was introrudced to both male and female participants but was introduced without revealing the gender of the child. Then how the male and female participants interacted with the child was recorded.
Hooking Up
A one-time casual unplanned sexual encounter that can be any kind of casual sexual contact that ranges from making out to intercourse
Common experiences among people with non-monosexual identities (e.g. bisexual, pansexual, queer)
A stage of sexual identity uncertainty, even after adopting an identity label
gender self-socialization model
A theoretical model that children's gender identification makes them want to adopt gender stereotyped behaviors, children's gender identity, their gender stereotypes, and their gender self-perceptions all influence each other as children develop (stereotype emulations, identity construction) Tobin et al's
Cesarean Birth
About 30% of all deliveries in the U.S are c-sections ; more convenient for medical staff - sometimes necessary if a vaginal birth would be risky C-sections can be risky for mother and baby, and can be a traumatic experience for mother; women tend to have more negative perceptions of birth and the newborn after c-sections
The Role of Alcohol and Drugs
About half of rapes are associated with alcohol use drugs may be used to incapacitate a victim
Freud
According to ________, all individuals are initially bisexual.
Twice
Although smaller than the penis, the clitoris has more than _______ as many nerve fibers.
Karen Horney - criticized Freud
Argued that power inequalities, not biology, cause the psychological differences observed in girls and women Womb envy: an envy of women's reproductive ability, which motivated men's desire to dominate women
Describe cultural differences in marriage (arranged marriages) and child-bearing (China's two-child policy, recently revised from one-child policy) discussed in class.
Arranged Marriages: India, Pakistan, Egypt, China, Japan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Compatibility - NOT LUST - grows into love, low divorce rate (<4%; <2% in India!) China's One-Child (now Two-Child) Policy, Abortions of female fetuses, invisible children
Age 3 (particularly strong in elementary school)
At what age does gender segregation start to take place?
What theory suggests that early human survival was enhanced when women and men worked together to ensure the survival of their offspring?
Attachment fertility theory
Diagnostic Biases in Therapists
Before therapists have any other info, they consider men to be healthier than women; they over diagnose depression in women and under diagnose depression in men; may diagnose a substance abuse problem instead of getting to the root of the issue
Attracted to both men and women
Bisexual
At what age do gender stereotypes for toys, clothing, activities, occupations, etc. develop?
By age 3
when is the process of becoming a female inside a fetus complete?
By the 12th to 14th week
Incisions are made in the abdomen and uterus and the baby is surgically removed
Cesarean section
How do children of lesbian parents fare?
Children in lesbian families felt: -less parental pressure to conform to gender stereotypes -less likely to experiences their own gender as superior -more likely to be uncertain about future heterosexual romantic involvement -no differences were found on psychosocial adjustment
Neurosexism
Claims that there are biologically based differences between men and women These differences are fixed Used as a means to justify or reinforce gender stereotypes
Access Discrimination
Discrimination used in hiring, i.e., women being denied jobs or offered less-attractive positions based on their femaleness - when applicants have ambiguous qualifications - when employers have strong gender stereotypes - when women candidates are assertive and not feminine - when applying for a gender-specific job - when women apply for prestigious jobs employers may feel that women are not as capable as men, that they must possess stereotypically masculine characteristics to succeed, and may pay attention to inappropriate things when women are being interviewed
Menstrual pain
Dysmenorrhea
Painful intercourse
Dyspareunia
women (and especially women of color) are underrepresented in __________
EMCP fields engineering, math, computer science, physics the gender imbalance increases up the ladder of success
Cervix becomes flatter and thinner; first stage of childbirth
Effacement
Organizing effects of hormones
Effects occurring prenatally that permanently effect organization of structures.
UW Madison Sexual Assault Survey Report
Framing of issues: 1. shared responsibility: everyone's responsibility 2. safety issue: relates to men too Response rate: 22.2% (biased sample, but don't know in what direction)
If there are several boys born, the younger the boy, the more likely it is that they will be gay
Fraternal birth order
Fat Talk
Girl 1: "ugh I'm so fat" Girl 2: "no you're not, I'm fat!"
Describe the risks of childbirth after 40.
Harder to conceive Higher risks Higher incidence of multiples More miscarriage More preterm, low-birth-weight, stillborn babies Higher levels of complication during pregnancy More chromosomal abnormalities More likely to have cesarean sections
The view that heterosexuality is the norm and that homosexuality is abnormal
Heterosexism
____________ refers to a strong, irrational fear of homosexuals.
Homophobia
A medical treatment that replaces hormones in women whose levels drop after menopause
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
About half
How many pregnancies among women over 40 are unintended?
Have rates of Cesarean section increased, decreased, or stayed the same over the past 5 decades? What are some contributing factors?
INCREASED! Hospital standards and policies. A lot of Doctors not having the knowledge of natural birth and how to go about it.
According to a meta-analysis of studies in which women and men occupying leadership positions were evaluated, _________________.
If women used an autocratic leadership style, the received lower evaluations.
The couple's own sperm and egg are fertilized in a glass laboratory dish and the resulting embryo is transferred into the woman's uterus
In vitro fertilization
According to a meta-analysis, two of the largest gender differences in sexuality are in __________________.
Incidence of masturbation and attitudes about casual sex.
What did predict criminality?
Intelligence
Describe sex differences in success attributions
Internal attributions for ♂ achievement External attributions for ♀ achievement Self-serving attribution bias - tendency to attribute positive events to internal causes, negative events to external causes
What are some potential benefits for employed women?
Juggling family and work can lead to role overload and interrole conflict, but it can also bring numerous rewards, including higher self-esteem, better physical and mental health, greater respect from others, and greater economic security
The scale (0-6, X) that describes how heterosexual/homosexual/asexual a person is.
Kinsey scale
Fatty hair-covered area between the legs forms these flaps
Labia majora (outer lips)
Maternity Leave
Length of maternity leave is not correlated with mental health except for women who consider employment an important part of their identity - homemakers, part-time employees, and full-time employees have similar mental health after one year
Understand the intersectionality perspective as it relates to gay women
Lesbians who are women of color experience 3 intersecting identities and triple oppression Latinx lesbians Special emphasis on family Asian American lesbians Strong distinction between public and private expression of sexuality Stronger value placed on loyalty to one's family and performance of family roles than on expression of individual desires African American lesbians Regard ethnic community as highly homophobic
What is the life expectancy for females? For men?
M:76.1 years, WM: 81.1 years
The Media
MUST reduce their emphasis on violence, and MUST put more attention on women's issues
Body Weight and Eating Disorders
Many women are preoccupied with body weight; people emphasize body weight much more when they judge women than when they judge men
Observation studies; had to be willing to have sex in front of others; studied the human sexual response using direct observation; more interested in the biology of sex as opposed to emotions, etc.
Masters and Johnson
Mood state characterized by crying, anxiety, and irritability, typically begins 3-4 days after childbirth and lasts for a few days or weeks
Maternity blues
85% of men report that their partner had an orgasm on their last sexual act but only 64% of women say they had; women are typically less satisfied than men with their sex life
National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior
How much more do men earn than women only a year after graduation?
Nearly $8,000 (this is true for all majors, and all fields of work)
Do they argue that women now get to leadership positions as easily as men?
No - women still have more difficult path: labyrinth * kind of like a cornmaze
Research on gender differences in tested abilities indicates that there are _____________________.
No gender difference in IQ.
Focus just on the biology
Organ recital sex education
The low third of the vagina becomes engorged with blood
Orgasmic platform
Reproductive Cancers
Pap smears are crucial in prevention and early detection of cervical cancer Hysterectomies may be necessary in some scenarios, but many are performed without medical justification ovarian cancer is especially deadly; no current reliable, valid screening test; often found in later stages and symptoms resemble other issues
vulva
Part of the external female genitalia; includes the labia and the clitoris
The 5-7 years preceding the beginning of menopause
Perimenopause
Sexism in the 19th century
Philosophers promoted ideas of women's inferiority. They used sexist scientific research to explain why.
Female orgasm _____________________.
Physiologically, is the contractions of the orgasmic platform.
Plant foods that do not contain estrogen but affect the body in a similar manner
Phyto-estrogens
contraceptive sabotage
When someone purposely sabotages their partners contraceptive. -ex: Poking holes in condoms.
Severe feelings of depression that last for weeks or months after delivery
Postpartum depression
A serious condition that often includes delusions, hallucinations, and thoughts or deeds of hurting oneself or the infant (ex: Andrea Yates)
Postpartum psychosis
Hormone-like chemicals secreted by the uterine lining and other tissues as menstruation approaches; thought to be the cause of menstrual pain/discomfort
Prostaglandins
Appearance Rigidity
Rigid adherence to gender norms in appearance, such as wearing highly masculine or feminine clothing and avoiding clothes typical of another gender
Decreasing
Rates of teen sexuality have been _____________.
Is there a correlation between perceived sexist events and women's psychological distress?
Research supports a positive correlation between frequency of sexist events and and a range of symptoms such as premenstrual, depressive, obsessive, compulsive, and somatic symptoms. Also overall distress beyond normal hassles and stressors.
2nd Cognitive theory
Rosa age 3 1/2, goes to her aunt, a female physician. Rosa then yells out saying women shouldn't be doctors, only nurses while men should be doctors
Playful chasing, tumbling, hitting, and wrestling, often accompanied by laugher and screaming
Rough-and-tumble play
The attitudes of individuals who cohabit are more accepting of divorce and less committed to marriage than the attitudes of non-cohabiters
Selection effect
According to the ______________ hypothesis, women will suffer stress and damage to their psychological well-being owing to the multiple responsibilities of both work and family roles.
Scarcity
Criticism of human response cycle
Scientific: having a history experience orgasm of masturbation and intersexual intercourse Clinical: exclusive genital (Reproductive) focus for sexuality genital performance during heterosexual sex is the essence of sexual functioning. Feminist: Human sexual response is not gender neutral... favors men and interest/experience over women
The degree to which one's sex drive can be changed by cultural or social factors
Sexual plasticity
The physiological responses of individuals to sexual stimulation from any source (sexual intercourse, masturbation, etc.)
Sexual response cycle
Discuss medicalization of childbirth, and the alternative methods available today.
Shaving, Enemas, Anesthesia, Episiotomies Cesarean Section
Loss of identity and confidence; self-censored; more common among white girls
Silencing
unpaid work
So like mothers cleaning in the house or taking care of children
Occupational Segregation
Some jobs are traditionally held by women, and others are held traditionally by men
Focusing on yourself from a 3rd person perspective rather than their own sensations and/or the partner; can increase performance fears and can decrease sexual performance
Spectatoring
Understand spillover and compensation effects
Spillover ‒ positive or negative feelings in one role carry over into another role Compensation ‒ positive aspects of one role can make up for negative aspects of another role
Mixed findings based on type of sport; cheerleading/dancing leads to higher body shame; general physical activity or team sports create more positive effects, increased self-esteem, body image, delayed sexual activity, etc.
Sports identity
7
Stereotypes become more flexible after age ___.
Paying a woman who agrees to become pregnant and deliver a child for a couple
Surrogate motherhood
discuss how teacher behaviors continue to socialize children outside the home (attention and gender salience in the classroom)
Teachers pay more attention to boys, Teachers praise girls for decorous conduct and boys for good academic performance, gender salience condition (good morning, boys and girls)- increased gender stereotypes, less positive ratings of other-gender peers, and decreased play with other-gender peers
Direct Instruction
Telling boys and girls to behave in different ways
What did Lillian B. Rubin say about empty nest syndrome?
That in her studies, some women are momentary sad, lonely, or frightened, but they weren't depressed and in fact mainly felt relief.
What is the American Psychological Association's position about abortion?
The APA is pro-choice because women's control over critical life decisions promotes psychological health
Gender labeling
The ability to say whether someone is female or male
20 years or younger (56% of girls were married before age 15 and of those, 17% were married before age 10)
The average age of women at first marriage in India is _____?
Over 26 years
The average age of women at first marriage in the US is _____?
Plasticity
The brain's ability to change in response to aspects of the environment and learning experiences
What happened in the 1970s in an effort to push away from biological essentialism?
The concepts of sex and gender were separated. Sex (biological) Gender (cultural)
According to a study of possible genetic influences on sexual orientation _________________.
The concordance for lesbianism was 24-48 percent for identical twins.
Differential Treatment
The extent to which parents and others behave differently toward boys an girls
Gender identity
The first stage of gender constancy development, in which children can identify and label their own gender and the gender of others
The Mother Wars refers to ____________________.
The media pitting working moms against stay at home moms.
3. Orgasm
The orgasmic platform, uterus, and anal sphinchters contract strongly several times at intervals less than a second
Estrogen is manufactured by ________________.
The ovaries
Glass Escalator
The phenomenon in which men who enter female-dominated careers rise quickly to high management positions
What is genomic imprinting?
The silencing of a gene that is 'stamped' with an imprint during gamete production
Strategic essentialism
The strategic support of gender essentialism to help support social causes that uniquely affect large numbers of women
Sexuality shift stress
The stressors associated with changes in sexual orientation as a function of gender transitioning
What is the current pay gap, and potential reasons for the inequity?
The wage gap is both a gender and a race issue women earn on average .80 to every $1 made by men implicit associations that pair men with rich and women with poor occupational segregation; women's occupations are devalued compared to men's occupations employers discriminate against women compensation negotiations- women are less likely to bargain than men gender differences in entitlement- women have lower salary expectations gender difference in investment in job- family responsibilities lead women to reduce investment in job
Research on children reared by lesbian mothers compared to children reared by heterosexual couples, generally indicates that ________________.
There are no differences in adjustment or sexual orientation between the two groups.
According to meta-analysis of research on gender differences in mathematics performance from grades 2 through 11. ____________________.
There is no gender difference.
What was the one thing all participants, both male and female, did in the Baby X study?
They all tried to guess the gender of baby X
Why is masturbation important in adolescence?
They are important early sources of learning about sexuality; inexperience with masturbation may lead to erotic dependency on men
What do girls' and boys' toys tend to be associated with?
They only avoid toys that are opposite gender.Girls toys are associated with attractiveness & nurturing and boys toys are associated with violence and competition.
What did women do after the war?
They were forced to leave their jobs and instead they had babies
Brain lateralization theories have been proposed ________________.
To account for gender differences in spatial and verbal abilities.
Transactional leader
Transactional leaders clarify workers' responsibilities, monitor their work, reward them for meeting objectives, and correct their mistakes. They focus on the individual power of the leader. Laissez-faire leaders take little responsibility for managing.
transformational leadership
Transformational leaders set high standards and serve as role models by mentoring and empowering their subordinates. They focus on the success of the group and the organization's. (research show more women are this)
An individual whose gender identity differs from the gender he or she was assigned at birth
Transgender
Discuss U.S. parental leave policies and contrast these policies to those of Sweden
U.S. Family and Medical Leave Act (1993)- if employer employs 50+ people minimum 12-week leave job-guaranteed UNPAID Sweden up to 12 months leave; 80% PAID additional 6 months; further reduction in pay at 18 months guaranteed childcare option to work 75% time, 75% pay until child is 8
Women and Divorce
Weitzman Study - divorce for women: 74% decrease in standard of living - divorce for men: 42% increase in standard of living Faludi critique: - Blacklash: these statistics are keeping women in bad relationships - More accurate, 33% decline in standard of living
51-75%
What % of women in the US use modern contraceptives?
Dramatic increase in the proportion of FGM operations carried out by trained health-care personnel; lowering in some countries of the average age at which a girl is subjected to the procedure
What are some more recent trends occurring in the practice of FGM?
-Highest: Germany 83%, France 77%, UK 74% -Lowest: India 7%, Jordan 12%, Turkey 22%
What countries represent the highest and lowest % of citizens are accepting of homosexuality?
Age, education, ethnicity, social support, health benefits
What factors impact whether or not a mother will breast feed her child?
Female Genital Mutilation
What is FGM?
Female literacy
What is one of the best indicators of contraception use?
-Hispanic: 19% all, 39% female headed -American Indian: 23% all, 42% female headed -African American: 22% all, 36% female headed
What is the % of Hispanic, American Indian, and African American families living below the poverty line in the US?
To ensure the desirability and suitability of women for marriage, in large part by controlling their sexual behavior; in some cultures, female genitalia are considered unclean and this ritual is thought to smooth and purify women's bodies
What is the purpose of FGM?
48%
What is the worldwide average % of unsafe abortions?
Hippocampus
What part of the brain helps with memory and visual mapping skills? This was the part of the brain that was larger on the London taxi cab drivers.
Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, and clitoris
What parts make up the external female organs (vulva)?
1965
What year did birth control become legal?
1973
What year was Roe v. Wade (made abortions legal)?
1972
What year was Title IX of the Education Amendments Act passed (which increased participation of girls and women in sports)?
When do women achieve higher earning?
When they delay motherhood during their twenties and early thirties
Sticky Floor
When women are employed in low-level, dead-end jobs, they often have little/no chance of promotion; office workers, cashiers, waitresses
China
Which is the largest country that has over 75% of women using modern contraceptive devices?
Where do white elderly women live as opposed to ethic elderly women?
White elderly women generally live alone; ethnic elderly women generally live with extended family
Joan Chrisler
Who suggested that we are "programmed" to believe in PMS and its relationship to menstruation and that PMS supports the idea that women are weak; we've overdone it; PMS is a culture-bound syndrome; women who thought they were premenstrual reported more negative feelings
What is the current pay gap?
Women earn 80 cents for every $1 a man earns
Prenatal
You can NOT tell from current hormone levels if you are gay/lesbian/straight, but in some cases, you can tell with _____________ hormone levels.
Turner's syndrome
a chromosomal pattern of XO
Turner syndrome
a condition in whig the individual has a single X chromosome rather than a pair of sex chromosomes; the individual has neither ovaries nor testes; external genitalia are female and the individual is referred to as a girl; opposite sex attraction
What is the motherhood mandate?
a cultural belief that women must become mothers
facts about coming out
a life-long process associated with a number of risks, including victimization can be made more difficult by religion parental response is a key predictor of acceptance and emotional health
Empathy
a man who is sensitive to others' feelings and needs and is not self-centered is less likely to rape
Sexual orientation
a person's erotic and emotional orientation toward members of their own gender or members of another gender; sexual orientation is not just an issue of eroticism or sexuality but also an issue of the direction of one's emotional attachments
Borderwork
activities, such as teasing about cooties or playing catch games, that reinforce the borders between girls spaces and boys spaces.
Worker Role in Adulthood
among women ages 25-54, 77% are employed
Monosexual
attracted to only one sex/gender
Objectification
being represented and perceived as an object (your body) rather than as a person
secondary sex characteristics
breast and body hair
Dihydrotestosterone
causes the penis to grow and the testicles to form
menopause
cessation/ending of menstrual periods for a full year
Self-socialization
children's process of looking for clues about how to behave and integrating this information into an understanding of how one actually does behave
Toy packaging
communicates norms thru colors, or boy/girl models
Sex differences in verbal ability:
d=-.11
achievement motivation
desire to ecel -females and males have similar of achievement motivation
Know the definition and benefits of dual identity
dual identity- they identify and have ties with the sexual minority world and they have the ties and identify with the sexual majority world positively associated with good psychological outcomes
Double Standard of Sexual Development
evaluation of male behavior and female behavior according to different standards; used specifically to refer to holding more conservative, restrictive attitudes toward female sexuality
Glass escalator
even in female-dominated fields, men often earn more and are promoted faster
emotional responses to hypothetical situations cause ________
gender differences to emerge. hypothetical situations cause us to map onto gender stereotypes. When do these gender differences disappear?- When close in time to an actual event.
maternal wall
get less desirable assignments, lower salaries, and more limited advancement opportunities once they become mothers
Are girls or boys more likely to choose neutral or cross-gender toys?
girls
Difference between girls and boys friendships
girls are more intimate while boys normally hang in a group setting.
Quid-Pro-Quo Harassment
harassment in which an individual in a position of power makes it clear that someone with less power must submit to sexual advances to obtain something (a grade or promotion)
Hostile-Environment Harassment
harassment in which the atmosphere at school or work is so intimidating and unpleasant that a student or an employee cannot work effectively
masculinity
high score on the masculinity/instrumentality scale and a low score on the femininity/expressiveness scale
positive outcomes of coming out
higher self esteem, lower levels of depression
Discuss the activating effects of sex hormones during adolescence
hormones in adulthood affect behavior sex hormones in women fluctuate over their menstrual cycle sex hormone levels differ in men and women testosterone, aggression and sex drive aggression proneness and sexual arousability in trans women and men receiving hormone therapy more complex hormone models behavior and experience can influence hormone production and secretion
Dual identity
identification with both one's ethnocultural minority in-group and one's society or residence.
sexual arousal disroder
insufficient lubrication or failure to be aroused
Do internal/self barriers explain women's lower achievement compared to men's (in salary, likelihood of holding leadership positions)?
internal: -increasing self confidence in abilities -increasing knowledge about careers and job searchskills external: -having mentors and role models -affordable child care -scholarships for college education
glass ceiling
invisible but powerful barriers that prevent women from advancing beyond a certain level, is a global phenomenon
Myotonia
muscle tension
Mullerian-inhibiting substance
necessary for the degeneration of the Mullerian ducts
Antigay prejudice
negative attitudes and behaviors toward gay men and lesbians.
mathematics self-efficacy
one's beliefs concerning one's ability to successfully perform mathematical tasks
Gender identity
one's understanding of oneself as gendered
secular trend
over the past 150 years, the onset of puberty and the attainment of adult height and weigh thane occurred at progressively earlier ages in United States and western Europe
Intersexed
people with the variations of intersexuality
Describe queer theory
perspective that one's gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation are neither stable nor fixed through biology Gender identity and sexual orientation are dynamic and shaped by culture Binaries should be challenged
Comparable worth
principle that people should be paid equally for work that is comparable in responsibility, educational requirements, etc.
what can influence how parents encourage gendered behavior?
race, class, religion, and LGBT status.
appearance rigidity
rigid adherence to gender norms in appearance, such as wearing highly masculine or feminine clothing and avoiding clothes typical of another gender
Triphasic model of sexual response
sexual desire, vasocongestion, muscle contraction of orgasm.
there is a large sex/gender difference in interests women interested in ____ men interested in ____
social tasks hands-on, practical tasks
good mother stereotype
socially constructed as warm, forgiving, generous, nurturing who is easily able to meet all of her childrens needs and put these needs before her own
motherhood mandate
societal belief that all women should have children and they should be physically available to them at all times
recent research
some evidence of small gender differences- females less likely to demonstrate self serving attributional bias, especially on female stereotyped task
identify ways that the media influences children's gender development
stereotyping of media messages has been demonstrated to have an effect on children's gender role attitudes and behaviors and on girl's body dissatisfaction, Toy commercials: usually gender-specific, Picture books: feminine traits in female characters, Video games: patterns of extreme gender stereotyping, including violence against women; played more by boys
Androgens
steroid hormones for men
estrogen
steroids hormones for women
Kegel exercise
strengthen muscles surrounding the vagina.
Gender Rigidity
strict and inflexible gender typing begins in preschool it's reduced among girls, but not boys, in middle childhood (tomboys are common at this time)
Vaginismus
strong, spastic contraction of the muscles around the vagina, closing off the vagina and making intercourse impossible.
The Batterer: Psychological Aspects
such men are found in all social classes and in a wide variety of occupations - research shows though something about men make them more likely than women - violent husbands: more insecure or disorganized attachment style, jealous about wives, hold more gender-role attitudes and attitudes condoning marital violence
Psychoanalytic Theories
suggest gender development is controlled by unconscious forces - Freud: assumed males are superior, he sucked
Social learning theories:
suggest that learning takes place in a social setting. Happens even when children aren't directly punished, or being reinforced -- Observational learning: Occurs when children learn from watching what others do.
self serving attributional bias
tendency to: -attribute positive performance to internal traits -attribute negative performance to external causes (when something went well, i did it, when something doesn't go well, it wasn't my fault/ something outside of me -linked to healthy psychological adjustment and happiness
Heterosexism
the assumption that others are heterosexual (at least until proven otherwise) and that it's more desirable to be heterosexual
Motherhood mandate
the cultural belief that all women should have children
Motherhood mandate
the cultural belief that all women should have children, this is, be mothers
Treatment Discrimination
the discrimination that women face after they have obtained a job
Empty Nest
the period after children are no longer living at home- often portrayed negatively, which reflects the idea that a woman's identity relies on being a mother, but individual differences are often in play as well - many women report happiness when their children leave home
What is the empty nest syndrome?
the phase of the family life cycle following the departure of adult children from the family home; also known as postparental period
Socialization
the process by which society conveys to the individual its expectations for his or her behavior, values and beliefs
Gender transitioning
the process of publicly demonstrating one's gender identity in both appearance and behavior
self-esteem
the sense of worth or value that people attack to themselves
Vasocongestion
the swelling of bodily tissues caused by increased vascular blood flow and a localized increase of blood pressure.
Gender constancy
the understanding that a person's gender remains the same even if superficial characteristics such as clothing, hairstyle, or activities undergo change.
Gender Constancy
the understanding that gender is a stable and consistent part of oneself
Many lesbians have a dual identity, that is, ______________.
they identify with both the sexual minority world and the majority heterosexual world.
Define sex-linked trait
trait controlled by a gene on the X choromosome, or less occasionally on the Y
be able to discuss implicit and explicit gender identity preferences in transgender and cisgender chidlren
trans children were indistinguishable from 2 groups of cisgender children when matched on gender identity
What is the most common form of harassment?
unwanted comments, jokes, gestures, and looks
Sexual Harassment
unwanted gender-related behavior, such as sexual coercion, offensive sexual attention, sexual touching, and hostile verbal and physical behaviors that focus on gender - often occur in a a work or school setting
Know definitions of all terms relating to female sexuality, and their involvement in female sexuality, including those above and: vasocongestion myotonia orgasmic platform orgasm
vasocongestion- accumulate of blood in the blood vesicles of a region of the body, especially genitals, swelling or erection occurs, the inner 2/3 of the vagina expands myotonia-muscle tension orgasmic platform- the clit is sensitive and withdraws under clit hood, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate rise orgasm- intense sensation that occurs at the peak of sexual arousal and is followed by the release of sexual tensions
Most advanced careers by women from 1970 to 2009
1. dentistry 2. law 3. medicine
Types of Batterers
1. family only: least violent, show little violence toward people outside of their family 2. dysphoric-borderline: engages in moderate or severe violence toward his wife but not towards others (most psychologically distressed) 3. violent-antisocial: most violent, both toward their spouse and others (characterized by antisocial personality disorder)
Why do women stay with batterers?
1. hope that husband will reform 2. having no other place to go 3. fear that there will be reprisals from the batterer that he may even kill her 4. concern about the children 5. lack of support from family and friends 6. economic dependence
what percentage of babies vary in some way from the biological norm of two distinct sexes?
1.7
At what age do children begin associating specific objects and activities with females and males?
2 years old
At what age do kids tend to start playing with other kids of the same gender?
2 years old
Discuss the history and current state of civil unions and gay marriage in our country
2000: Vermont became the first state to provide formal, legal civil unions to same gender couples, with all the benefits June 26,2015- legal marriage for same-sex couples Obergefell et al. v. Hodges
what percentage of births in the US are cesarean births
32% in 2012
Female life expectancy
81.1 years
In a meta-synthesis of 106 meta-analyses, _____ were negligible or small. What was the effect size for overall differences between men and women? Over ________ of women and men overlapped.
85.5% .21 ( a small effect ) 90%
Heterosexual Marriage in Adulthood
86% of women are in wife role by age 40 Is marriage good for women? - health outcomes --> good for men - research shoes beneficial for both *quality of marriage is more importance than being married
What percent of American women marry?
92%
True
(T/F) Black teenage girls report higher self-esteem than white teenage girls.
False
(T/F) The worth and value of men decreases as they get older.
channeling
(shaping) selection of different toys, activities, and so on for boys and girls, parents create a gendered world for their child through the toys they purchase, room design, etc
Date Rape
- 40% women reported incident with boyfriend or date *most common form of rape - contributors: fear of embarrassment or being rejected by a man; alcohol
Peer Sexual Harassment in Schools at Adolescence
- 80% of boys and girls have been victims --> gender similarities - girls much more upset by it *girls are smaller (fear of rape) * seen as threat
Common arguments against surgical interventions
- Infants cannot consent to the procedure - Individuals with DSD have a clear preference for open communication about their condition - Early surgical intervention is related to the shame, anxiety, and depression experienced by many people with DSD
2.Plateau
- The clitoris is now extremely sensitive -shortens and withdraws under clitoral hood
Other Language Issues
- Transgender individuals ex. MTF (male to female) or transwoman -Then what is everyone else? * cis gender, cis women, cis men - We need gender neutral pronouns: he, she, ze
Gender and Salary
- Women earn 77% of the wages that men earn - 65% of women over 16 are employed employment status is influenced by education and immigrant status, but not parental status or ethnicity - When all factors are controlled (education, years of experience, job type, family responsibility), women still earn less than men
Rubin
- challenged many ideas about empty nest syndrome - although women were momentarily sad, the were not depressed in response to the departure or impending departure of their children -predominant feeling was relief
Resistance Group
- developed an alternative survey and made it available for free - ARC3 - Administrators and Researchers on Campus Climate - made available online September 2015
3 major stressors impacting transgender people:
- discrimination and prejudice - internalized transphobia - threat of violence
Children's speech
- girls talk more than boys, but tiny difference: d= -0.11 - girls engage in more affiliative speech: d-0.25 * positive responses to another's comments - boys engage in more assertive speech: 0.10 *patterns such as directives(telling someone what to do), criticisms, suggestions
Sex-segregated sports
- in 2009, Caster Semenya, was disqualified from competing based on results from gender verification testing. eventually was cleared to compete again in 2010
math ability in meta-analysis
- more similarities than differences - differences DISAPPEAR in nations with greater gender equality!!!! - over 69 countries, the analysis shows very small male advantage.
Postpartum (Baby) Blues
- most common postpartum issue - short-lasting change in mood that occurs during first 10 days after birth - crying, sadness, insomnia, irritability, anxiety, lack of confidence, feeling overwhelmed - symptoms tend to pass in a few days - may be related to coming down from excitement of childbirth, physical strain of motherhood, and other life changes a baby brings
Implicit associations
- women are communal (concern for others) - men are agentic (assertion and control) - leadership associated with men and masculinity
What are some costs for employed women?
-Many mothers experience role strain: stress stemming from one's roles -Role overload: role demand that exceeds one available time and or energy -Interrole conflict: incompatible demands stemming from two or more roles
major methods of contraception
-abstinence -birth control -tubal ligation -IUDs -condoms
What differential treatment is seen in the classroom?
-boys are called on more than girls -girls more reprimanded for calling out than boys -black girls least likely to be given clear feedback
glass cliff
-leading a unit that is in crisis and has a high risk of failure -Women who do pass through the glass ceiling are more likely than men to be assigned to a glass cliff position
Psychological impact of self-objectification
-vulnerability to feeling shame and inadequacy about oneself as a person -hating one's body -engaging in self-harming behaviors to make the body conform
What is a large effect size?
0.8
Rape Myths
1) rapists are often acquaintances, not strangers 2) women NEVER ask to be raped 3) women are not likely to lie about being raped; women who consent to sex are not likely to claim that they were raped later 4) pornography CAN increase the incidence of rape
what are dating scripts
A dating script is a culturally developed sequence of expected events that guides an individual's behavior while on a date.
Gender Essentialism
Assumes there is something fundamentally different about women and men. Assumes the difference is from the core of the person, and this difference comes from biological or genetic factors
2-3 years old
At what age do children develop gender identity? By this age, they can accurately label their own gender and place a picture of themselves with other same-gender children.
3 years
At what age do children display knowledge of gender stereotypes for occupations?
Stages of Gender Development
Baby- sex assigned via ultrasound Preschool - learn stereotypes, gender rigidity Middle childhood - reduced gender rigidity among girls but not boys. tomboys are common. Develop gender constancy Adolescence - gender intensification, timing of puberty in girls affect them in a variety of ways, gender non conforming girls experience exclusion and victimization
Research on male-female brain size differences _____________________.
Began over a century ago, but still fails to demonstrate reliable relationship between brain size and intelligence in humans.
when is the process of becoming a male inside a fetus complete?
By the 12th to 14th week
Diamond's research on sexual fluidity _____________.
Challenges the notion of a fixed sexual orientation.
Highly sensitive organ; only known function is sexual pleasure; consists of erectile tissue that swells during sexual stimulation
Clitoris
The "double standard of aging" refers to ________________.
Cultural norms by which mens' status increases with age but womens' decreases.
Social interaction between at least 2 persons who exchange computer messages for purposes of sexual arousal and satisfaction
Cybersex
Culturally developed sequence of expected events that guides an individual's behavior while on a date
Dating scripts
According to well-sampled surveys, the percentage of Americans who believe that sexual relations between adults of the same sex is always wrong ________________.
Decreased from 74% in the 1970s to 46% in 2012.
Modeling
Demonstrating gendered behavior for children; also refers to the child's imitation of the behavior
What is one step that health care providers can take to improve the health of women who have experienced or are experiencing reproductive and sexual coercion?
Different types of birth control such as the shot or the implant.
A man attracted to other men
Gay
2
Girls finish puberty about ___ years before boys, on average.
Results
He: 12% reported female stories They: 18% He or she: 42% Interview: do children understand the grammatical rule "he" is neutral? **only 28% of 1st graders understood rule Fill-in-blank test: ** 1st graders: 72% supplied "he"
Less
In every country listed, women want ________ children than men.
See themselves as separate and unique; necessary in order to form an adolescent identity
Individuate
Eagly and Carl have suggested that a ____________ is a better metaphor than the glass ceiling.
Labyrinth
Teasing and negative messages; most overcome and have positive self-images
Lesbian identity
Studies on gender differences in abilities and achievements indicate that ______________________.
Males have better spatial ability, especially on tests of mental rotation.
Sex differences in metabolism
Males have higher metabolism
Comparable Worth
Men and women should receive the same pay for different but comparable jobs, in terms of training, education level, and ability; "female" jobs pay less because they are devalued
Entitlement
Men have a sense of entitlement to a higher salary because they belong to the male category
Research on the Corpus Callosum in humans indicates that __________.
Men have a slightly larger CC overall, d=.21
Understand types and rates of discrimination and victimization
Meta-analysis of victimization of LGB individuals (Katz-Wise & Hyde, 2012) 56% experienced verbal harassment 28% experienced physical assault Microaggressions
When do kids realize masculinity conveys more power?
Middle childhood
Pad of fatty tissue covering the pubic bone
Mons pubis
The title of Hochschild's 1989 book was The Second Shift. By this she meant ________________________.
Most U.S. women work a full shift on the job and then a second shift at home.
Nancy Chodorow - criticized Freud
Most children develop a primary attachment to the mother. Girls never fully disconnect from their mothers, and thus embrace caregiving and emotional intimacy. Boys must develop an independent sense of themselves, and thus disconnect from an other-orientation.
Positive Reactions to Motherhood
Mothers may feel wonder and awe; report feeling strong and developing nurturing skills; children are fun; couples may feel like more of a family; mothers like the relationships between mother and child; mothers enjoy watching their babies grow
1st Cognitive theory
Neil age 6 is great art and impresses all of his preschool teachers but looses interest because he says "arts for girls"
________________ is the term for the phenomenon that the brain changes in response to experience.
Neural plasticity
Objectified Body Consciousness and Body Dissatisfaction
Objectified Body Consciousness - the tendency of girls and women to view themselves as an object to be looked at and judged by other people - increases body dissatisfaction, leads to eating disorders and depression - focus on superficial issues leaves less time for issues of substance
the 4 weird things that Freud assumed under his psychoanalytic theories
Oedipus complex (boys love mothers and hate fathers, resolved by identifying with father) Castration anxiety (fear that one's penis will be cut off) Penis envy (young girls realize they don' t have a penis and get jealous) Electra complex (a stage at which girls love their fathers, resent their mothers, and experience penis envy; resolved by accepting the inferior status of femininity)
what are two potential benefits of the concept of "leaning in" as it applies to women's career and leadership development?
Offers advice about having spouse/partner who shares responsibilities for home and children Offers practical suggestions for women about negotiation strategies and finding mentors
Prenatal Care
Only 65% of pregnant women in developed parts of the world seek prenatal care - the percentage is even lower in developing countries - prenatal care is very important for identifying and treating complications during pregnancy, as well as providing women with important information
Estrogen
Ovaries no longer produce ___________ during menopause.
There's a pervasive stereotype of a scientist as a White man in a lab coat.
People who don't match that stereotype can feel discouraged or unwelcome, as well as experience discrimination.
A woman must experience at least 5 symptoms during the week before her menstrual period, including depression, anxiety, mood swings, or anger/irritability; the symptoms must interfere markedly with work or social relationships and must be present only in the premenstrual phase of the cycle
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)
describe how the experience of puberty may differ for transgender youth and trans-affirmative care during this period.
Pubertal suppression - medical suppression of development of gender inconsistent secondary sex characteristics Gender affirming hormone treatment - hormones promote development of gender-consistent secondary sex characteristics
The period of life during which sexual organs mature and the ability to reproduce emerges; "to become hairy"; start with hormone production and progresses to menarche; seen as taboo; occurs when you reach critical "fat" %
Puberty
How does parenting affect a child's attitudes about gender?
Regardless of sexual orientation, parents who hold more liberal attitudes about gender and give their children fewer gender stereotypes have children who hold liberal attitudes about gender
Are these patterns of gender distribution of housework/childcare similar or different across ethnic groups and social classes in the U.S.? What about worldwide?
Regardless of their employment role, and across ethnicities, social classes, and nations, women continue to perform most child care activities, including feeding and bathing young children, attending school conferences and sports events, helping with homework, disciplining, organizing leisure activities, taking children to the doctor, and providing or arranging for substitute care when there is a school vacation or when a child is sick
Has research found consistent sex/gender differences in the brain that can be linked to behavioral effects?
Research has found very few differences. Conclusion from the human brain mosaic? Men and women do not seem to have clearly gender-typed brains.
Visible signs of sexual maturity that are not directly involved in reproduction (Ex: breast development, appearance of pubic and underarm hair)
Secondary sex characteristics
Over the past 150 years, the onset of puberty and the attainment of adult height and weight have occurred at progressively earlier ages in the United States and western Europe
Secular trend
The sense of worth or value that people attach to themselves; high is associated with good psychological and physical health
Self-esteem
In a classic study, female college students rated essays that they were told were by either John T. McKay or Joan T. McKay. This study measured __________________.
Sex discrimination in the evaluation of women's work.
A meta-analysis of studies of sex discrimination in the evaluation of work found __________________.
Sex discrimination is the worst when only a little information is given, and decrease when more information is available.
Insufficient lubrication or a failure to be aroused
Sexual arousal disorder
Allowed and even encouraged premarital sex for men, but not for women
Sexual double standard
Research shows men and women are more _________ than different. Popular media focuses on __________
Similar Differences
Understand that women of color, working class, and poor women may face some additional challenges on campus
Some Black and Latina female students have reported instances in which they were ignored, devalued, and assumed to be less intelligent by their peers or professors
1. Excitement phase 2. Plateau phase 3. Orgasmic phase 4. Resolution phase
Stages of an orgasm
1. Follicular phase 2. Ovulatory phase 3. Luteal phase 4. Menstruation
Stages of the menstrual cycle
Meta-analysis
Statistically combines results from a large number of studies What does it rely on? A: the effect size, which indicates how big or small a difference is.
Research shows that ___________ is the hormone related to the libido in women.
Testosterone
50%
There is an estimated _______ of couples that cohabitate before marriage. They also have an increased chance of divorce.
Feminist Therapy
Three Components: 1) clients should be treated in a nonsexist fashion 2) therapists must emphasize women's strengths, especially because women are frequently devalued in our culture 3) the distribution of power between the client and the therapist must be as equal as possible
The canal leading to the uterus
Vagina
The involuntary contraction of vaginal muscles, making intercourse painful or impossible
Vaginismus
The swelling of genital tissues with blood (usually occurs during the excitement phase)
Vasocongestion
Africa
Which continent has the most countries in which less than 10% of women use modern contraceptives?
Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus
Written by John Gray, most of common relationship problems between men and women are a result of fundamental psychological differences between the genders. -expresses the gender essentialist approach to gender differences
Maria, a genetic female, received a ____ chromosome from her mother and a ____ chromosome from her father.
X;X
Turner syndrome
XO, missing sex chromosome - the fetus lacks androgens and estrogens -neither male or female -once reached puberty, are given estrogen
Klinefelter's Syndrome
XXY (extra from mother or father); undersized penis and testes; typically sterile; feminized physical characteristics; more male than female external genitalia; identified as a male; unknown sexual orientation
Klinefelter's syndrome
XXY, causes men to have less masculine physique and appearance (small penis and testicles, enlarged breast, and sparse body hair) and increased risk of learning disabilities,
5-alpha reductase deficiency
a condition in which individuals have XY chromosomes but lack sufficient quantities of the enzyme 5-alpha reductase, so they're unable to convert testosterone into dihydrotesterone and therefore cannot masculinize their external genitalia in utero
Androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
a condition in which testosterone is present but cannot connect with cell receptors; individuals with AIS have XY chromosomes, no female-typical internal organs, and active testes
Core Gender Identity
a fundamental sense of belonging to one sex or the other -learned by age 3 -gender typed-adhering to the rules of the gender system of his or her culture
Transgender
a gender identity and/or gender expression that doesn't conform to societal expectations for the sex a person was assigned at birth
Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome
a genetic male cannot utilize androgen.
When does gender flexibility begin?
after gender constancy is fully developed then children become more flexible because they know that playing with gender-stereotypes toys or wearing gender-types clothing wont have any effect on their gender
treatment discrimnation
after obtaining the job
Sexual double standard
allows and encourages sex for men but not for women
What is postpartum psychosis and its frequency?
an overt presentation of bipolar disorder that is timed to coincide with tremendous hormonal shifts after delivery. 1 to 2 out of every 1,000 deliveries, or approximately .1 -.2% of births
Aromantic
aromantic ~is not a romantic~. experience of little to no romantic attraction - there is a distinction between romance and sex!
Describe how male and female sex chromosomes differ (XY, XX), and the potential maternal/paternal contribution of each sex chromosome
at conception- X donated by mother's egg and X or Y by the father's sperm men's contribution determines sex of child Y has 50 genes and is smaller than the X X has 1000-2000 genes
sexual subjectivity
awareness of ones sexual desires and responses
Understand why some argue that being a gender and/or race minority may benefit some gay individuals
because WOC have already learned to negotiate minority identity and bicultural competence the process of coming out as a lesbian might be easier
Why are women most likely to retire?
because of spouse's retirement
When is the female structure formed
before estrogens take place
Sex-differentiation region of the Y Chromosome(SRY)
before the 6th week of pregnancy, causes the embryonic sex glands, or gonads, to grow and develop into testes, the pair of male sex glands that much later will turn into sperm
reinforcement
behavior that is followed by desirable consquences
Leadership
being in charge of other people in multiple ways; influencing, motivating, organizing and coordinating work of others
traditional gender attitude
belief that females should engage in communal behaviors and roles and males should engage in agentic behaviors and roles
Know explanations for sexual orientation biological (genetics/hypothalamus/hormones) environmental
biological (genetics/hypothalamus/hormones)- Genetics? 48% concordance rate for lesbian orientation in MZ twins (Bailey et al., 1993) Strong genetic component, but it doesn't completely explain Differences in hypothalamus? differences in heterosexual men and homosexual men, but research not done in women Testosterone differences? no differences between lesbian and heterosexual women environmental- Learning theory doesn't explain Children who grow up with a homosexual parent are not more likely to be gay Lesbian women are no more likely than straight women to have been heterosexually raped
Belief in sex/gender differences is related to...
both hostile and benevolent sexism
Losing a Partner
can be traumatic, lonely - lesbians must cope with their grief in addition to maybe having the added burden of hiding their grief from others
Responses to Sexual Harassment
can have negative effects on performance in school or work, loss of job, transfer, and other physical and emotional effects
Trans-affirmative practice
care that is respectful, aware, and supportive of the identities/life experiences of transgender and gender nonconforming people
Categorical vs dimensional differences
categorical: Women are one way, men are another. dimensional: any differences are a matter of a degree!
How to children from homosexual parent families fare compared to children from heterosexual parent families?
children of same-sex couples and children of heterosexual couples have comparable intelligences, ethics, and development
What are some strategies that counselors can use to support, encourage, and expand the career aspirations of young women?
counselors should help women in the following areas: (1) advocating for family-friendly work policies, such as flex time; (2) locating support systems and mentors; (3) encouraging husbands or partners to participate fully in housework and child care; (4) developing effective cognitive and behavioral coping strategies; and (5) obtaining necessary education, training, and job-hunting skills.
Double Standard of Aging
cultural norms by which men's status increases with age but women's decreases
Double standard of aging
cultural norms by which men's status increases with age but women's decreases
What is the double standard of aging?
cultural norms by which men's status increases with age but women's decreases
Double standard of aging
cultural norms by which men's status increases with age but women's decreases.
Factors influencing rape
cultural values sexual scripts early family influences peer group characteristics of the situation characteristics of the victim miscommunication sex as power motive masculinity norms
Sex differences in infancy, attention:
d=-.15 (focusing) & d=-.31 (purposeful thought)
Sex differences in infancy, perceptual sensitivity:
d=-.38
Sex differences in infancy, inhibitory control:
d=-.41
Sex difference in infancy, activity:
d=.29-.64
How Often Does Rape Occur?
difficult to know because the definitions differ, women may be hesitant to report - only about 10-30% of rape survivors report their attack
gender dysphoria
discomfort or distress related to incongruence between a person's gender identity, sex assigned at birth, and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics
Sex discrimination
discrimination in employment and opportunity against a person (typically a woman) on grounds of sex.
Contemporary psychoanalytic theorists recognize more ....
diversity in family structures and the role of the child in influencing the family critical of Freud
Enhancement hypothesis
each additional role provides a new source of self-esteem, socialapproval, social status, and other benefits
Parents also influence children's.........
emotional expression, risk taking, and independence
friendships among older women
enhance physical and mental health and contribute to continues psychological growth
What is intensive mothering?
expectation that women should not only be mothers, but exceptional mothers
Infertility
failure to conceive a child after a year of trying
essentialism
females are biologically fixed and unchangeable
gender constancy
gender is permanent
How do men's and women's experiences of orgasm differ or are they generally the same?
generally the same
Why do girls have sex?
give into pressure or (if positive attitude towards sex) desire
Androgens
group of sex hormones produced more abundantly in males than in females (testosterone).
Hermaphrodites
have a combination of a female and male genitalia
relational aggression
hostile acts that attempt to damage another's close relationships or social standing Spreading a rumor
relational authenticity
how much a girl is able to be herself
Female-as-the-exception phenomenon
if a category is considered normatively male and there is a female example, gender is noted because the female is the exception * byproduct of androcentrism
Anorgasmia
inability to have an orgasm, reported by 20% of women.
Children's books lack diversity in other domains as well
including race, ability status, and sexual orientation!!!
Does and extra Y affect behavior?
it was first known that men with and extra Y were known for criminal behavior.
Gender Intensification in Adolescence (11-22)
kids much more pressure to conform **not as much now
doula
labor coach: a woman's mother, sister, friend, or an experienced and knowledgeable female labor and birth coach known as a doula
Asexuality
lack of interest in or desire for sex.
2nd Gender Schema Theory
learned very early -guides the individual in becoming gender typed -well developed
The glans of the clitoris is _______________.
located externally, in front of the vaginal opening, and is an important organ for female sexual arousal.
self-silencing
many stifled their feelings and thoughts in effort to fit in and be seen as a nice girl
gender essentialist
men and women act differently and have different options in life because of intrinsic or essential differences between the sexes. preschool children tended to evaluate the same ambiguous behaviors more harshly when the perpetrator was a boy as compared to a girl
John grey's basic premise (men are from mars and women are from venus)
men and women are different and these differences are biological
Risks of childbirth after 40:
more miscarriages, higher incidence of multiples, more preterm, stillborn, higher level of complications, chromosomal abnormalities, c-sections.
Sexual orientation
multidimensional concept involving erotic attraction, affectional relationships, sexual behavior, erotic fantasies, and emotional attachment -more fluid -more in women
Female ejaculation
occurs in 10-20% of women, happens in the g-spot.
gender identity
one's self-definition as a female or male; refers to the psychological sense of self/self-definition as male or female; develops age 2-3; sliding scale
Ovaries
pair of female sex glands that contain eggs
Hippocampus
part of the brain involved in memory.
What is the motherhood war?
pitting working moms against stay at home moms
Lamaze method
planned childbirth (hospital)
rough-and-tumble play
playful chasing, tumbling, hitting, and wrestling, often accompanied by laughter and screaming
Why do boys have sex?
pleasure and social prestige (to "score")
Discuss Erikson's (1950) adolescence developmental stage identity vs. role confusion, with emphasis on sex differences he proposed in identity development.
proposed that adolescence is the stage in which primary developmental crisis is a quest for identity, boys- develop autonomy and occupation, then marriage, girls- can't find identity until she knows her husband's identity
Glass ceiling
refers to "invisible" barriers to promotion of women and ethnic minorities into upper management and executive levels.
Breast Cancer
relatively common in the U.S, high chances of survival if detected early - can be detected with self-exams and mammograms - Lumpectomy or mastectomy can remove cancerous tissue - women generally cope reasonably well
Gender intensification
rigid enacting of gender roles. This occurs in adolescence.
what is the relationship between masturbation and levels of sexual satisfaction with a partner?
self gratification results in a better sex life with a partner
Social Class and Health
social class + education are correlated with life expectancy and morbidity - quality healthcare is expensive and women are especially likely to have second-class healthcare - under stress -
Minority stress theory:
suggests that having a marginalized identity, such as being transgender, carries additional social stressors that can negatively affect mental and physical health outcomes
Leadership styles
task-oriented, transformational, etc
Direct instruction
telling boys and girls to have differently
State self-objectification
tendency to view self through the lens of others when triggered by a specific event (such as being stared at)
What are effects of testosterone in both males and females?
testosterone, aggression and sex drive
Appearance rigidity
the adherence to conform to gender norms in one's appearance through gender-stereotypical dress.
castration anxiety
the boy's fear of castration by his father
Gender essentialism
the concept used to examine the attribution of fixed, intrinsic, innate qualities to women and men.
Gender segregation
the tendency for children to segregate on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity
What is the relationship with "feeling secure in middle-class status" and gender typing among African American parents?
they support gender equality but it depends on how secure they feel in their middle-class status; more secure= more risk
How were intersexed babies treated in the past?
took place without their consent -illustrates the need for the medical establishment to develop better guidelines for sex assignment of intersex individuals
differences in personality, beliefs, and behavior tend to reflect sex/gender stereotypes, and vary by nation.
true
Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ)
two separate dimensions to measure gender-relate personality characteristics
Sexual minority
umbrella term for all people with non-heterosexual identities and behaviors.
What message is taught to you girls through barbie dolls?
unrealistic expectations of their bodies. wanted to be barbie, thought she was perfect body dissatisfaction
Sweden parental leave policies
up to 12 months leave (80% paid), additional 6 months (further reduction of pay), at 18 months guaranteed childcare, option to work 75% of time, 75% pay until child is 8.
Misgender
using a pronoun that doesn't accurately reflect the transperson's gender identity
are women more or less likely than men to say that their first sex was unwanted?
yes
does research show negligible effects of same-sex education?
yes
True
(T/F) Although women are generally seen as the weaker sex, male embryos are considerably more fragile.
False
(T/F) Boys develop faster than girls in the womb.
False
(T/F) Children's views about gender are not closely linked to those of their parents.
True
(T/F) Most black girls show signs of puberty about a year earlier than white girls.
False
(T/F) Postmenopausal physical changes do not lead to painful intercourse.
True
(T/F) Self-esteem diminishes for BOTH genders in early adolescence. It is low for BOTH boys and girls, it's just that this disappears quicker for boys than girls.
True
(T/F) The onset of sexual activity is influenced by pubertal development and individual characteristics as well as by family and peers.
Meta-Analysis on Sex Discrimination in the Evaluation of Women's Work
- 106 studies - d = -0.07 (female vs. male stimulus; females performed worse) - bias larger in some contexts * employment application d = -0.25 * when little information is available --> more bias - gender plays larger role - little info available: d -0.38 - more info available: d = -0.08
Rape Statistics
- 28% of college women had experienced an act that met the legal definition (Koss) - National Survey: 18% lifetime prevalence - Consensus: 15-25% lifetime prevalence - Rape is common - Impact on those who haven't been raped but know someone who has
Motherhood
- 82% of American women have at least 1 child - Mother and the Mommy Wars: media pit employed mothers again stay-at-home moms
1. excitment
- Major response is vasocongestion -The swelling of genital tissue with blood
Body Esteem and Objectified Body Consciousness in Adolescence
- OBC: experience of one's body as an object to be viewed and evaluated - OBC: surveillance scale --> tendency for women to acquire to frequently evaluate body (start objectifying self) - "fat talk" among girls and from mothers
Biological explanation for differences?
- Plasticity The brain differences could be the result of different experiences. This can explain why there are (small) brain differences in the human brain mosaic. Similarly, hormones have a complicated relationship with behavior, such that it is unclear what is cause and what is consequence.
how do dating scripts differ for heterosexual men and women?
- Some aspects of the dating script were the same for females and males. These included worrying about one's appearance, talking, going to a show, eating, and kissing goodnight. -Many of the elements of the date, however, were strongly gender-stereotypical. Males were the initiators. They asked for and planned the date, drove the car and opened doors, and started sexual interaction. Females, on the other hand, reacted to what men did: being picked up, having doors opened, and responding to sexual overtures
Effects of Sexist Language on Children (Hyde)
- Story-telling task (1st, 3rd, 5th graders, college students) when a kid goes to school, _____ often feels excite on the 1st day Group 1: he Group 2: they Group 3: He or she Outcome: whether story told of boy or girl Predictions: if "he" is truly gender neutral, what do we predict % about females?
Pay Equity
- US women earn 80 cents to every dollar that men ear - ratio has closed only very slowly since 1980 * Sally Forth cartoon: cut pay for people with blue eyes
What does the data say?
- Verbal differences: Tentativeness 1. disclaimer at beginning: "I may not understand..." 2. Hedges: (sort of good game) 3. Tag Questions: It's Tuesday, isn't it? - Interpretation: Female uncertainty, a female deficit interpretation - Alternative: females display greater interpersonal, sensitivity, politeness *conversation maintenance - also use intensifiers: words such as very or really
Study 2
- added "she" * 77% female stories - created wudgemaker task *story about wudgemaker using he or she/ he/ she/ they -asked how well men/women would do as wudgemakers * males not effected by pronoun, whereas, females influenced (much higher in he or she/she) Conclusion: sexist language does influence how children think, especially how well women would do in jobs *article was accepted and published
Childhood: Preschool Gender Differences
- aggressiveness: d= +0.50 - Toy and game preferences * gender-segregation effect: by 2, especially by 5, boys only play with boys and girls only play with girls and have different styles of play * more differential play style gets, less likely to mix * occurs naturally - school adjustment * girls generally adjust better than boys (sit better in chairs, etc.)
Prevention of Rape
- anything that a woman can do to prevent stranger rape requires restriction of her activities - to prevent acquaintance rape, avoid men who downgrade women, date in groups at the beginning of a relationship, and be verbally assertive - we need to change society, not women's behavior - we need to increase the sensitivity of relevant professionals, educate students, and encourage men to become more active and involved
Intersex activists
- at the forefront of awareness and change forLGBTQ - reduced stigmatizing language and labels - influenced doctors and parents to exercise more caution before agreeing to genital surgery on children who are too young to consent for themselves
Gender Ratios of Old Age
- become more lopsided with advancing age - elderly women stand a good chance of living alone
What does it mean, "men are natural leaders"?
- biological basis - men evolved for leadership and dominance - process of sexual selection
Marital Rape
- brought to attention by Greta Rideout in 1978 - many states excluded marital rape from rape laws because sex in marriage is the husband's "right" - 7-14% in general population - man who batters wife is more likely to rape her
Methods by which adults socialize gender roles
- channeling: creates a gendered world for child *ballet lessons for girls - differential treatment: respond differently to boys and girls * girls with a spaceship - Direct instruction: "boys don't cry" - modeling masculine or feminine behavior themselves
Evidence against the assertion that men are natural leaders
- discovery of pre-literate societies that are egalitarian (Maria Lepowsky) - in about 1/3 of simple societies, men and women have roughly equal power - change over time in US *today, more women leaders and lot of counterexamples * women are committing more crimes (being more aggressive) * meta-analysis: women increased in assertiveness and dominance from 1968-1993 - today, physical aggressiveness is not a leadership asset - social-structural or biosocial theory *people have adapted to the division of labor by gender - Traits actually associated with leadership today
Toys for girls vs toys for boys
- domestic, nurturing tasks, or emphasize physical attractiveness - violent, dangerous, involve competition
Natural Childbirth
- empathetic healthcare providers who encourage a woman's sense of empowerment during childbirth - education about pregnancy and childbirth to reduce fear and dispel myths - relaxation techniques and exercises designed to strengthen muscles - controlled breathing and other focusing techniques to distract from pain - social support
Empty nest or prime of life?
- empty nest syndrome: depression that middle-aged people supposedly feel when their children are grown and have left home, leaving an empty nest - early 50s are prone of life - 70% of women fell in the "gains" category
Parental Differences in Childhood
- gender similarities, but for encouraging sex-typed activities d = +0.71 - the chicken or the egg: do parents cause the gender-typed behavior, or are they responding to children's behavior? *bidirectional influence
Infant Gender Differences (a clue to innateness?)
- gender similarities: most studies prove this - activity level (d=0.29) --> could be clue of ADHD - Temperament: personality born with - inhibitory control: d= -0.41 (ability to inhibit behavior when beneficial to; shown attractive gift under clear box and have to wait for 60 sec while experimenter leaves room) - Perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38 (noticing subtle change in environment) - negative affect or mood, d = -0.06
Traits actually associated with leadership today
- general intelligence: no gender difference - extraversion: no gender difference - emotional intelligence: women score somewhat higher - risk-taking: small difference favoring men *want some risk-taking but not too much - ethics: women score higher * Time magazine featuring Sharon Watkins from Enron who blew whistle on company *****traits needed by modern leaders don't give men the edge
Eye Contact
- higher-status people tend to look at other person while they (the dominant) are speaking - low-status people tend to look at the other person while listening * use visual dominance ratio: ratio of percentage of time looking while speaking relative to percentage of time looking while listening - power or status interpretation of gender differences in visual dominance: when women given more power, display visual dominance
Pay Equity Continued
- if the problem is gender segregation in occupation, equal pay for equal work doesn't work - solution: comparable worth * equal pay for comparable (not necessarily identical jobs) in terms of duties, educational requirements, supervisory requirements * kind of died off --> too complex to do
Common experiences among lesbians:
- intense, passionate friendships with other women during adolescence and adulthood. - period of dating and/or sexual relationships with men before accepting their lesbian identity.
Why is Sexual Harassment an Important Issue
- it dehumanizes women; seen as objects - it emphasizes that women are the lesser people in our society - coercive - women are harassed but still expected to perform - if it is accepted by authority figures, others may think it's acceptable
Sex Discrimination in the Workplace: Discrimination in the evaluation of women's work
- laboratory analog studies: John McKay vs. Joan McKay * original study: gave essays to undergrads to rate quality ( gave Joan vs. John on top) * John essays were rated better - later, contradictory studies (job applications, etc.) * found no bias or women rated higher - how do we resolve? META ANALYSIS
Health Issues for Women in Developing Countries
- lack of access to healthcare - women and girls are much less likely to receive medical care, have adequate nutrition, and are at risk for dying during pregnancy or childbirth - female genital mutilation - approx. 100 million women and girls have experienced FGM in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia - causes extreme pain, blood loss and infection, damage to other organs, and difficulty during childbirth - belief was that women who have this procedure become cleaner and won't have sex outside of marriage
Women and Leadership
- leadership is stereotyped as masculine; can women be successful leaders? - leadership effectiveness meta-analysis * d = +0.05 subjective measures (supervisor's evaluation) * d = -0.02 objective measures * no difference in either measure! - are people biased in their evaluation of women leaders? * d = 0.05 overall * d = 0.30 for women with autocratic style (bossing around, etc.) - men can get away with it - new research: corporations with women CEOs perform better than other corporations
Cardiovascular Disease
- major cause of death for U.S women; responsible for 23% of all female deaths - considered a "male" disease, but males and females have the same level of risk by 75 - black women are more likely than white women to die from heart disease - health professionals may fail to recognize heart attacks in women because they may look for male symptoms - we know relatively little about female cardiac issues
Interpersonal distance
- men prefer greater distance between themselves and another person; women prefer small distances * studied showed men sit about twice as far than females - meta-analysis on women approaching others: d = -0.54 * others approaching women: d= -0.86 * women's space is violated or have small interpersonal distance as a result of friendly qualities
Postpartum Depression
- more extreme, serious issue - characterized by extreme sadness, exhaustion, sleep disturbances, despair, lack of interest in enjoyable activities AND THE BABY, feelings of guilt, accompanied by physical symptoms - usually begins to develop within 6 mos after birth and may last for many months - affects between 10 and 15% of women who have given birth - can affect health and development of infant - social factors matter: women need to avoid stress and have social support from partners
Why are there benefits to multiple roles?
- more sources of social support - more opportunities to experience successes - buffers against disappointment in one role - BUT, depends on role quality: happy marriage, satisfying work
UW Madison
- moved forward with signing up for AAU - emails sent to all students in late April 2015 - September 21, 2015: AAU releases "aggregated" results, UW Madison releases its results in a report
Expectations of Elderly Women
- older women of color are especially likely to experience poverty, but are also more likely than white women to have the help of extended family - older WOC also are more likely to live with younger family members - elderly latinas are expected to help with children and grandchildren and seek help when they need it - elderly black women are likely to be active in community organizations, and many help to rear their grandchildren - Elderly asian american women are likely to seek help from younger relatives - many elderly native american women share their cultural heritage with their grandchildren * big goal for elderly women, share culture
Other Socialization Forces
- peers: gender segregation effect - schools: teachers give more attention to boys than girls - media: games and advertising, pink and blue aisles of Toys R Us, battleship cover
Sexual scripts
- promote rape when men portrayed as sexual "aggressor" - study showed 25% of boys thought it was okay to force sex if he spent money on her
lowered expectations bc of biases for women in EMCP fields
- self fulfilling prophecy: when expectations for how someone is going to behave actually influence their behavior, making those expectations become a reality - model minority: seemingly positive stereotypes. ex. Asian Americans are hard-working, smart, over-achieving
Eagly
- social psychologist at Northwestern - senior, distinguished research - meta-analysis on gender and leadership - author of social-structural theory
Factors that contribute to resiliency among trans individuals
- social support and satisfying friendships - connecting with an LGBTQ community - participation in activism
Weitzman
- sociologist who studied women and divorce - divorced women and their children are new underclass
Mulac's studies
- some studies show that can't tell whether speech was produced by men or women - some showed difference when they rate speeches on several gender-related dimensions * women show more esthetic quality and more social intelligence * men showing more dynamism - gender-linked language effect -related to gender stereotypes
Treating victims
- some women recover on own; others require therapy - use cognitive-behavioral therapy: 1. stress inoculation therapy: manage using relaxation training and cognitive restructuring 2. exposure therapy: relive memories while relaxing, confront the situations they avoid
UW Sexual Assault Climate Survey
- started fall, 2014: based on University of Virginia (scandal about sexual assault, fraternities, Rolling Stones - other schools publicly reported scandals - November, 2014: AAU (Association of American Universities, elite research university) decides to mount a sexual assault survey with individual universities buying in * costs $85,000 * hired a research firm, Westat, to conduct * advisory committee made (2 from UVA --> huge representation!) - December 2014 - January 2015: * resistance group of researchers formed * noted that no one on design team was a major sexual assault, sexual harassment researcher * Koss, Fitzger, etc. = resistance group * Met in Madison
Stereotype Threat
- stereotype deters women from interest in leadership - double bind for women leaders * female role mandates that women be communal, but leaders must be agentic (need to balance traits)
What does differential parental investment theory say?
- suggests that women have a greater investment in children because they have greater contributions to parenting through gestating and breastfeeding.
Common arguments for surgical interventions
- surgery may prevent confusion in how a child develops a gender identity - concerns about children's self esteem
3 stages of labor
- the cervix becomes dilated to 10 centimeters -second is contractions third is the placenta detaches from uterine wall and is expelled
Gender socialization
- the internalization of the social expectations and attitudes associated with one's perceived gender
Differential parental treatment in Infants
- today, mainly gender similarities - subtle differences: ex. emotion talk * Baby X studies (mainly from 1970-80s) like Condry and Condry: adults given tape of gender neutral child and jack-in-box then half told boy and other half told girl * girl = fear * boy = anger
What does the data say? continued
- total talking time: despite stereotypes, men talk more - interruptions: men interrupt women more than reverse * interruptions = male power and dominance OR women politeness and sensitivity - 2 different kinds of interruptions 1. Changing topic, contradicting (men more) 2. Talking over, agreement (women more) - Nonverbal gender differences * Smiling: d = -0.41 * found in all cultures studied * depends on context, larger when people know they're being observed --> GENDER ROLES AT PLAY d = -0.46 when knew observed d = -0.19 when did not know * Why?: smiling is part of female world; not a gender role of males - men take up more space
Genitoplasty
- type of medical procedure on intersex body - surgery on the genitals - complicated, unregulated, and comes with many risks.
sexuality in diverse groups of women
- we should challenge the believe that older women are or should be asexual - imaged of female sexuality are racialized + Often portrayed as exotice, fetishized, dangerous
Electronic Talk
- when topics were gender-stereotyped: similar to face-to-face interactions * however, not found when topic was gender neutral - other experiment looked at e-mail correspondence with two fictitious netpals * one net pal responded with female-linked language * other responded with male-linked * responses from participants depending on gender content from net pal, not whether the participant was male or female ****gender is constructed in social interactions
Do women lead differently from men?
- women and men are equally task-oriented (agentic) - women are slightly more interpersonally oriented (communal) - women slightly more transformational - men slightly more laissez-faire
Gender Comparisons in Overall Health
- women are more likely to experience morbidity, or generalized poor health and/or illness (obesity, anemia, respiratory illness, headaches, general fatigue) could be because they live longer, more likely to report symptoms, economic factors and violence against women contributes
Where are the women leaders?
- women are well represented in low- and middle-level leadership - now 23% of chief executives (CEOs) * but most of those are foundations and education sectors
Physical Health of Old Age
- women live longer than men, but have more chronic illnesses - men could not be recording illnesses
Women and Humor
- women stereotyped as not getting the joke or not being able to take a joke - when 200 top executives were asked to give ten reasons why women should not be placed in leadership positions in corporations, "lack of sense of humor" was high on list - women should learn how to use humor to their advantage, using it to respond to sexist comments "well hell there young lady" "right back at you, middle-aged man"
Stereotype threat: the idea that when people think their social group does poorly on a certain task (or think that others think this is true), their anxiety about confirming that stereotype can actually undermine their performance
- women who are told there are sex/gender differences on a math test, or who even just identify their sex/gender prior to the test, do worse on the test - Asian American women prompted to think about their sex/gender do worse on a math test, but those prompted to think about their race do better.
Tannen
- wrote, "You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation" - women's and men's patterns of speaking are vastly different - women and men belong to different linguistic cultures or communities -communication between men and women is as difficult as communication between people from different cultures - different cultures hypothesis
divorced women
-40% of marriages end in divorce -many women experience a decline in income after divorce -divorced women are less depressed than women in unhappy relationships
The Media
-APA Task Force on Sexualization of Girls: define sexualization *toddlers and tiaras: sexualizing children by mothers and fathers - sexualization of women: * 2008 Olympics: Misty May and Kerri Walsh --> sexualized when eyes go to butt
Do we tend to see differences across ethnic and cultural groups, or are menopausal experiences and attitudes essentially the same for all women?
-Compared with White women, menopause occurs somewhat earlier in Black and Latina women and somewhat later in Asian American women -Studies of Asian American, Black, Latina, and White women found that Black women reported the most positive attitudes toward menopause whereas Asian American women were least positive
what happens to marital satisfaction when children are born and when they leave home?
-Couples who become parents, however, show steeper declines in satisfaction than those who do not -When children leave home, couples experience an increase in marital satisfaction
What are some elements of effective programs?
-Create a safe social environment for young people to participate -Create activities that are interactive -Focus on clear health goals (Prevention sexual infections, pregnancy, or both) -Program is appropriate for the age, culture, and sexual experience of people in the program
What is one obstacle to using birth control?
-Doesn't protect against STIS -not 100% effective
Understand that some countries have serious gender gaps in girls' access to schools.
-Gender disparities are greatest in South Asia and in northern sub-Saharan Africa -In most countries, girls from poor families are less likely to attend school than those from wealthier households
give an example of each of those three types of factors that can interfere with women's career development
-Internal/self barriers Ex. Self doubt or lack of information about careers -external barrier ex: sexual harrasment/ discrimination -lack of support-lack of role models and mentors
What is the "motherhood penalty" as it relates to hiring and salary?
-Losing ground in salary progression after taking time away from the workforce to care for children. -Caring for older relatives -Losing grounds in salary progression after take time away from workforce -Particularly an issue for middle-aged women
how myth of "vaginal orgasm" can have negative consequences for women (and possibly also for their male partners)
-Men might think that their doing something wrong -Women are seen as problematic if they need extra stimulation -To validate male ego -Some people say that the idea of the clitoral orgasm is a threat to all of heterosexuality
What does the research show about whether sexual harassment has negative consequences for those who experience it?
-Negative effects on education and work related outcomes -Negative effects on psychological well being... more depressive symptoms -Negative effects on physical well being
personal coping skills for dealing with role overload
-She lowers her expectations or changes priorities -Greater efficiency - she works even harder
Maria Patino
-Spain hurdler on her way to Olympics and was denied from the competition for failing the sex test -had no uterus or ovaries but had testes -medals were stripped, athletic scholarship was taken away and forbidden to compete in the future -eventually was allowed to rejoin the Spanish Olympic team
Characteristics of Lesbian Relationships
-The beginning of a relationship (dependability, personality, friendship, emotional intimacy) -Equality in lesbian Relationships (equal decision-making, housework) -Satisfaction (same as heterosexual and gay couples, stronger relationship quality, fewer conflicts, stronger commitment and psychological intimacy) -Breaking Up (similar to heterosexual break up pattern, less support during and after relationship)
sexual harrasment
-Unwanted gender-related behavior, such as sexual coercion, offensive sexual attention, sexual touching, and hostile verbal and physical behaviors that focus on gender -Could be one time... could be verbal and not physical
Factors explaining why women earn less money than men.
-Women may be less likely than men to negotiate -Women also may tend to ask for less money than men request -When women do not negotiate, it sometimes can backfire
Benefits of maternal employment
-better emotional and behavioral development -better gender-role attitudes -better cognitive development -girls more likely to see themselves going into the workforce as well
Queer Theory
-binaries should be challenged, whether the gender binary (male, female) or the sexual orientation binary (heterosexual, homosexual)
Senior partner/junior partner
-both work outside the home -junior partner takes primary responsibility for home and childcare -the majority of couples are this model
achievement self confidence
-context is important -sometimes we see gender diff favoring females and others favoring males (depends on context)
Why do boys motor skills become more pronounced than girls?
-differential opportunities -hormonal changes -social pressures
Equal partners model
-equitable sharing of responsibilities -infrequent arrangement (due to socialization)
Solutions to Family-Work Balance Challenges
-family-friendly workplace policies (paid family leave, elder-care benefits, employer help with child care, etc.) -support from others -personal coping strategies (change perceptions of responsibilities, negotiate with employer)
Socialization by media
-females and males portrayed in stereotyped ways -television and gender stereotypes -seventeen magazine only slightly influenced by women's movement -picture books: girls are now main character as often as boys are; fathers are largely invisible
Why do most women consider this division of household labor between men and women to be fair?
-gender socialization (home is a woman's domain) -time availability (generally the men work longer hours) -relative power (even if the woman earns more, the man still has more power)
Why do kids like to play with kids of the same gender?
-girls tend to dislike rough, aggressive play -boys unresponsive to girls polite suggestions -shared preference for gender-typed toys and activites
How are older siblings important for gender socialization?
-girls with older sister gender-typed -boys with older brothers were more gender-typed -only children more gender-typed than children with mixed siblings
Head/complement model
-husband is the breadwinner -wife cares for the children -this represents 14% of heterosexual couples
2 ideas for promoting food jsutice
-incentives for corner stores stocking healthy and fresh food -mobile vending farmers markets/farm stands in areas of need -free community gardens
null environment
-it neither encourages or discourages individuals, it simply ignores them -leaves individuals at the mercy of whatever personal resources or other support they have access to -Though passive, a null educational environment is inherently discriminatory against women. Why? Because a null environment fails to counteract the many messages that girls/ women receive pushing them towards female dominant fields.
2 contextual factors that make it difficult to get access/prepare healthy food
-lack of transportation -high prices of healthy foods
How to resist objectification
-media literacy training programs can teach girls to analyze when they are being sexualized by the media -fitness, strength training, and other sports that defy the traditional social construction of femininity -increased participation in women's team sports
postpartum depression
-more serious, similar to depression, and often starts 6 months after childbirth -characterized by anxiety or panic attacks, loss of interest in daily activities, despair, feelings of worthlessness and guilt, sleep and appetite disturbances, fatigue, difficulty in concentrating, and thoughts of harming oneself or the baby
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
-mothers body overproduces other hormones -genetically inherited malfunction of one or more enzymes needed to make the steroid hormone cortisol -has female parts internally but externally has an enlarged clitoris that can get an erection, appears to have a male scrotum
fear of success
-motivate to avoid situations of high achievement (because of potential negative consequences of success) -fear of success of being unlikable or unattractive
Socialization by peers
-peers exert strong pressures on one another -gender atypical behavior less tolerated among boys than among girls
Compared to gay men, lesbians...
-place more emphasis on emotional intimacy -are less likely to have sex on the first date -typically form more long-term exclusive relationships -have sex less frequently
Examples of variety of emotions (positive and negative) commonly experienced during pregnancy'
-positive emotions: love of life she's growing and nurturing feelings. negative emotions: fear about childbirth or body changes
How do parents influence gender development?
-provide children with distinctive clothing, room furnishings, toys -foster gender development through conversation -assign chores based on gender -speak and act differently with girls than with boys -are role models for their children
Beauty work
-reduced sense of ownership of her body -increased financial, mental investment in appearance -reduced ability to value other aspects of herself
criticisms of grays work?
-reinforces gender stereotypes and binaries -encourages women that the relationship problem stems from her own individual problem for her to solve herself -the personal is political makes it seem that social change is not needed
postpartum blues
-short term, only occurs in the first 10 days, and fairly common -This mood state, characterized by crying, anxiety, and irritability, typically begins three to four days after childbirth and lasts for a few days or weeks. Maternity blues are more common following a first birth and may reflect the mother's adjustment to the stresses of new parenthood
sexual activtiy in mid life
-some women show a decline in sexual inteerst/ capacity to orgasm -where some show the opposite
abstinence-only-until-marriage programs
-teach that abstinence is the only morally correct option of sexual expression for unmarried people -usually do not provide detailed (or any) information about contraception and condoms for the prevention of unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections
what is the typical genetic makeup of males and females?
-there are two, and only two, sexes -sex exists as a biological fact independently of anyone's beliefs about it -Sex and Gender naturally go together
What are some characteristics of heterosexual couples who report high levels of marital satisfaction?
-use active, problem focused coping strategies; -hold similar attituted, goals, and values, and -communicate well with eachoter
how/why is food justice a gender issue?
-women are more likely than men to be living in poverty and in care taker roles -devaluing or and discrimination against women farmers
On average, which group of women have/had a higher number of menstrual periods in their lifetime:
-women in the U.S. today -Prior to the 1960's, more women gave birth and pregnancies, postpartum, and breastfeeding caused women to have more periods in their life when they didn't have periods. Before 1960s, women had 100 menses in a lifetime; after the 1960s, women had 400 menses in their lifetime.
What are some examples of discrimination/bias in the workplace?
-women's work is judged inferior -women's performance is less likely to be attributed to ability than men's -gender and race bias are still very prevalent -hiring managers are more likely to hire a male due to socialization of male being more workplace-oriented
The magnitude of the gender difference on the SAT math is d=__________.
.34
Percentages of Sex changes
1 in 30,000 adult men and 1 in 100,000 women request a sex change
Stages of Labor/Childbirth
1) Contractions are about 5 min. apart, and dilation of the cervix to about 10 cm (4 in) (a few hours to at least a day) 2) Contractions move baby through birth canal, commonly reported to be the most positive part of labor; contractions are painful; progesterone levels drop; this stage ends when the baby is born (a few minutes to several hours) 3) Expulsion of afterbirth (placenta); estrogen drops dramatically (less than 20 minutes)
Differences in Race in Use of Mental Health Services
1) POC may be reluctant to recognize that help is necessary 2) language and economic barriers from getting effective help, or help at all 3) may be concerned about discussing personal problems with therapists, esp. white therapists 4) may believe that psychological disorders could be treated without therapy 5) may have a preference for other culturally specific interventions 6) lack of therapists of color, and therapists fluent in languages other than English
Explanations in Gender Differences in Depression
1) biological factors do not convincingly explain the greater prevalence of depression in women 2) men are less likely to report depression, but women are still much more likely to be depressed; lack of reporting doesn't explain difference 3) interpersonal/sexual abuse and violence 4) women experience more discrimination and are exposed to traditional gender roles 5) emphasis on physical appearance for women can cause depression 6) women may feel more responsible for maintaining interpersonal relationships 7) parents may encourage girls to think about their sadness which causes rumination
How Feminist Therapy Emphasizes Women's Strengths
1) feminist therapists believe that women are typically less powerful than men in our culture; women have many strengths, and their problems are not personal deficiencies but societal ones, such as sexism, racism, and classism 2) women and men should have equal power in their family and other social relationships; therapists must help clients gain more power 3) society should be changed to be less sexist; therapists should not encourage women to adjust to a sexist society by being quieter and more obedient 4) we must work to change and improve those institutions that devalue women, including governmental organizations, the justice system, educational systems, and the structure of the family 5) we need to address other important inequalities, such as ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, social class, and disabilities; gender is not the only important inequality
Women and Substance Abuse
1) the pattern of substance abuse is somewhat different for women and men 2) substance abuse is diagnosed differently in men and women - based on male norms, physicians may fail to recognize substance abuse in women or address common female risk factors 3) substance abuse frequently causes illness and death in women Women are as likely as men to smoke cigarettes - but are more likely to develop lung cancer as a result than men are, as well as other cancers, reproductive issues, and other complications Female alcohol abusers have many personal health consequences, including liver disease, ulcers, brain damage, high BP, heart attacks, strokes, cognitive problems, and various cancers - also contributes to violence against women Children of alcoholic mothers may have fetal alcohol syndrome People are more likely to ignore alcohol abuse in women than in men Men and women are equally likely to abuse prescription drugs, but men are more likely to abuse illegal drugs Relatively few substance abuse programs are designed for women
Balancing Power in Feminist Therapy
1) whenever possible, the therapist should try to enhance the client's power in the therapeutic relationship 2) the therapist must encourage clients to become more self-confident and independent and to develop appropriate skills to help themselves 3) the therapist believes and demonstrates that the clients are their own best experts on themselves 4) when appropriate, feminist therapists may share information about their own life experiences, reducing the power discrepancy - but the primary task of a therapist is to listen and think, not talk
Biases Against Women in Medicine
1) women have often been neglected in medicine and in medical research - decisions on women's health may be based on research that does not represent women 2) gender stereotypes are common in medicine - may keep women from receiving appropriate medical care 3) Medical care provided to women is often inadequate and irresponsible - women may receive too much care (procedures performed too often) or too little care (in diseases common in men AND women) 4) physician-patient communication patterns often make women feel relatively powerless
What are the 3 components of sexual orientation?
1. Attraction - whether one is sexually attracted to one's own gender, the other gender, or both 2. Identity - refers to how one thinks of oneself 3. Behavior - refers to whom one engages in sexual behavior with
Stages of Prenatal Sex Differentiation
1. Chromosomes-1 pair sex chromosome; 22 pair autosomes 2. Gonads & hormones-ovaries (estrogens); testes (androgens) 3. Internal reproductive organs-uterues, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina; vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate 4. External genitalia-clitoris, labia, and vaginal opening; penis and scrotum 5.Brain differentiation-female or male differentiations of the hypothalamus
4 Questions about differences
1. Does everyone show this difference, or does the difference change based on other aspects of one's social identity? (age, race, class etc.) 2. Does the difference change in different contexts? 3. Is the difference categorical or dimensional? 4. What is the source of the difference?
Human Sexual Response cycle
1. Excitement 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution
Stages of Gender Development
1. Gender Roles - societal expectations for appropriate male or female behavior 2. Gender Identity - individual's perception of him/herself as male or female. 3. Gender Constancy - realization that gender does not change with dress or behavior
Solutions to Sexualization of Girls
1. Media literacy: teach kids to understand what is going on in media (pretty effective) 2. Athletics: having girls in sports vs. traditional activities - learn body is powerful - Mo'ne Davis on Little League World Series 3. other extracurricular activities 4. comprehensive sexuality education 5. in the family: media co-viewing (watch tv with child to find content and talk about family values and how show fits it) 6. Resistance: - alternative media: girl zines - activism against offensive advertising *alternatives to Barbie: Doc McStuffins
Four Views on the Causes of Rape
1. Victim-precipitated: women are "asking for it"; tendency to blame the victim 2. Psychopathy of Rapists: committed by psychologically disturbed men 3. Feminist: product of gender-role socialization in our culture --> rape as an expression of power and control over women 4. Social Disorganization: crime rates increase when social organization is disrupted; community cannot enforce its norms against crime (war = extreme case)
Stereotypes about Women and Work
1. a minority of women are employed - 70% of US women are employed (between 25-52 years old) - women are 47% of the labor force (don't differ much) 2. Women just work for a little extra money, a "second" income - many women are sole support of their family; 18% of US families are female-headed - women's earnings contribute substantially to family income even in dual-earner couples ***Quiz question: 27% of couples have wives that earn more than husbands - most women work because it's an economic necessity 3. A woman who works hard and is qualified can get ahead as well as a man - Wage gap: women earn 80 cents to every dollar that men earn (for full-term, year-round workers) - Glass ceiling
What are the 2 fundamental values related to nature of lesbian relationships?
1. attachment to the partner 2. personal autonomy
Prevention
1. avoiding situations in which there is a high risk of rape 2. if 1st strategy failed, knowing self-defense techniques 3. changing the culture that contributes to rape
Prevention Programs
1. awareness-based programs 2. empathy-based programs 3. social-norms based programs 4. skills-based programs 5. bystander intervention programs *passive programs = least effective *peer-led programs that focus on single gender in small group= most effective
Theories of Causes of Woman-Battering
1. man who batters his wife is simply rare, psychologically disturbed individual (psychopath) 2. battering occurs because of the psychopathy of the wife; women is seen as a disturbed individual who brings on the attack and self-destructively stays with man who batters her 3. learned helplessness theory: battered women have a history of childhood gender-role socialization to passivity and helplessness
Sexualization definition
1. narrow standard of physical attractiveness equated with being sexy 2. sexually objectified; that is, made into a passive thing for other people's sexual use or commodification 4. sexuality imposed inappropriately 5. value comes primarily from sexual appeal or behavior
Sexual Harrassment
1. quid pro quo harassment: i'll give you something if you give me something in return 2. hostile environment: issue is whether the behavior or environment in the workplace is so hostile to women that it interferes with their work performance
Association of American Colleges' Guidelines
1. set sexual limits 2. decide early if you would like to have intercourse 3. do not give mixed messages; be clear 4. be forceful and firm 5. do not do anything you do not want to do just to avoid a scene or unpleasantness 6. be aware that alcohol and drugs are associated with date rape 7. trust your gut-feelings 8. be careful when you invite someone to your home or go to your date's home
UW Madison Findings
1. since entering college, 27.6% of female undergrads have experienced a sexual assault involving force or incapacitation 2. alcohol is a common factor in sexual assault offender drinking alcohol: 76.1% victim drinking alcohol: 74.6% 3. sexual assault and sexual misconduct were disproportionately reported by female students, students with disabilities, non-heterosexual students, and American Indian or Alaska Native 4. sexual harassment is reported by significant numbers of both undergraduate and graduate students Victims: undergrads: 65.7% grad: 53.1% Offenders: other student on female undergrad: 95.3% faculty member on grad: 22.2% (work more closely with professional) 5. Sexual assault and sexual misconduct often go unreported - forced penetration: 26.1%
Worse Psychological Outcome Factors
1. whether a women was revictimized 2. Severity of violence 3. Reactions of others when women discloses the assault
Infertility
10-15% of couples are infertile - do not differ from fertile couples in marital satisfaction and self-esteem - reactions differ, infertile women are higher in distress and anxiety - may be caught between hopefulness and mourning - "black women can't be infertile", racist healthcare providers - medical treatments are expensive - many women can restructure their lives when infertility seems likely
Wisconsin Statutes
1st degree: most severe; forced intercourse causes harm, uses a weapon 2nd degree: contact or intercourse with threat of harm; unconscious or disabled victim 3rd degree: no consent, sexual intercourse 4th degree: having sexual contact without consent
Tomboys
2/3 of girls were tomboys in childhood - twilight of tomboy marks transition to adolescence
Women with Disabilities
21% of U.S women have a disability - the variation within the "women with disabilities" category is huge, but they experience similar discrimination in both sexism and ableism - women with disabilities face another level to the differential treatment between men and women; "living on the margins of the margins" - women with disabilities face barriers in education and in the work place, as well as economic problems (15% of disabled women have a bachelor's degree, 44% are employed) - women with invisible disabilities face a decision about whether or not to reveal their disabilities to others - women with disabilities are often excluded from the social world of love relationships, sexual desires, and friendships
Single women
21% of american women are single, never married
When will the pay gap close?
2164
How many are autosomes and how many of sex chromosomes
22, and one
____% of male professors admitted having a sexual encounter or relationship with a student
26%
at what average age do American women marry today, and what percent of women are married by age 40?
27, >70%
According to a meta-analysis of research on LGB victimization, ___________ have experienced a physical assault on account of their sexual orientation.
28%
Gender Ratios: 90+
294 women: 100 men
1. Dilation of the cervix 2. Birth of the baby 3. Expulsion of the placenta
3 stages of childbirth
What percent of the female population went into the workplace during WWII?
37%, or nearly 1 out of every 4 women worked outside the home
What is the U.S. divorce rate?
40-50% of marriages end in divorce.
How many chromosomes do humans have in each cell of the body
46, 23 from the mother and 23 from the father
approximately what percentage of women work outside the home?
47%
At what age do children develop gender constancy?
6 or 7 years old.
Describe changes in the female/male ratio across old age, and the effects this has on women
60-69 years → 110 women: 100 men 80-89 years → 162 women: 100 men 90 + years → 259 women:100 men Many elderly women live alone
According to the 2000 U.S. census, there were __________ same-gender partner households in the U.S.
600,000
What percent of college students say they have encountered some type of sexual harassment at college?
62%
What does the extant literature inform us about general psychological well-being in midlife?
70% of 60-65 year old women describe current lives as better than when they were younger
What percent of divorced women remarry?
70-75
In a study of 46 meta-analyses, ____________ of gender/sex differences were negligible or small
76%
Male life expectancy
76.1 years
____% of boys and ____% of girls experienced peer sexual harassment
79%; 83%
The Kinsey Scale
A scale used to see how heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual people are by using questions related to sexuality on a scale of 0 (exclusively heterosexual) to 6 (exclusively homosexual)
A trait controlled by a gene on the X chromosome is _________________.
A sex-linked trait
AIDS and other STDs
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a virus that destroys the body's normal immune system that is transmitted through infected bodily fluids AIDS is caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which invades and destroys white blood cells while reproducing itself - it has the potential to destroy part of the immune system women are much more likely than men to contract HIV from an infected partner women in sub-saharan Africa account for more than half of individuals infected with HIV, and in the U.S, black women account for more than half of females who are HIV-positive people may pass HIV to other sexual partners before they know themselves that they have the virus; it takes time for symptoms to develop it may take 10 years or longer for a person with HIV to develop AIDS; immune system T-cell count must drop to a certain level drug therapies can help but they're costly HIV can damage the CNS, producing psychological problems such as memory loss and cognitive issues - likely to experience depression, anxiety, anger, fear, and stress people may respond supportively, or they may be very insensitive No cure for AIDS, condoms can help prevent the transmission of it but it's not 100% effective OTHER STDS STDs produce fewer detectable symptoms in women, but women are more likely to have severe, long-term effects HPV is the most common STD in America - can lead to cervical cancer Chlamydia can cause infertility Genital herpes is not curable, and can lead to cervical cancer Gonorrhea can cause infertility Syphilis may be difficult to detect in women
[use book to review concepts discussed in class about internal/self variables (related to orientation toward achievement)]
Achievement motivation -need to excel, was lower than males' Fear of success -a motive to avoid situations of high achievement. -Early conclusions that women have lower aspirations than men because they are not as highly motivated to excel and because they fear the negative consequences of success have not been supported
Transition period between childhood and adulthood; "to grow up"
Adolescence
A rapid increase in height and weight; starts at ~9 years old (peak at 12 years old) in girls and ~11 years old (peak at 14 years old) in boys
Adolescent growth spurt
Be able to explain how antigay prejudice has changed over time
Americans' attitudes are becoming more tolerant
Glass Ceiling
An invisible but rigid barrier that seemed to prevent women and POC from reaching the top levels in many professional organizations
At what age do children recognize the sex of other children?
Between 7 and 10 years old.
When are gender stereotypes rigid?
Between ages and 5 and 7 an then they become rigid till adolescence
What does Queer Theory challenge?
Binaries seen as normal versus deviant. For example, how binaries seem to exert power over people and their interactions, how binaries exert regulatory force and create privilege as well as marginalization (i.e. heterosexuality is privileged and marginalized)
What are two potential limitations/criticisms of "lean in"?
Blames women?? Ignores systemic factors
Influenced by cultural ideal of extreme thinness for females; self-objectification
Body image
Gender transitioning may involve some type of body modification, such as using cross-sex hormones, hair removal, or surgeries
Body modification may contribute to passing or gender recognition When and whether to modify one's body can be complicated and even controversial decisions.
Research has documented a lack of diversity of characters in
Cartoons Television Superheros Commercials Movies Video games
Epigenetics refers to _________________.
Changes in gene expression caused by factors other than DNA.
The term ____________ is used for ways in which parents create a gendered world for their children through the toys they purchase, the activities they choose, and so on.
Channeling
Children and Daycare
Children in daycare do not experience disadvantages in respect to cognitive abilities, social relationships, or maternal attachment - however, the quality of daycare has an important influence on psychological development - unfortunately, high-quality childcare can be very expensive and many families can't afford it
Father; mother
Children's gender-typical activity preferences are more closely linked to their _________'s gender-related attitudes than to their __________'s.
Stimulation of what part of the female genitals is most likely to lead to orgasm?
Clitoris
The state in which an unmarried couple lives together; dramatically increased in the US over the last several decades
Cohabitation
-4% of women in 1920 -41% of women in 2004 -Sports introduced: track and field, volleyball, marathon, softball, triathlon, wrestling
Compare the % of women participating in the Olympics in the years 1920 and 2004 and the sports that were introduced for women in those years?
-US: imported incidence; practiced within some immigrant groups where known; very rare -Egypt: almost universal; 90% or more; 90% of girls who have undergone FGM were under 14 years old; 90% of FGM procedures are performed by doctors or other trained medical personnel
Compare the prevalence and legal status of FGM in the US and Egypt.
Emotions, attitudes, and making informed choices; more effective than just abstinence only programs
Comprehensive model of sex education
_________ is the term for a rare genetic condition that causes the fetus adrenal glands to produce abnormally larger amounts of adrenal in genetic females born with masculinized genitals.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Spatial skills and gender differences
Consistently reveal a male advantage - large effects size, but 72% overlap between groups What about a mental folding task ?? - no sex/gender differences
Social construction theories
Cultural beliefs about gender exist to uphold particular social and economic systems and inequalities
Discuss research on the psychosocial adjustment of children raised by lesbian couples and compare the adjustment to children raised by heterosexual couples
Custodial policies assume that lesbians are bad mothers Children of lesbian mothers develop as well as children of heterosexual couples (Farr, 2017; Golombok et al., 2003; Patterson, 2017) Similar (or better!) childrearing practices when compared to heterosexual parents (Farr et al., 2010; Farr & Patterson, 2013) Majority of children of lesbian mothers become heterosexual (Patterson, 2009) US National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (2010) . 154 lesbian mothers conceiving through artificial insemination Follow-up at 10 years and 17 years Children of lesbian mothers scored as well on measures such as academic performance, rule-breaking, aggressive behavior
Gender Differences in Communicating
Deborah Tannen, You Don't Just Understand: Men and Women in Conversation - women's language is emotion-focused, men's is task-focused - men and women use language for different purposes ***women for maintaining relationships *** men for control, establishing status - different linguistic communities: different culture hypothesis (grow in different cultures) - is this a feminist approach? NO!
The "empty nest syndrome" refers to _____________.
Depression in middle-aged women whose children are grown and have left home.
Which perspective emphasizes gender differences so that people appreciate and value women's unique experiences and attributes?
Differences perspective
How do toys teach children gender?
Distinctions of toys such as bikes being two different colors pink, and black
An experienced and knowledgeable female labor and birth coach
Doula
Symptoms of Depression
Emotional : sadness, gloominess, tearfulness, apathy, irritability, inability to experience pleasure Cognitive : thoughts that focus on inadequacy, worthlessness, helplessness, self-blame, pessimism; thoughts interfere with normal functioning, have trouble concentrating and making decisions Physical : headaches, dizzy spells, fatigue, indigestion, generalized pain, weight gain/loss Behavioral : decreased ability to do ordinary tasks, decreased productivity, neglected personal appearance, decreased social interaction, sleep problems, suicide attempts
Social role theory
Emphasizes how gender roles are responses to, rather than causes of, different roles in society. Also known as structural theory.
The presence of uterine lining tissue in abnormal locations
Endometriosis
In the sexual response cycle, vaginal lubrication in the female corresponds most closely to _______________ in the male.
Erection
Ethic of care vs Ethic of justice what does data show in reference to what approach men and women show?
Ethic of care: thinking about how one's actions affect inerpersonal relationships and the well-being of others Ethic of justice: making moral judgments based on abstract principles of right and wrong data show both men and women utilize both. but some theorists think women = care, men = justice
What are the two parts of the Dual Control model of sexual response?
Excitation and inhibition
According to Masters and Johnson, the four phases of sexual response occur in what order?
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.
According to the ______________ hypothesis, women's psychological well-being will be improved by holding both work roles and family roles.
Expansionist
Age, being in a committed relationship, high educational aspirations and achievement, good communication with parents, supportive peers, condom distribution in school
Factors associated with contraception use in adolescents
True or false: All birth control pills contain both estrogen and progestin.
False. Some are combination, and others are progestin only.
who is more likely to promote gender stereotyped play?
Fathers
The surgical removal of parts of the external female genitalia
Female genital cutting
What do people with Turner syndrome look like?
Female, with a vagina, clitoris, and labia -short -results in difficulty in math and spatial visualizations
Sex differences in drug absorption
Females have lower drug absorption
Support of ideas vs. adopting a feminist social identity Factors: feminist knowledge, female, nontraditional
Feminist identity
At what age do children develop gender identity?
Firmly formed by age 3.
Clitoral orgasm (freud)
Freud described it as "immature" and caused by masturbation
Vaginal orgasm (freud)
Freud said women could mature into experiencing after getting married
Failure of women to have vaginal orgasms; diagnosed as failure to adjust to role as a woman; term proposed by Freud; today it is often used to refer to a woman who has no sexual desire with no medical meaning
Frigidity
Describe the leadership styles discussed in the text, and sex differences in styles
Gender differences in leadership effectiveness d = -.02 no significant gender difference in leadership between men and women BIG CAVEAT - leadership effectiveness dependent on stereotypical role congruity (in subjective condition) autocratic leader- dictatorial style women judged worse when they used this style men not judged as bad when they use it democratic leadership style-women use more
The genderbread person
Gender identity - womanness and manness Gender expression - feminine or masculine Biological sex - femaleness or maleness Romantically attracted to - men or women / masculinity or femininity Sexually attracted to - women or men / femininity or masculinity
Increasing divergence in gender-related behaviors and attitudes of girls and boys that emerges in adolescence; factors are physical changes of puberty, the pressure to be "feminine" and dating; starts to decrease by middle to late adolescence
Gender intensification
Increasing divergence in gender-related behaviors and attitudes of girls and boys that emerges in early adolescence
Gender intensification
Who experiences the most peer sexual harassment?
Gender nonconforming and sexual minority adolescents
What is the hypothesis that says differences found between men and women, especially in cognitive skills like mathematical ability, relate to the level of gender equality in a country?
Gender stratification hypothesis.
Describe sex differences in school achievement, and the intersection of gender and identity
Girls consistently get better grades than boys, d = -.23, all gender gaps are small, gaps can be reversed for math compared with science, gaps can be reversed from one ethnic group to another
What is the age difference in the onset of the male and female growth spurt, and how might this affect the psychology of girls? Boys?
Girls finish puberty about two years before boys.Girls gain more fatty tissue than boys; boys gain more muscle tissue than girls
In terms of school achievement measured by grades, _______________________.
Girls get better grades than boys in all subjects.
Differences between Girl Play and Boy Play
Girls like to play with eachother because they are more verbally and socially and prefer to play with other with the same skill and can share Boys play more rough and are more aggressive, more active
what are the differences between male and female same-sex friendships, and what tends to happen with friendship composition during adolescence?
Girls' friendships: Face to face More intimate More self-disclosure and emotional support Girls tend to have a few very close friends Boys' friendships: Shoulder to shoulder Less intimate Shared group activities
Family Medical Leave Act
Guarantees: - 12-week job-guaranteed (unpaid) leave - employers are free to be more generous - like the minimum wage - small businesses (<50 employees) are excluded Important next steps: - income replacement - California has state legislation, Canada
How Big are the Effects?
Hedges: d = -0.15 Tag ?s: d = -0.23 Intensifiers: d= -0.38 * gender similarities in language use! - depended on context: in lab studies vs. natural environment - women display greater interpersonal sensitivity vs. lacking assertiveness
Negative reactions to homosexuality and irrational fear of homosexuals
Homophobia
What is the female motive to avoid success (Horner, 1969)? How was it measured, and are the findings considered valid/reliable today? Why or why not
Horner postulates that many women experience anxiety in competitive situations and learn to fear success because of its incongruence with the traditional female role. 700 male and females college students wrote stories to randomly assigned cues containing success of male and female medical students
A sudden feeling of heat that spreads over the body with mild or profuse sweating, which usually lasts 1-5 minutes and may occur several times daily
Hot flash
Generally, female-headed families have higher (often 2x) as high of a % of families living below the official poverty line in the US in 2006
How do female-headed families generally compare to all families in terms of living below the poverty line?
Half; half
How many pregnancies among American women are unplanned and how many of these are then terminated by abortion?
2-2 1/2 years
How old are children when they can accurately label pictures of girls and boys/can identify what is a boy/girl?
3 years old
How old are children when they can identify whether they are a boy or a girl?
3-4 months
How old are infants when they can tell the difference between pictures of adult female and male faces?
Which 4 countries have the greatest gender equality?
Iceland, Norway, Finland, and Sweden (the Nordic countries)
Deciding who we are and what we want to make of our lives
Identity
8
In 2004, how many countries sent all male teams?
11
In Kebbi state in Nigeria, the average age of first marriage for girls is _____.
10
In Nepal, 7% of girls are married before they are _____ years old.
1female infanticide
In ancient Greece, female babies were left on the side of a mountain to die or to be eaten by animals
X-Chromosome inactivation
In females, the process in which one of the two X chromosomes is inactivated or silenced in nearly every cell, so that only one chromosome functions.
How does puberty affect young women's body weight and how does this affect adolescent girls' self-esteem/body satisfcation?
In order to menstruate, women have to gain a certain about of body fat and most adolescents hate it due to the increase pressure of being thin
Failure to conceive a child after a year of trying
Infertility
Removing the clitoris, labia minor, and the inner 2/3 of the labia major, which are then sewn together, leaving a pencil-sized hole for urine and menstrual flow; the most extreme form of female genital cutting
Infibulation
A lack of desire for sexual activity
Inhibited sexual desire
Psychotherapy and Social Class
Insurance may not cover a reasonable portion of mental healthcare costs - many low-income women cannot afford therapy, and if they can, therapists may treat them in a classist fashion Myth of Meritocracy : a person's social class indicates his or her abilities and achievements
Glass ceiling
Invisible but powerful barriers that prevent women from advancing beyond a certain level
Yes, as long as you were doing it before you were pregnant.
Is it safe to exercise during pregnancy?
No because it is over reported
Is the statistic '43% of women have a sexual disorder' accurate?
What, in general terms, do we mean by the "medicalization" of childbirth in the U.S.?
It is a natural process, and we have turned it into something that we feel needs to be hospitalized and we give women a lot of drugs they may not actually need
Prelabor classes are conducted to teach the mother to control her pain during relaxation, breathing techniques, and focusing exercises
Lamaze method
POC and Reasons for Needing MHS
Latinas : traditional gender roles, refugee issues Black Women : stress, discrimination, myths about their family and economic lives, issues for immigrant women Asian American Women : refugee issues, language barriers, individual differences, tradition conflicts with U.S culture, reluctance to use mental health services, need for culturally sensitive techniques Native Americans : alcoholism, depression, unemployment and poverty, racist governmental programs, need for Native American therapists and community involvement
Know differences between lesbians and gay men
Lesbians and gay men are similar only in the superficial sense of same-gender attraction Compared to gay men, lesbians: have sex less frequently place more emphasis on emotional intimacy of relationships more typically form long-term, exclusive relationships and therefore have fewer partners are more likely to be bisexual have greater sexual fluidity are objects of somewhat different attitudes from the predominantly heterosexual U.S. population
Lesbians in the Workplace
Lesbians are especially likely to experience workplace discrimination, being fired for their sexual orientation, and may feel the need to hide their identity - lesbians often earn more than straight women because they are more likely to be educated and pursue "male" jobs
In comparing gay men and lesbians, it appears that _______________.
Lesbians have smaller number of different partners compared with gay men.
Recognize the concept of sexual fluidity, and gender differences in fluidity
Lisa Diamond's longitudinal research (2008) Defining feature of female sexual orientation is fluidity, or situation-dependent flexibility in women's sexual responsiveness Sexual identity is not fixed for all individuals
China, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Nigeria, Madagascar
List countries that had over 55% of their athletes as women?
How Women and Gender are Treated in Language
Male as normative = androcentrism - he, man as "neutral" genetics - guys, girls - female as exception: if some position is normatively male, we notice when women do it (ex. World Cup of Soccer --> normatively male, have to note exception "Female World Cup") Parallel words for male and female - Male, Dog, Master - Female, Bitch, Mistress : negative connotations Euphemisms when we have something we don't feel comfortable with - women: lady, girl Infantilizing --> trivializing (baby, babe, girl?)
Describe both male and female development of secondary sex characteristics during adolescence, and how this may differentially impact psychology of the individual (particular emphasis on budding breast and menarche).
Male development: hormones- build muscle mass and be masculine deepening voice pubic hairs female development: budding breast menarche- first menstrual cycle girls with mature bodies are more likely to be harassed and sexualized early puberty increases girls' and boys' risk of adolescent developing internalizing disorders
What conclusions were drawn in Jessie Bernard's (1972) His and Hers Marriage?
Marriage is better for men than for women, but good for both
Identify sex differences in SAT's (and effect sizes!) and possible explanations for differences offered in the text
Math .34, Critical Reading .05
Discuss advantages/disadvantages of marriage
Men have better psychological and health outcomes. , Men and women report better outcomes than single counterparts, good marriage is good for women
Sharing of Household Roles
Men only perform between 30 to 40% of household tasks, regardless of women's employment status - there is a leisure gap between married men and women
Compare XXY men and XYY men
Men with an extra female chromosome XXY or less likely to participate in violent crimes compared to men with and extra male chromosome XYY who are more likely to be more violent and commit crimes
The first menstrual period; beginning of menstruation; seen as taboo
Menarche
The cessation of menstrual periods for a full year
Menopause
Menopause
Menopause is the cessation of menstrual periods; common physical symptoms: - Hot flash - a sensation of heat coming from within the body, accompanied by perspiration and may disrupt sleep - osteoporosis - genital changes (vaginal dryness, etc) - headaches - fatigue For most women, hormone replacement therapy was designed for menopausal women as a way of restoring estrogen lost during menopause produces more health risks than health benefits Both medicine and the media have represented menopause negatively, but it's literally fine shut up contrary to folklore, women respond generally positively to menopause and it does not cause severe psychological symptoms; although there are individual differences obviously
Describe how classified "want" ads display modern sexism
Modern sexism in job ads, gendered wording that leads to a sense of belonging or sense of not belonging and encourages some people to apply and some not to subconsciously
How do parents tend to treat their daughters and sons differently when talking to them or playing with them?
Mother speaks in a more nurturing, loving, and supportive tone Father talks in a more stern, direct tone Playtime includes more fantasy and pretend play with girls and more physical, rough play with the boys
Perfect Mother Stereotype
Motherhood is completely happy and satisfying, comes easily and is immediately fulfilling; the perfect mother is completely devoted to her family and shows no concern for her own needs
Double Standard of People with Children in the Workplace
Mothers earn significant less than childless women, even with comparable education, work experience, and job characteristics; however, fathers earn more than men without children
In one study, mothers of 11-month-old babies were asked to estimate how steep a slope their infant could successfully crawl down. The results indicated that _____________________.
Mothers of boys estimated success at steeper slopes than mothers of girls.
Do birth control pills cause ovarian or uterine cancer?
No, birth control pills do not cause ovarian or uterine cancer. In fact, birth control can decrease your chances of ovarian cancer.
describe objectified body consciousness, and the sex difference in the experience
Objectified Body Consciousness — girls learn to view their bodies as if they were outside observers, Sexual harassment by peers, Self-esteem
Discrimination Against Overweight Girls and Women
People discriminate against overweight females more than overweight males - less likely to be hired, to get a promotion, are paid less than slender women - people think they are less likely to have romantic partners - overweight girls are teased more often by their peers - both adults' and children's physical attractiveness can have serious consequences for how people treat them Fat studies argue that we live in a fat-hating culture and we need to rethink our approach to body weight
Expectancy role value theory:
People make decisions about what activities to pursue based on 1. our expectation of whether or not doing the activity will lead to success 2. the value we place on that activity. this theory focuses on how environmental factors/gender socialization promote sex/gender differences says that women and men behave based on how we think we're supposed to act- these come from internalized stereotypes
A claim that having an abortion increases risk of depression and suicide; not recognized by any medical or psychological organization, however, some US state legislations require that patients be told that they are at an increased risk of depression and suicide despite lack of evidence
Post-abortion syndrome
Sexism Toward Pregnant Women
Pregnant women are often treated with both hostile and benevolent sexism - hostile sexism tends to occur when a pregnant woman is doing something nontraditional, such as applying for a job - benevolent sexism often is shown when a pregnant women is doing something stereotypically feminine People tend to feel a right to give pregnant women their opinions (because you can SEE pregnancy?)
Symptoms so severed that their normal functioning is impaired for a week each month preceding menstruation
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
[use book to review some concepts we discussed about solutions to family-work balancing challenges]
Prenatal leave Support from other people Personal coping strategies
Structures that make reproduction possible (Ex: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina)
Primary sex characteristics
Why the Wage Gap?
Reason #1: Gender segregation of occupations - majority of jobs are held 90% or more by 1 sex and predominately male dominant jobs are paid more - ex. of librarians and liquor store clerks * both ran by state; librarians predominantly women, clerks mostly males * even though had different qualifications, store clerk paid more Reason #2: women's family responsibilities - more household, child care responsibilities - career interruptions (wait until child is in school) - can't work 80-90 hour work weeks (we need to stop demanding this) Reason #3: Entitlement (Brenda Major) - in laboratory experiment: have undergrads do same trivial task and then asked how much they thought they should be paid - men said more than women Reason #4: implicit attitudes - IAT - automatic association between "rich" and "man"
Girls and women in Western culture internalize the masculine view of the body as a sexualized object to be looked at and evaluated
Self-objectification
Sexual Assault and Rape
Sexual Assault - comprehensive term that includes sexual touching and other forms of unwanted sexual contact, typically accompanied by psychological pressure, coercion, or physical threats - frighteningly common; 20% of female college students in sexual dating relationships revealed that their partner had verbally coerced them into having unwanted sex at least once Rape - a more specific kind of sexual assault that includes sexual penetration obtained by force or threat of physical harm, or when the victim is incapable of giving consent - incidence of rape varies cross-culturally, but it is more common in cultures where women are clearly subordinate to men - rape may be used as a weapon during wartime
Define sexual harassment
Sexual harassment is a form of gender discrimination that involves unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature between the same or opposite genders
Which perspective says women and men are more similar than different?
Similarities perspective
The process by which each generation passes along to children the knowledge, beliefs, and skills that constitute the culture of the social group (ex: parents, peers, school, media)
Socialization
Affirmative Action
Specifies that companies must encourage applications from underrepresented groups, including gender and ethnicity, as well as in decisions on salary and promotion; make sure that fully qualified women and people of color are given a fair consideration in the workplace - in the U.S., every company with more than 50 employees must establish and Affirmative Action Plan
Sexual strategies theory
Suggests gender differences in mate selectivity help to ensure survival of the species. - Men maximize potential offspring through sexual activity with many women -Women were selective with sexual partners in order to find stable mates who would contribute resources to promote their children's survival.
Neuroplasticity
The London taxi cab driver study supports the idea of ________________ (our brains actually change over time as we age!).
What is the female underprediction effect and how can this harm young women?
The female underprediction effect is a phenomenon where women tend to perform better than one might predict from their test scores. The consequences of the underprediction effect are that women still won't get the jobs they apply for, and the credibility that they deserve.
Which factors seem to be most important in explaining the gender gap in wages?
The gender segregation of jobs, women's family role, & implicit stereotypes linking "male" and "rich"
Goal Congruity Perspective
The idea that people want to engage in activities that meet their goals. - work expectations in STEM/EMCP careers (long hours, constant availability) are not compatible with people seeking work-life balance. - many women want a career that meets their interests in working with people and their goals of caring for others - stereotypes of STEM/EMCP careers at that they involve working primarily alone, but in fact they are highly collaborative.
The Culture of Thinness
The tendency for NA females to be concerned that they are overweight, even if their weight is appropriate; media emphasizes weight consciousness, slenderness, and dieting; seeing images of this "ideal" body influences women's views of their own bodies
Work and Family Issues
Theoretical views: 1. Scarcity hypothesis: humans have a fixed amount of energy. so adding a role increases stress, leads to negative consequences for mental and physical health * women adding role, men don't 2. Expansionist hypothesis: energy sources are not limited, multiple roles are good for mental health * doing aerobic exercise increases energy
According to Eagly's meta-analysis of studies on gender differences in the effectiveness of leaders, ________________.
There are no gender differences in effectiveness.
Girls have strong feelings of sexual desire but fear potential of negative consequences for expressing those desires
Tolman's (2002) study of teenage girls
Trans identities may form at any time throughout the lifespan, through mainstream society offers more legitimacy to early awareness
Transpeople often experience discrimination, stigma, and prejudice while developing their gender identity
________ refers to an accumulation of blood in the blood vessels of a region of the body, especially the genitals; swelling or erect results.
Vasocongestion
Better nutrition, better medical care, obesity, eating the meat of livestock whose growth was send up by giving them sex hormones
What are some possible reasons that the onset of puberty has occurred at progressively earlier ages in the US and western Europe?
Who should have decision-making power and when does life begin
What are the arguments surrounding pro-choice and pro-life?
Exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months and as a complementary for 1 year or even longer
What is APA's new policy/recommendation about how long a woman should breastfeed?
The loss of their partner
What is the biggest reason that sex decreases in older people?
Joan B. Wolf
What professor at TAMU wrote the book Is Breast Best? and explored whether or not breastfeeding was better for children than formula-feeding (concluded that you can just decide whatever you want and that neither is significantly better).
Gender Role Spillover
When beliefs about gender roles and characteristics spread to the work setting (women's abilities, characteristics, paying appropriate to inappropriate things)
pregnancy pressure
When someone pressures a partner into making reproductive choices they don't agree with.
Role Strain
When women experience strain from conflicting (work and family) responsibilities - many women still report that working enhances their feeling of competence - employed women are as healthy and well-adjusted psychologically as unemployed women, and women with satisfying jobs seem to be even healthier and better adjusted
Gendered Leadership Issues
When women occupy positions of leadership, they are stereotyped as not having the right leadership characteristics; women are disliked as leaders if they attempt an autocratic style of leadership
Men have slightly higher self-esteem than women.
Where is this not found? - in studies of black participants. what domains for self esteem make a difference? - men are higher in appearance based and athletic self esteem. - women are higher in moral/ethical self esteem.
Africa and Asia
Which 2 continents have the greatest number of countries in which over 50% of births are not attended by a doctor, nurse, or midwife?
Africa and Asia
Which continent has the greatest number of countries which criminalize homosexuality and can be subject to the death penalty?
Boys
Which gender is more likely to be called on in school and not reprimanded for calling out?
Joan Chrisler
Who did research on menstrual distress vs. menstrual joy? (Gave a menstrual joy questionnaire before a menstrual distress questionnaire associated with reporting lower distress and more favorable attitudes toward menstruation)
Katrina Dalton
Who did the study on the women prisoners; suggests PMS is biological; experiences it herself
Traditionally, women perform the actual cutting
Who generally performs the procedure of FGM?
A lesbian high school student; founded the Gay Straight Alliance in 1996
Who is Kelli Peterson?
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Who made it illegal to discriminate against employment during pregnancy?
Freud
Who proposed that there were 2 types of female orgasm: clitoral and vaginal?
What sex is most likely to be widowed?
Women
Nonsexist Therapy
Women and men should be treated similarly; therapists must interact with clients in an unbiased fashion; therapists should be familiar with research that focuses on women and the pervasiveness of sexism in our society
The increasing availability of reproductive health services (including the liberalization of abortion laws); incremental improvements in women's status and autonomy
Women are having fewer number of children compared to their mothers and grandmothers because of two factors. What are these factors?
Women's Retirement
Women are less likely than men to seek out information about retirement benefits - women frequently experience more adjustment problems in retirement than men do, esp. if they encounter financial difficulties Many elderly women in the US live in poverty - in the US, older women are likely to have lower incomes than older men because of factors such as lower salaries when they were employed, lower income from social security, lack of pension plans, unpaid work in the home, and chronic illness
Discuss sex differences in widowhood
Women are more likely to be widowed than men are Opportunities for remarriage are limited because of lopsided gender ratio In 1st year following spouse's death, widows show increased depression, but then level off and rebound Financial strain common among widows Death of spouse is harder on men than it is on women in terms of depression, illness, and death
Gender Differences in Seeking Therapy
Women are somewhat more likely than men to seek therapy; women are still more likely than men to get depressed
Bias and Discrimination in the Workplace
Women experience gender bias and discrimination that are likely responsible for a significant pay gap after controlling for other factors
How do women find their way through the labyrinth?
Women need to: - demonstrate both agentic and communal qualities - build their social capital - women generally have less social capital than men, but it's a question of effort and strategy * most are not born with this, must think about how you can acquire some, then do it
In research on entitlement conducted by Brenda Major, undergraduate performed a gender-neutral task and then paid themselves. The results indicated that _______________.
Women paid themselves an average of $1.95, whereas men paid themselves and average of $3.18.
Labyrinth Metaphor
Women seeking promotion will encounter many difficulties along the route, and must be very competent and develop flexible strategies that blend warmth and compassion with strength and decisiveness to reach the end-goal of promotion
The Public's Reactions
Women tend to be blamed for rape; by her family, the legal system, and the general public; people's attitudes about rape tend to depend on the factors surrounding the incident
Patterns of Work
Women tend to work shorter hours and require more flexible schedules because women are more likely to care for children
Psychologists' preference for studying negative aspects of women's lives rather than positive ones
Women-as-problem bias
What chores do men and women usually hold?
Women: repetitive and unending work such as cooing, cleaning, caring for kids Men: infrequent, messier jobs such as mowing the lawn or taking out the trash
Are there gender differences in preferences for male bales in the U.S?
Yes Men particular want a boy when having a child 45 percent
1 in 7
___ in ___ pregnancies miscarry.
70
____% of North American mothers breastfeed their children.
30
____% of births in the US are done via cesarian section.
40
____% of lesbian mothers are raising children.
25
____% of pregnancies in the US are terminated by abortion.
Males
___________ are much better at things like visual-spatial skills and mental rotation.
Grandmother effect
a grandmother has a decidedly beneficial effect on the reproductive success of her children and the survival of her grandchildren.
Stigma awareness
a heightened fear of encountering future discrimination
femininity
a high score on the femininity/expressiveness scale and a low score on the scale for masculinity/instrumentality
Parental Leave
a leave from work at time of birth or adoption of a child - applies equally to mothers and fathers - 1989: US was the only industrialized nation not to have a national parental leave policy - 1993: President Clinton signed into law Family Medical Leave Act
Disorders of sex development (DSD)
a medical term to replace intersex; some providers use "differences of sex development" to address a concern about stigma
Token
a member of a socially marginalized group whose group makes up less than 15% of the workforce in a workplace setting. women who are tokens report a number of negative effects - increased visibility leads to more scrutinized work - pressure to represent all people of her group - social isolation - seen in sex/gender-stereotyped ways
medical abortion
a method of abortion using drugs rather than surgery to terminate a pregnancy
Queer of color critique
a methodology that recognizes the intersections of race, gender, class, sexuality, capital, and nation, and unidentifies with the universality of social categories present in canonical sociology and historical materialism.
Successful Aging
a person maximizes gains and minimizes losses as he or she grows older - qualities such as optimism, good health, and projects that help others - many women rethink their lives during middle age or later, and they may make new choices that take them in different directions
"Sexual orientation" is defined as ______________.
a persons erotic and emotional orientation toward members of their own gender or members of the other gender.
Restorative Justice
a philosophy that emphasis repairing harm to victims and empowering them while holding offenders accountable through making reparations to victims and becoming rehabilitated rather than simply being punished - involves conferencing of offender - encourages victims to speak up since don't have to go through traumatic police and court procedures
Know the definition of sexual disorder
a problem with sexual responding that causes a person mental distress
Coming out
a process by which LGBTQ individuals accept, appreciate, and inform themselves and others about their LGBTQ identity
adolescent growth spurt
a rapid increase in height and weight
Asexual
a sexual orientation characterized by little or no sexual attraction
transgendered movement
a social movement for the acceptance of more than two sex categories -third sex category
Microaggressions
a statement, action, or incident regarded as an instance of indirect, subtle, or unintentional discrimination against members of a marginalized group such as racial or ethnic minority.
Emerging Adulthood
a suspended state of not being a teenager but not yet being an adult, extending through early 20s
intersex
a term used to describe a wide variety of conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical features are not sex typical
Gender self-socializatino model
a theoretical model that children's gender identification makes them want to adopt gender stereotyped behaviors
J. Eccles' analysis is based on the belief that gender differences in math performance and competence are not so much caused by gender differences in ______________ as by gender differences in ____________.
ability; course choice
2 female selective abortion
aborting healthy fetuses just because they are female 3rd-neglect or starvation
Abuse of Women
about 1/4 of women in the US will experience abuse in their lifetime; abuse is more likely in places where women are expected to be subordinate - women who have been abused may be afraid, depressed, and anxious, and may experience many health problems - male abusers have a sense of entitlement - unemployed men and veterans are more likely to abuse - abuse is somewhat correlated with social class, but its relationship with ethnicity is complex -
Acquaintance Rape
about 85% of rape survivors knew the man who raped them - rape by a person known to the rape survivor who is not related by blood or marriage 15% have experienced acquaintance rape, and an additional 35-40% have been sexually assaulted by an acquaintance - less likely to consider the assault a true assault - men are more likely to perceive others as being seductive
women have slight advantage in
academic achievement slightly higher verbal abilities moderate advantage in reading comprehension, but the effect varies from nation to nation
gender differences at infancy
activity level(d=.29 to .64), inhibitory control (d=-.41), perceptual sensitivity(d=-.38), attention (foucsing d=-.15; purposeful shifting d=-.31)
Scarcity Hypothesis
adding a role (ex: worker) creates stress, which has negative consequences for mental and physical health
Across ethnicities and around the world, among adolescents, who endorses higher educational and occupational goals - girls, boys, or neither?
adolescent girls endorse higher educational and occupational goals than do boys
Weight Worries in Adolescent Girls
adolescent girls have more negative body esteem than adolescent boys (d= -0.58)
testosterone
an androgen needed to transform the Wolffian ducts into male organs;
Social Learning
an approach that emphasizes how children learn gendered behavior from their environment
Toys like LEGO Friends and GoldieBox offer girls..
an engineering toy in a feminine context. Do they help girls by inspiring them to build? or do they send sexist messages that engineering can only be for girls if it's packaged in pink?
gender intensification
an increased pressure to conform to gender roles beginning in early adolescence. girls start out as tomboys and by the reach of puberty, girls are forced to conform to typical gender roles
Sexual orientation
an individual's predisposition towards sexual and/or romantic attraction for persons of the same sex/gender (homosexual) and/or the other sex/gender (heterosexual
5 Alpha-Redactase Deficiency
an inherited condition in a genetic male that prevents differentiation of the penis.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
an inherited condition that causes the adrenal gland to over-produce androgens, which influences fetal genetic development and can also affect development later on
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
an inherited disorder in which the adrenal glands of a genetic female malfunction and produce abnormally high levels or androgens; these individuals have a uterus; male external genitalia; female reproductive organs; female gender identity; mostly heterosexual sexual orientation
Androgen-insensitivity syndrome
an inherited disorder in which the body of a genetic male cannot utilize androgen; individual has no internal reproductive organs; female external genitalia; female gender identity; male reproductive organs; unknown sexual orientation
Gender Identity Disorder
an official psychiatric category for those individuals who experience a disjunction between their assigned sex and their core gender identity -not physically intersexed
Treating rapists: drugs
antiandrogen drugs: if testosterone levels are decreased, sex drive will decrease * always combine with education and psychotherapy
Klinefelter's syndrome
any chromosomal type that has more than one X chromosome plus one or two Y chromosomes
primary sex characteristics
ar structures that make reproduction possible
What happens to sex hormone levels after sexual differentiation is complete?
are not produced again until puberty
Situation-Centered (Structural) Approach to Why Women are Scarce in Certain Careers
argues that characteristics of the organizational situation explains why women are underrepresented in traditionally male careers; blame access and treatment discrimination instead of personal skills and traits
Person-Centered (Individual) Approach to Why Women are Scarce in Certain Careers
argues that women are underrepresented in traditionally male careers because women lack the relevant personality characteristics and skills
Understand the prevalence and effects of therapies available for female sexual disorders, and differences among them behavioral therapy cognitive behavioral therapy bibliotherapy Kegel exercises feminist sex therapy (education, assertiveness training, reclamation)
behavioral therapy-both partners participate, objective: abolish goal-directed sexual performance(removes anxiety related to getting an orgasm), sensate focus exercises, successful in approximately 75% of cases cognitive behavioral therapy- restructuring negative thoughts about sexuality to make them positive bibliotherapy- Self-help sex therapy books Kegel exercises- to strengthen muscles surrounding the vagina feminist sex therapy (education, assertiveness training, reclamation)- questions the medicalization of sexual disorders, Feminist sex therapy for women should include the following components (Tiefer, 1995; 1996; McCormick, 1994): Education about feminism and women's issues, anatomy and physiology education, assertiveness training,body-image reclamation, masturbation education
Gender attitude
beliefs about the appropriate traits, interests, behaviors, and roles or females and males
Breastfeeding
between 60 and 90% of NA mothers breastfeed newborns- only 15-23% continue to breastfeed for at least 6 months; more likely to be well-educated, 30's or older, and either white or Asian - breastfeeding is better for infant development
Ageism
bias based on age, most often against elderly people - researchers often ignore older people - the media also underrepresents and misrepresents elderly women
What relationship is there between watching tv and gender-stereotyped beliefs?
boys are more important and interesting than girls and women
Which gender is more likely to ease or derogate the other?
boys taunt other boys if they do not conform to the norms, calling them gay Girls do not accuse of not being a girl when they get into arguments, Boys call eachother girls if they dont like what the other boy is doing
discuss pubertal timing
boys: early puberty makes them more popular because they are taller and more muscular girls: detrimental to several other aspects of their developmental, girls with mature bodies are more likely to be harassed and sexualized
What is the queer of color critique?
bring together queer theory, feminist theory, and woc theory cannot understand queer of color before understanding history of violence and survival
the modern disney princess is less gender stereotyped than the earlier ones !!!
but still convey gendered messages about beauty and sexuality
trans-affirmative practice
care that is respectful, aware, and supportive of the identities/life experiences of transgender and gender-nonconforming people; also called gender-affirming care (example: socially transitioning)
identification
castration anxiety induces the boy to give up his Oedipal feelings for his mother and form a close emotional bond with his father; boy will adapt father's masculine behaviors and traits, and incorporates his father's ales into his superego
androgen testosterone
causes the internal structures of male sexual anatomy to develop, such as the tubes that will later transport sperm from the testes
Neural plasticity
change occurring in the brain in response to experience.
Define epigenetics and discuss animal research that suggests that genes are not destiny
changes in gene expression caused by factors other than DNA female rats licked their babies(pups) when pups are licked a lot they become lickers when they are not licked a lot they do not like a lot pup born to low-licking mother, but raised by high-licker becomes licker biology is not destiny
Define neural plasticity
changes in the brain in response to experience gender differences are not hard-wired
Discuss maternity blues, possible causes, and the estimated number of mothers that experience this.
characterized by crying, anxiety, and irritability, typically begins three to four days after childbirth and lasts about two to four days. 75%
Major Depressive Disorder
characterized by frequent episodes of intense sadness, hopelessness, and low self-esteem; these people seldom find pleasure women are more likely to experience depression than men (11% to 6%), and these differences are found cross-culturally
What is a critical factor in determining whether a women has this positive family-work balance?
child care
Negative Reactions to Motherhood
childcare is exhausting; fathers help less than expected; mothers feel leaky and dirty as their bodies readjust; feelings of incompetence and unpreparedness for motherhood; isolation; babies often violate mothers' expectations; women are often blamed for their children's problems; may feel disappointed when they can't reach the "motherhood" ideal
When do girls and boys motor skills tend to start favoring boys?
childhood through adolescence
define co-rumination and discuss sex differences and psychological repercussions.
co-rumination- "fat talk", helps keep body dissatisfaction, girls disclose dissatisfaction to each other, reinforcing dissatisfaction leads to unhealthy and dangerous behaviors beginning in late elementary school, girls are more dissatisfied with their weight than boys are
Traditional roles have led to the development of ____________
cognitive and personality differences. For example, being a caregiver causes women to be more nurturing, as opposed to nurturing causing women to become caregivers.
Describe the cognitive crowding hypothesis and discuss how this research explains sex differences in verbal ability and special ability
cognitive crowding hypothesis- when spatial and verbal processes are strongly lateralized in different hemispheres, spatial processing enhanced female's verbal bi-lateralization explains inferior spatial abilities no gender differences in verbal ability and women are not more bi-lateral than men
Describe the notion of comparable worth, and reasons why this is difficult to implement
comparable work- the principle that people should be paid equally for work that is comparable in responsibility, educational requirements, etc. requires extensive job analysis by industrial/organizational psychologists implementation and enforcement is expensive
Caster Semenya
competed in the Olympics but was suspended due to genetic testing. -caster had masculine features but claimed herself as a female
Behavioral theories
consider how aspects of the environment influence behavior, including gender development. -- Operant conditioning : suggests that gender develops when certain behaviors are reinforced and others are punished
Sexual differentiation involves
coordinated processes influenced by both genetic and hormonal factors
Imitation
copying someone else's behavior ex:boy shaving with a toy razor
Sex differences in attitudes toward casual sex:
d=.45
Sex difference in masturbation:
d=.53
Sex differences in spatial ability:
d=.57 (mental rotation), d=.44 (special perception), d=.13 (special visualization)
Sex differences in pornography use:
d=.63
Sex differences in physical performance/athletics:
d=2.60 (height), d=1.98 (throwing distance), d=.63 (50yd dash)
Whorf Hypothesis
deals with language on one hand, thought on the other language <----> Thought - language determines thought (how you from up/what language used determines how they thought) - BUT, thought also influences our language
modeling
demonstrating gendered behavior for children; also refers to the child's imitation of the behavior, parents mold behaviors for their children, who then form ideas about how women and men should behave
Empty Nest Syndrome
depression that middle-aged people supposedly feel when their children are grown and have left home
Cisgender
describes individuals whose gender identity conforms to societal expectations for the sex they were assigned at birth
Be able to describe BOGUS PIPELINE research (the paradigm, what it investigates, and what it informs us)
detects exaggeration participants are randomly assigned to one of three conditions 1st pipeline: hooked up to fake polygraph machine and told machine will detect false answers 2nd pipeline: told response will be anonymous 3rd pipeline: completed questionnaires given to the researcher gender differences disappeared when participants thought truthfulness could be detected
psychoanalytic theory
developed by Sigmund Freud; proposes that gender typing stems from children's anatomical differences between females and males combined with their strong inborn sexual urges
Osteoporosis
disorder in which bones become less dense and more fragile - especially common in older women; causes serious bone fractures, can result in long-term disability
Discuss economic effects of divorce on women.
divorced women and children are becoming the new underclass, divorced men experience a 42% increase in standard of living, whereas women experience a 35-73% decrease
Lesbian Mothers
do not differ from heterosexual mothers in their parenting skills or the adjustment of their children; children are similar to their peers, but they tend to be more accepting of diversity; lesbian families have more legal obstacles
African Americans gender typing
do not fit the sterotypical role of men and women. african americans are more equal and show more an interest in shared chores.
Women's Reactions to Rape
during the assault, women report feeling terrified, confused, overwhelmed, and detached afterward, they often feel helpless, devalued, fearful, angry, anxious, humiliated, and may self-blame many women may be too embarrassed to seek medical or emotional help
Increase popularity of genital cosmetic surgery... some social/contextual factors that explain the increase in this?
empowering but also possibly due to societal factors making women feel they need to get this done
Identify the major male and female sex hormones
endocrine glands- produce sex hormones androgens- group of sex hormones produced more in males than females testosterone- major male sex hormone estrogen- female sex hormone produced by ovaries; produced in smaller quantity in males progesterone- female sex hormone produced by ovaries; produced in smaller quantity in males
is john gray an essentialist or a social constructionist?
esentialist, based on biology, innately different
Children often receive subtle messages from parents about gendered behavior.... boys are ____________________
especially discouraged from feminine behaviors and interests
Dual control model
excitation & inhibition
Eccles has proposed a(n) ____________ model of achievement and course choice to explain why females stop taking math and science courses in high school and college.
expectation - value
Intensive mothering
expectation that women should not only be mothers, but exceptional mothers.
orgasm disorder
experiencing the excitment phase of the sexual arousal cycle but not achieving an orgasm
achievement attributions
explanations people give about their performance
Be familiar with the topic presented in the video The Invisible War, and the current state of affairs on the controversial topic of abuse in the military
exposes the systemic cover-up of military sex crimes, chronicling the women's struggles to rebuild their lives and fight for justice. It also features hard-hitting interviews with high-ranking military officials and members of Congress that reveal the perfect storm of conditions that exist for rape in the military. a female soldier in combat zones is more likely to be raped by a fellow soldier than killed by enemy fire
Co-rumination
extensively discussing and revisiting problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative feelings with peers.
Lateralization
extent to which one hemisphere of the brain organizes a particular mental process or behavior.
chilly climate
faculty members, staff, or students display different expectations for women students, or single them out or ignore them
Laissez-faire leadership
failure to take responsibility, lack of involvement
During puberty, girls gain more ____ tissue and boys gain more ____ tissue
fatty; muscle
empathy
feeling the same emotion that someone else is feeling
Average age of male and female first intercourse
female = 17.2 years; males = 16.6 years
Using the formula d=(mM-fM) / S, a negative d indicates that ________________.
female scores are higher.
Female and male chromosomes
female xx's, male xy
Did males or females use gender-stereotyped toys more in the Baby X study?
females used more gender-stereotyped toys, males used more gender-neutral toys
menarche
first menstrual period
How do traditional sexual scripts influence women's ability to assert a claim to safety during sex?
focus on men's need and condone male power and control therefore women feel unable to express their need for safe sex
Gender schema theory
focuses on how children integrate their network of assumptions about how people with different genders are supposed to think, feel, and act
Sociological Theory of Rape
focuses on norms and attitudes in our society that condone violence within families, particularly violence by husbands to wives - girls expected to be passive, boys expected to be aggressive
Psychodynamic Approach
focuses on unconscious and unresolved conflicts stemming from childhood, with an emphasis on social relationships; therapist is the expert - favors the "normative male" and may blame women for problems, although some have redefined freudian definitions
where are there no differences in self esteem?
for family, social acceptance, or academic self esteem
1964 Civil Rights Act
forbids discrimination based on sex, race, color, national origin, or religion for employers of more than 15 people
Equal Pay Act of 1963
forbids employers from paying employees of one sex more than employees of the other sex; does not address sex-segregation of occupations, a major cause of discrepancies of salary
Faludi
fought that stats on women and divorce discourage women from leaving bad relationships; more accurate to show women have a 33% decline in standard of living compared to 74%
the psychological well-being of women who never marry
freedom, self-sufficiency and competence, satisfying employment that provides economic independence, connections to next generation, strong social support network
Binge-Eating Disorder
frequent episodes of uncontrollable binge eating; feelings of lack of control; NOT followed by purging methods to compensate for binges; typically overweight - characterized by depression and low self-esteem - gender ratio is less skewed
Treatment of Women in Therapy
gender bias may lead to misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment in therapy - therapists may view men in a more positive light, and may evaluate people in terms of gender stereotypes - therapists may ignore cultural issues that contribute to depression in women (poverty, discrimination, sexism) - therapists may blame women for events beyond their control, such as IPV and sexual abuse
gender identity and sexual orientation are commonly confused, but
gender identity = whether one feels like a woman, man, or non-binary person sexual orientation = whether one is attracted to women, men, non-binary people
1st Cognitive development theory
gender identity and gender typing are the outcome of children's active cognitive structuring of their physical and social world -children understanding their gender relates to their cognitive maturity
Identify sex differences (know effect sizes) in: general intelligence verbal ability spatial ability (mental rotation, special perception, special visualization) mathematical ability physical performance/athletics
general intelligence = No evidence to support the hypothesis that females are less intelligent than males verbal ability= -.11 spatial ability (mental rotation, special perception, special visualization)=.57, .44, .13 mathematical ability= 0.05 physical performance/athletics= Height: d = 2.60 Throwing distance: d = 1.98, 50-yd dash (all ages): d = .63
Complete Androgen insensitivity syndrome
genetic composition is XY but a body is unable to process the androgens
Common arguments for single-sex education?
girls and boys need to be educated in different ways girls are free to excel when boys aren't around to dominate classroom, or demand undue attention from teachers
what is the contemporary response to this androcentric theory?(Erkison)
girls and women define their identities more in interpersonal relationships (interpersonal identity) and boys have an autonomous identity
Objectified body consciousness
girls learn to view their bodies as if they were outside observers.
Gender Segregation
girls start to play with more girls and boys start to play with more boys in preschool
Why do girls have more issues with sex?
girls tend to question their entitlement to their own sexual feelings; girls tend to experience less pleasure at first intercourse than boys do
Parents encourage gender-typed activities and play, also encourage gender divisions in chores-
girls: care for siblings and cook boys: take out trash and mow the lawn
What is the meaning of the glass ceiling? How does the more contemporary term labyrinth (Eagly & Carli, 2007) more aptly describe the current state of affairs?
glass ceiling - Refers to "invisible" barriers to promotion of women and ethnic minorities into upper management and executive levels labyrinth is better because women can make it to the top, but they have to navigate complex and indirect paths
Grandmotherhood
grandmother effect: human females experience far more years of vigorous life after ovulation ceases and they no longer reproduce - older women who are healthy and active enhance their own fitness by providing care for their grandchildren, who carry their genes, thereby enhancing the survival of those offspring - natural selection
In the past 30 years there has been a significant increase in the number of _____ families
grandparent-headed
Childhood Sexual Abuse
has both immediate and long-term effects on mental and physical health; some memories of sexual abuse can be forgotten and then recovered later - some adults may construct false memories of abuse that did not occur
Transgender individuals
have a gender identity inconsistent with their reproductive organs; firmly believe they were born with the body of the wrong sex and identify with the other sex; a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles for one's assigned sex
A woman makes how much for every dollar that a man earns in the U.S. when both are employed full-time, year-round?
he average woman working outside the home makes only 81 cents for every dollar the average man earns when both work full-time, year-round. [This female to male earnings ratio of 81% is based on full-time wage and salary workers for the year 2017, for median annual earnings. Although you do not need to know this: the comparable figure for median weekly earnings is 82%.] Note: For the year 1955, the same statistic was 64 cents.
androgyny
high scores on both scales
According to research on U.S married heterosexual couples, who (women or men) does the clear majority of:
housework- women childcare-women
Identify sex differences in the brain : hypothalamus corpus callosum brain size
hypothalamus- female hypothalamus cells- high estrogen sensitivity, cyclic release of hormones and creates menstruation corpus callosum- men have larger (d=.21), size increases in women through their 50s (WM show significantly better recovery in language following damage to the left hemisphere), men's peaks in 20s and then decreases brain size- no difference in relative brain size
Late Adolescence
identity formation - boys: autonomous identity - girls: autonomous and interpersonal identity socialization continues
reinforcement and punishment
if people expect a positive reinforcement (reward) for performing the behavior, children will likely engage in that behavior; if children anticipate a negative consequence (punishment) they are not likely to perform that act
Transitioning obstacles
impediments outside of a person's control that influence when and if they're able to transition - Money, time, family concerns, racism, religious beliefs, difficulty finding health-care providers
affirmative action
in employment refers to positive steps taken by an employer that facilitate the recruitment and advancement of historically underrepresented workers in order to ensure equal opportunity for all
What is X-chromosome inactivation, and why does it occur?
in females, the process in which one of two X chromosomes is inactivated or silenced in nearly every cell, so that only one chromosome functions, females have twice as many genes as males because they have 2 Xs
Scarcity hypothesis
in research on women and multiple roles, the hypothesis that adding a role creates stress, which has negative consequences for mental and physical health
Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
includes one set of traits views as more desirable for females than for males and another set of items seen as more desirable for males than females; femininity and masculinity are assessed independently by this
What does the extant literature inform us about the empty nest syndrome?
increased marital equityIncrease marital quality, Although some women temporarily experience loneliness or a sense of loss, most experience increased well-being
Gender intensification
increased pressures for gender-role conformity beginning in early adolescence
gender intensification
increased pressures for gender-role conformity beginning in early adolescence
gender intensification
increasing divergence in gender-related behaviors and attitudes of girls and boys that emerges in early adolescence
Self-objectification
individuals view themselves as objects for use instead of as human beings
Define infertility, discuss causes of infertility, and describe approaches for infertile individuals who want children.
infertility- not getting pregnant despite having carefully timed, unprotected sex for one year, Blockage of the fallopian tube, failure of ovaries to produce eggs, Uterine fibroids, Endometriosis, Polycystic ovary syndrome, lifestyle factors, approaches: In vitro fertilization (IVF), Couple's frozen embryos, Donated eggs/sperm, Surrogate motherhood
Define intersexuality. Discuss the four conditions discussed in class, and the cause of each condition: CAH Turner syndrome Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome 5 Alpha-Redactase Deficiency
intersexuality- the intermingling of male and female sexual characteristics- hermaphrodite CAH- a rare genetic condition that causes the female fetus's adrenal glands to produce high amount of androgens; girl born with masculinized genitals; only effects external genetalia turner syndrome- single X rather than pair; neither ovaries nor testes but has female genetalia androgen-insensitivity syndrome- a genetic male cannot utilize androgen; external genetalia is female and no internal male reproductive organs 5 Alpha-Redactase Deficiency- inherited condition in genetic male that prevents differentiation of penis; internal male reproductive organs
People with non-binary identities can feel...
invisible
Cognitive Trauma Therapy
involves many components, including PTSD education; mild desensitizing exposures to reminders of abuse; learning to undo negative self-talk; cognitive therapy for guilt; and education of self-advocacy, assertiveness and how to id predators -relieves PTSD symptoms in 80% of cases
Define lateralization and describe the split visual field and dichotic listening tasks used to test lateralization
lateralization- extent to which one hemisphere of the brain organizes a particular mental process or behavior dichotic listening tasks- researcher presents different stimuli to each ear in headphones; ear dominance and hand dominance is the same split visual field- different stimuli presented to different sides of the field of vision, stimuli on one side determines literalization, if there is no difference then the person is bilateral
What do the findings suggest about lesbians couples' emotional closeness compared to emotional closeness reported by heterosexual and gay male couples?
lesbian couples experience unique stressors: -conflicts can arise if ones partners lesbian identity is critical to her self concept while the others is not -they deal with the constant lack of acceptance -frequently face economic difficukties (both partners are women and women tend to earn less)
Post-traumatic stress disorder
long-term psychological distress suffered by someone who has experienced a terrifying, uncontrollable event * cognitive behavior view: people form a memory schema that involves information about the situation and their responses to it (many cues can trigger large schema)
undifferentiation
low scores on both scales
Bulimia Nervosa
maintain normal body weight, difficult to detect; frequent episodes of binge-eating followed by use of inappropriate methods to prevent weight gain - 90% of people with Bulimia are female, and between 1 and 5% of adolescent and young adult women develop Bulimia - depression, low self-esteem, obsessed with food, eating, and physical appearance - gastrointestinal, heart, liver, metabolic, and menstrual issues - very difficult to treat
Child Sexual Abuse
majority of cases go unreported and unprosecuted 30% of girls are victims 8% experienced intercourse 20% of women worldwide are victims 5-10% of men are victims
Be familiar with new research on the concept of the brain "mosaic."
male-leaning, female-leaning, and intermediate(based on volume) untreated trans women have brains volume similar to cisgender men trans women that received estrogen and anti-androgens for 4 months, experienced a decrease in brain volume, brains became more typical of the female range sex hormones have something to do with brain size
Impact on Children
man who batters wife is more likely to abuse children as well - exhibit signs of PTSD from watching intergenerational transmission of intimate partner violence: tends to repeat itself into next generation
Leadership style issues
many female leaders struggle to reconcile qualities people prefer in women (compassion for others) with qualities people think leaders need to succeed (assertion and control)
Paradox of Well-Being
many older women report high life satisfaction, despite the objective difficulties they encounter - comparable to younger women
Be familiar with factors affecting female sexual development during childhood and adolescence (and gender differences). media ("be sexy, don't be sexual") masturbation the Double Standard involving sexuality the Missing Discourse of Desire
media ("be sexy, don't be sexual")- The media subtly maintains the double standard, loss of status for women who freely engage in sex masturbation-important early sources of learning about sexuality the Double Standard involving sexuality-evaluation of male behavior and female behavior according to different standards; used specifically to refer to holding more conservative, restrictive attitudes toward female sexuality the Missing Discourse of Desire- most discussions on teen girls sexuality focus on teen pregnancy and date rape, ignoring teen girls sexual desire
Media commentary
media commentary about women athletes is not limited to their performance; women athletes are also subject to remarks about their sexiness and physical appeal or lack thereof
how are men and women's sexuality depicted?
men are aggressive and animalistic whereas women are more coy, indirect,and more focused on the mans needs
Prejudice
men are promoted more quickly than women with equivalent qualifications, even in traditionally female settings such as nursing and education
Is death of a spouse harder on men or women?
men in terms of depression, illness, and death
No differences for frequency of intercourse, sexual satisfaction, and attitudes for extramarital affairs
men: masturbate more, have more relaxes attitudes towards casual sex, and have more sexual partners when do these differences disappear? - when participants think they're under a lie detector test.
Define menopause, and describe the physical and psychological effects of menopause on women
menopause- ceasing of menstruation; effects- body worries,Investment in appearance, body dissatisfaction, and media exposure predict actual consideration of cosmetic surgery
Identify sex differences in basic physiological processes (know effect sizes): metabolism drug absorption pain sensitivity
metabolism- males have a higher metabolism because they have more muscles mass drug absorption- males absorb faster because they have more p glycoprotein pain sensitivity- females are more sensitive to pain because of differences in estrogen and testosterone
Sandwich Generation
middle-aged people, especially women, who find themselves responsible for both their dependent children and their aging parents - daughters are more likely than sons to become caregivers of elderly parents
difference between a midwife and a doula
midwife: can deliver a baby doula: birthing assistant and cannot deliver a baby
U.S. parental leave policies
minimum 12-week leave, guaranteed, unpaid.
Describe prenatal development from the moment of conception and identify the major points of sex differentiation (and the cause)
moment of conception- female has XX male has XY 6-8 weeks of gestation- gonads lead to ovaries or testes sex hormones- absence of testosterone , presence of estrogen or testosterone 12 weeks- brain and genitals, hormones leads to brain differentiation and clitoris and vagina or penis and scrotum birth- genetic female or genetic male is born
Rates of Sexual Harassment
more common in careers and educational settings that are dominated by men - boundaries are often unclear - only a small percentage of women report harassment
lesbian relationships tend to be more egalitarian compared to heterosexual and gay male relationships.. why?
more equality of power and more equal division of paid and unpaid labor
How can we help alleviate the gender pay gap?
more equitable gender socialization, more equality in the home setting, and change in the workplace setting/discrimination and bias patterns
Mothers who continue to work after childbirth are viewed _____ than women who stay home or work part-time
more negatively
2 ideas promoting positive change related to motherhood in general and related to black women in particular
more of a media presence of black mothers, and other minority mothers
Describe the motherhood penalty, and factors that increase and decrease the penalty
motherhood penalty- mothers earn less than childless women 5-10% per child over a lifetime in the workplace, working mothers encounter systematic disadvantages in pay, perceived competence, and benefits relative to childless women.
Exapansionist hypothesis
multiple roles are good for mental health because they provide more opportunities for stimulation, self-esteem, etc.
Expansionist hypothesis
multiple roles are good for mental heath, because they provide more opportunities for stimulation, self-esteem and so on
These four theories of gender differences are not ____________________ ; they can be complementary.
mutually exclusive
Weight Worries in Adolescence
negative body esteem: d = -0.58 surveillance, body shame and control beliefs
Are his writings based on research?
no
Do birth control pills cause infertility?
no
Baby X Study
non parents participants interacted with 3 month old infants in yellow and behavior was obsrved, 1/3 male 1/3 female 1/3 not told sex, in room doll, football, and ring, doll with girls, significant differences in ratings when gender was not told, when we make an assumption about infant's sex sterotypes and schemas appear
Rape
non-consenting, oral, anal or vaginal penetration obtained by force, threat of bodily harm, or when victim is incapable of consent
What does the research suggest about the effectiveness of abstinence-only programs?
not effective
Social cognitive theory
observational learning and rewards and punishments following behavior aloe cannot account for gender typing; thought processes (cognitions) also play a role.
Define occupational segregation, give examples, and explain why/how this perpetuates gender stereotypes and inequality
occupational segregation- when an occupation or a certain part of it tends to be dominated by individuals of a particular gender or race or other personal characteristic women's occupations are devalued compared to men's occupations the stereotype of people that suited for certain jobs based on their sex major contributor to the gendered wage gap
Sexualization
occurs when girls are treated like sexual objects by family, friends, teachers, or other adults
Impact of Battering on Women
of 3,000 women murdered in US, 1,000 (33%) were murdered by husband or boyfriend battered women syndrome: now PTSD
sexual pain disorder
often a physical condition, such as STI, lack of lubrication, or a structural problem is involved.... psychological factors suchs as anxiety about sex prior - sexual trauma may be responsible
what is a major problem with sexual scripts in today?
often treat sex as a game
Define the grandmother effect.
older women enhance their own fitness by taking care of their grandchildren, who carry their genes, thereby enhancing the survival of those offspring
Cross-Cultural Ideas about Age
older women may be viewed as more powerful in other cultures, or may be viewed as warm but not competent
SRY gene
on Y chromosome, directs formation of the testes.
What is the purpose of the SRY gene?
on Y chromosomes; directs formation of testes
Define and explain the difference between organizing effects and activating effects (use animal research presented in the text to explain)
organizing effects - effects occurring prenatally that permanently effect organization of structures (nervous or reproductive) activating effects- effects occurring during and post puberty that activate or deactivate cdertain behaviors animal reserach genetic female guinea pigs exposed to testosterone in utero-changes in hypothalamus- masculinized genetalia and male mounting tendencies genetic male rats castrated at birth and given female sex horomones during adulthood- female mating tendencies- activating effect of testosterone
Recognize female sexual disorders. orgasmic disorder vaginismus dyspareunia hypoactive sexual desire asexuality
orgasmic disorder- orgasmic Disorders: anorgasmia — the inability to have an orgasm, reported by 20% of women; Situational orgasmic disorder - really a disorder? vaginismus- strong, spastic contraction of the muscles around the vagina, closing off the vagina and making intercourse impossible, causes include: family background in which sex is considered dirty and sinful; previous sexual assault; long experience of painful intercourse dyspareunia- painful intercourse, may be organic or psychogenic in origin, can trigger other sexual functioning problems hypoactive sexual desire- Often avoid situations that evoke sexual feelings,10-15% of women report no sexual desire, Low sexual desire is sometimes normal, Discrepancy of sexual desire is often the issue, Determinants of low sexual desire: Hormones, antidepressant medications, psychological & cognitive factors, sexual trauma asexuality- lack of interest in or desire for sex - not a sexual disorder!
cognitive developmental theory
originally formed by Lawrence Kohlberg; children are neither pushed by their illogical desires nor pulled by external rewards and punishments; instead, children are active learners, attempting to make sense of the social environment
social learning theory
originally proposed by Walter Mischel; views gender development as influenced by the social environment; proposes that children acquire behavior with their gender because those behaviors are more likely to be imitated and to be associated with positive reinforcement; observational learning, reinforcement and punishment, cognition, and evaluation
Discuss how parents differentially treat boys and girls, through both language and behaviors
parents talk differently with their daughters compared with their sons, mothers talk more and use supportive speech with daughters, parents play differently with sons compared to daughters, different expectations
Amygdala
part of the brain that is important in processing emotions (10% larger in women).
Hypothalamus
part of the brain that is important in regulating certain body functions; different sex hormone production for male and female.
persuasion studies
participants indicate their position on a controversial topic; a different position supported by arguments is presented by anther individual and the participant's position is again measured
Understand methods of measuring sexual arousal in research penile strain gauge photoplethysmograph
penile strain gauge- flexible lube that is put on the base of the penis photoplethysmograph- an acrylic cylinder that is placed inside the vagina both measure vasocongestion inside the genitals which is the major physiological response for both men and women during sexual arousal
Double Standard of Aging
people clearly judge elderly women more harshly than elderly men - in terms of generosity, friendliness, physical attractiveness - an older man is considered a more appropriate sexual partner than an older woman
What to Do About Sexual Harassment
people need to be more aware of sexual harassment, become active bystanders, and take care to avoid harassing behaviors institutions must make it clear that sexual harassment will not be tolerated and will be punished appropriately the public's opinion about sexual harassment being the victim's fault needs to be changed - it limits women's rights and women often don't appreciate unsolicited sexual attention
Childfree Women
people tend to feel that childfree when are lower than women with children on fulfillment, happiness, and having a rewarding life friends and relatives often offer their uninvited advice - parenthood is irrevocable - you may not be a good parent - you may not enjoy children - lifestyle will be changed dramatically - children interfere with life plans - children are expensive - you can hang out with other people's kids - some couples don't want to bring children into the world we live in today
Resistance to women's leadership
people view successful female managers as more deceitful, pushy, selfish, and abrasive than successful male managers
Puberty
period of life during which sexual organs mature and the ability to reproduce emerges
puberty
period of life during which sexual organs mature and the ability to reproduce emerges
Messages given to adolescent girls in regard of menarche
periods should be a secret. that having a period is disgusting
Fear of Rape
permeates women's culture; many women feel unsafe, and they may restrict their activities
Queer theory
perspective that one's gender identity and sexual orientation are neither stable nor fixed through biology.
Understand the four phases of the female sexual response cycle according to Masters & Johnson, and differences in the phases between males and females
phase 1- excitement vasocongestion- accumulate of blood in the blood vesicles of a region of the body, especially genitals, swelling or erection occurs, the inner 2/3 of the vagina expands vaginal lubrication uterus elevates; breasts enlarge; nipples become erect Autonomic responses Myotonia - muscle tension phase 2- plateau the outer lower third of vagina becomes engorged with blood to form orgasmic platform orgasmic platform- the clit is sensitive and withdraws under clit hood, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate rise full vaginal expansion uterine expansion labia size increases phase 3- orgasmic orgasmic platform, uterus, and anal sphincters contract strongly between 3 and 15 times at intervals of less than a second phase 4- resolution the body returns to pre-arousal state women are capable of attaining more orgasms through more sexual stimulation men go through refractory period and no further stimulation possible
The four phases of female sexual response cycle:
phase 1: excitement phase 2: plateau phase 3: orgasmic phase 4: resolution
gender schema theory
proposed by Sandra Bem; incorporates elements of cognitive development and social learning theories; proposes that children develop an interrelated set of ideas, or schema, about gender that guides their social perceptions and actions; gender schema development stems from learning the gender norms and practices of society
Cognitive Behavioral Approach
psychological problems arise form inappropriate thinking and inappropriate learning; modify behaviors, restructure thought patterns ; help client consider alternative viewpoints; effective in treating anxiety, depression, and eating disorders
2 types of sexual harassment recognized in the U.S. legal system
quid pro quo harassment -a powerful individual in a workplace or university makes it clear that someone with less power must submit to sexual advances to obtain something (e.g., job offer, promotion, or good course grade) "A little from you a little from me" hostile work/academic environment -atmosphere at work or school is so intimidating and unpleasant (because of inappropriate intrusions of sexual matters) that an employee or a student cannot work effectively
Cultural Norms of Rape
rape is more common in preliterate societies characterized by male dominance, high violence and ideology of male toughness Larry Baron and Murray Straus: tested feminist and social disorganization theory * conclusion: 1. gender inequality is related to rape 2. pornography provides cultural, ideological support for rape 3. social disorganization contributes to rape
Psychotherapy with Lesbian and Bisexual Women
recognize and eliminate their own sexual prejudice therapists must value queer relationships as much as heterosexual relationships and must not try to change a client's sexuality must be aware of relevant research and resources available to clients
visual-spatial ability
refers to skill in visualizing objects or shapes and in mentally rotating and manipulating them
Sex
refers to the biologically determined physical characteristics of a human being (ex: chromosomes, reproductive anatomy and function, external genitals, hormones) (male or female); sliding scale
Gender
refers to the cultural, social, and psychological characteristics associated with maleness and femaleness (woman or man); sliding scale
Sexual orientation
refers to the direction of erotic attraction, sexual behavior, and erotic fantasies; heterosexual-oppositive sex attraction; homosexual-same sex attraction; bisexual-attracts to both sexes; sliding scale
gender segregation effect
reflects how play styles affects children
Corpus callosum
region of fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain (slightly larger in men).
What does the research show about the effects that a mother's employment outside the home has on her children?
research has found that preschoolers with employed mothers were more prosocial, less anxious, and less hyperactive than children whose mothers were not employed
Transformational leadership
role model by gaining followers' trust, state future goals, plans to achieve them, innovate, mentor and empower followers * not by whipping them into shape
Define role strain, role overload and inter-role conflict, as they pertain to being a wife and working mom
role strain- stress stemming from one's roles role overload- role demands that exceed one's available time and/or energy Interrole conflict ‒ incompatible demands stemming from two or more roles
Define and contrast the two major theories on effects of multiple roles on women: the scarcity hypothesis and the expansionist hypothesis
scarcity hypothesis-adding a role (e.g., worker) creates stress, which has negative consequences for mental and physical health expansionist hypothesis-multiple roles are good for mental health, because they provide more opportunities for stimulation, self-esteem, etc.
Define the second shift and describe what effects this might have on women's psychological and physical health?
second shift- house work and family work done by women
individuate
see themselves as separate and unique
Channeling
selection of different toys, activities, and so on for boy and girls; also called shaping
Channeling (shaping)
selection of different toys, activities, and so on, for boys and girls
Discuss the trajectory of girl's self-esteem during adolescence, and some of the possible causes
self- esteem is a curve, goes down in adolescence
Discuss postpartum depression, possible causes, and the estimated number of mothers that experience this. What is the major difference between postpartum depression and maternity blues?
severe feelings of depression that last for weeks or months after delivery Associated with youth, poverty, less education, first time motherhood, history of mental health problems Associated with having idealized cultural constructions of "perfect mother" that do not match experience Possibly associated with drastic drops in estrogen and progesterone levels after birth. 1 in 8 females
Define sex discrimination and describe different forms of sex discrimination in the workplace (patronizing behavior, token)
sex discrimination-unfavorable treatment based on someone's sex patronizing behavior- supervisors give subordinates considerable praise while withholding valued resources token- member of a group that is less than 15% of the larger; tokens are highly visible and on display, so may feel a great deal of performance pressure or be socially isolated
Know definitions of key terms associated with sexual orientation, including: sexual orientation sexual minority queer antigay prejudice compulsory heterosexuality heteronormativity civil union LBG dual identity performativity
sexual orientation- a person's erotic and emotional orientation toward members of her or his own gender or members of the other gender sexual minority-umbrella term for all people with non-heterosexual sexual identities and behaviors queer- all sexual minorities antigay prejudice- negative attitudes and behaviors toward gay men and lesbians compulsory heterosexuality heteronormativity- cultural belief that heterosexuality is the norm civil union LBG- lesbian-gay-bisexual dual identity-they identify and have ties with the sexual minority world and they have the ties and identify with the sexual majority world performativity
Know gender differences in sexuality, including differences in: sexual response orgasm masturbation pornography use attitudes toward casual sex number of sexual partners reported reasons for first intercourse hooking up first intercourse (reasons and experience)
sexual response-(d= orgasm- guys orgasm more than women masturbation- (d=.53) pornography use-(d=.63) attitudes toward casual sex-(d=.45) number of sexual partners reported-men report more reasons for first intercourse-girls motivated into first intercourse by affection and desire; boys motivated by curiosity, hooking up- sexual double standard first intercourse (reasons and experience)- girls tend to experience less pleasure at first intercourse than boys do
Sexual configurations theory (SCT)
sexuality issss dynamic, multi faceted, and socially situated! best understood along a ~variety~ of dimensions.
Impacts of sexualization
sexualization may reduce cognitive performance and lower career aspirations; also may reduce self-esteem when girls cannot meet the standards
what is sexualization (also sometimes called sexual objectification) and what effects does this have on the adolescent girl?
sexualization- process of valuing a person only for their sex appeal, sexually objectifying a person, or inappropriately imposing sexuality on a person,
group pressure conformity studies
similar to persuasion studies, except that a group of people, not just one individual, supports a position discrepant with the participant's
Despite a bias toward reporting and emphasizing sex/gender differences, the data show more ________
similarities
Common arguments against single-sex education?
single-sex classrooms promote stereotypical behavior segregation fails to create equality
Sexual fluidity
situation-dependent flexibility in women's sexual responsiveness to women or men
Gender Comparisons in Life Expectancy
small but consistent gender gap in life expectancy; women live longer by about 5 years - biological factors (extra x chromosome) - social factors (differences in high-risk behaviors) - environmental factors (more dangerous work conditions) - health care (women visit healthcare providers more often and may be more in tune with their bodies)
Cybersex
social interaction between at least 2 people who exchange computer messages for purposes of sexual arousal and satisfaction
Prejudice
some people resist women as leaders - decline in resistance to working for a woman
Athletics in Adolescence
some push being skinny (gymnastics)
When are boys growth spurts generally?
starts around 11 years old
When are girls growth spurts generally?
starts around 9 years old
Teachers tend to treat girls and boys differently based on
stereotypic assumptions about intelligence and behavior
"strong black woman" image
strong, independent, hard working, caring, confident, doing it all, always on call, competent -positive to an extent can be empowering in difficult situations - role model for younger black girls -costly from childcare, child necessities, and education
Postmodern perspective
suggests that knowledge isn't objective; rather, it is constructed and therefore can change as a function of time, place, or culture
Sexual Script Theory
suggests that our sexual behaviors are dictated by a set of "scripts" that are used to organize and interpret sexual encounters into understandable conventions; scripts, particularly gender-normative ones, dictate behaviors, such as who does what and when
Does the U.S. have federal laws requiring employers to provide paid parental leave?
the United States is one of the few countries in the world without a national policy requiring paid parental leave. As of this writing, only a small percentage of states provide even partial wage replacement to workers who take parental leave
observational learning
the acquisition of behaviors by observing role models
gender typing
the acquisition of the traits, behaviors, and roles that are generally associated with one's gender
nontraditoinal or egalitarian gender attitude
the belief that behaviors and roles should not be gender specific
gender constancy
the belief that gender is permanent regardless or changes in age, behavior, or appearance; between ages 4-7
prenatal sex differentiation
the biological processes that influence the making of one;s physical sex
Oedipus complex
the boy's sexual attraction for his mother is accompanied b a belief that his father is a rival for his mother's affections.
Gender dysphoria
the condition of feeling one's emotional and psychological identity as male or female to be opposite to one's biological sex.
vacuum aspiration
the contents of the uterus are removed by suction
Differential treatment
the extent to which parents and others behave differently towards boys and girls
Gender expression
the external manifestation of a person's gender identity
gender identity
the first stage of gender constancy development, in which children can identity and label their own gender and the gender of others, 18 months- 2 years
Mullerian ducts
the foundation for female structures
penis envy
the girl's desire to possess the male genitals and blames the mother for her "castrated" state; realizing she will never possess her father, she identifies with her mother and begins to acquire her mother's feminine traits and behaviors.
Compulsory heterosexuality
the idea that heterosexuality is assumed and enforced by a patriarchal society.
sexual fluidity
the idea that sexual orientation, attraction, romantic attraction, sexual behavior, etc. can change over time - it's fluiddd
intersexuality
the intermingling of female and male sexual characteristics
Internalized transphobia
the internalization of negative messages about transgender people by someone who identifies as transgender
The more girls a family has
the more likely their going to get divorced
Identity Construction
the more that children engage in gender-stereotyped activities, the more identified with their own gender they become (I love playing with dolls. I am such a typical girl)
Stereotype Emulation
the more that children identify with their gender, the more they view themselves as having the qualities specified by stereotypes about their gender (I am a girl, I want to wear dresses)
socialization
the process by which each generation passes along to children the knowledge, beliefs, and skills that constitute the culture of the social group
Socialization
the process by which society conveys to the individuals its expectations for his or her behavior, values, and beliefs.
gender stability
the second stage of gender constancy development, in which children understand that gender is stable over time, 3-4 years
Gender stability
the second state which happens around 3 to 4 years of age refers to the understanding that gender is stable over time
Gender consistency
the third stage is the understanding that gender remains consistent despite superficial changes in appearance (such as wearing dresses instead of pants)
gender consistency
the third stage of gender constancy development, in which children understand that gender remains consistent despite superficial changes in appearance, 5-7 years
Orgasmic platform
the tissues of the outer third of the vagina, labeled by Masters & Johnson.
gender constancy
the understanding that gender is a stable and consistent part of oneself
Gender marked sports
the use of terms such as "basketball" and "women's basketball" to refer to men's and women's sports, respectively; the underlying message is that men's basketball is the norm while women's is the variation
socialization
the ways in which society conveys to the individuals its expectations for their behavior
Hidden curriculum
the ways the school environment indirectly teaches norms, beliefs, and values - ex. dress codes: enforced more for girls than boys. - ex. black student disciplined more often than white students, especially among girls.
Describe generally the components of Eccles expectancy-value model of achievement and discuss specifically what the model assesses
theory of motivation that posits that a person will take on a challenging achievement task if they expect that they can succeed at it and if they value it(find it useful or interesting), utility value(how useful), interest-enjoyment value(enjoyable or interesting)
General Strategies for Therapy with Women of Color
therapists can increase their skills by searching for a client's history for personal strengths, learning more about their ethnic group, being aware of diversity and discrimination within that ethnic group - be aware of individual difference, everyone will have a different motivation for seeking treatment - communicate about racism
What do Eagley and Carli think of the metaphor of the glass ceiling?
they oppose it - connotes a rigid, impenetrable barrier, but today it's more permeable
how do mother's expectations of their's babies ability to crawl up an incline differ by sex?
think boys will climb up higher
Be able to describe the Triphasic Model of sexual response
three phases of sexual response: Sexual desire, vasocongestion, muscle contractions of orgasm Psychological component of desire is important without desire, a female will be less involved in sex
affiliative interruption
to show interest and affirm what the other is saying (ex: saying "uh-huh")
intrusive interruption
to usurp the floor and control the conversation
Discuss research on changes in brain structures in trans women receiving hormone therapy.
trans women that received estrogen and anti-androgens for 4 months, experienced a decrease in brain volume, brains became more typical of the female range sex hormones have something to do with brain size
Treating Rapists: risk-need-responsitivity
treating people who are likely to reoffend and need refers to the strength of the peons's need to commit the crime - applying treatment that is best matched to the characteristics of the offender (cognitive-behavioral works best for most) - measure effectiveness with recidivism: whether the person commits the crime again - recidivism rate: 11% of treated offenders compared to 19% of untreated offenders
Be able to describe the Dual Control Model of sexual response.
two basic processes underlie the sexual response excitation- distracting mal-adaptive and fatal inhibition- required to function function in the middle of both when using more of one problem occur: high in excitation- risky sex desires high inhibition- sexual desires disorders gender differences in these processes males higher on excitation females higher on inhibition
Contrast general mental health of heterosexual and lesbian women and be familiar with APA guidelines for therapists treating an LGB client
until 1973 homosexuality was seen as a mental disorder many similarities between lesbian and heterosexual women, but some differences Similar to self-esteem and current psychological distress Lesbians are more likely to have had suicidal thoughts, to have attempted suicide, and to have used psychotherapy The stigma and subsequent stress of being a sexual minority person can lead to emotional distress, interpersonal problems, negative cognitive style Many sexual minority women display resilience APA Guidelines 1. Having homosexual or bisexual orientation does not automatically mean the person is disturbed. 2. Psychologists should probe their own attitudes and knowledge about sexual orientation. 3. Understand the many ways LGBs are stigmatized. 4. Psychologists should be knowledgeable about relationship issues for sexual minority persons. 5. LGBs who are members of ethnic minority groups may face particular challenges.
Pharmacotherapy
use of medicine may be prescribed inappropriately - careful selection of medication and monitoring of effects is required should be paired with psychotherapy
The metaphor of a gender bundle
useful because it suggests that aspects of sex/gender aren't necessarily ordered or connected in a meaningful way.
Sex
usually defined as two reproductive forms within a species
Be able to describe and recognize parts of the female sexual anatomy and their functions. uterus cervix vagina urethra G-spot (Skene's gland) clitoris corpora cavernosa of clitoris glans of clitoris crura of clitoris
uterus- female organ where conception occurs and egg is gestated cervix- narrow passage way between vagina and uterus vagina- canel leading to uterus, birth canal, mensutral blood passes through it urethra- leads to blatter G-spot (Skene's gland)- a small gland on the front wall of the vagina, emptying into the urethra, female prostate clitoris- used for pleasure corpora cavernosa of clitoris- arteries which fill with blood during clitoral erection glans of clitoris- had highly sensitive nerve endings, most highly sexually sensitive part of female body crura of clitoris- wishbone-shaped longer spongy body that extends from shaft and runs on either side of vagina under the major lips, enlarges during sexual response
Understand common fallacies involving female sexuality: vaginal (vs. clitoral) orgasm sexuality in older women female ejaculation
vaginal (vs. clitoral) orgasm- there is only one type of orgasm sexuality in older women- desire does not decrease female ejaculation- 10-20% of women ejaculate
Effective methods of prevention
verbal and physical resistance
lesbians mother differ from straigh mothers?
very few diffrences
secondary sex characteristics
visible signs of sexual maturity that are not directly involved in reproduction
at what age do children generally recognize the difference between male and female voices? faces?
voices- 5-6 months, faces 3-4 months
prosocial behavior
voluntary behavior intended to benefit someone else
Discuss voluntary childlessness and the psychological well-being of women who do not wish to become mothers.
voluntary childlessness- choosing to not have a child, less warm and less psychologically fulfilled than women with children, but do not feel guilty, regretful, or distressed by choice
conclusion
we don't see reliable differences in internal or self barriers cant explain the gap in gender achievement by internal barriers
Cognitive crowding hypothesis
when spatial and verbal processes are strongly lateralized in different hemispheres, spatial processing enhanced.
Body worries, again
when will it be acceptable for women to act and look their actual age?
Ethnicity
white and black women survivors found they were similar in ways, self-esteem and coping * Jezebel stereotype: black women are loose and therefore cannot be raped
Women of Color and Body Dissatisfaction
white women are somewhat more likely to be dissatisfied with their bodies than black women, and black, latina, and asian american women are similar in body dissatisfaction
studies show men are more physically and verbally aggressive than women.
why? likely due to a small number of men who are highly aggressive.
Feminist Perspective of Rape
wife-beating is both cause and effect of the inequality of power between men and women
Do men or women have more chronic illnesses when they're older?
women
Which sex is more prone to chronic illness?
women
Occupational Clustering
women and men tend to choose different majors in college and to work in different occupations after college (due to gender socialization)
Intimate Partner Violence
women are more likely to be attacked, raped, injured, or killed by current or former male partners than by any other type of assailant - each year, 588,000 women in US are beaten by their intimate partner - 85% of victims of domestic violence are women - each year, approx 1,600 murders are committed by an intimate and in three out of four of these cases the victim is a women - 33% of murders of women are committed by an intimate - internationally, violence against women by intimates is found in all reporting nations (15-71% of women report being hit or otherwise physically harmed by an intimate)
Retirement
women are more likely to retire than men because of a spouse's retirement - mostly because women are married to men older than them - income is a concern - women receive smaller social security checks than retired men do because of preretirement earnings
Family demands
women are still the ones who interrupt their careers to handle work/family trade-offs. Overloaded, they lack time to engage in the social networking essential to advancement
What messages about gender are taught to kids through most video games
women are treated like objects or targeted aggression.
Describe common stereotypes about women and work
women are working only for a little extra money a woman who is really ambitious and qualified can get ahead... anyway leaders are men
Some differences in emotional expression include
women cry more than men. There are smaller differences in young children, leading us to believe that how caregivers respond to girls/boys crying lead us to have learned responses to crying
Grandmothering
women differ widely in grandmothering styles, but many grandmothers believe they should convey moral values and social responsibility to their grandchildren
Maternal wall
women get less desirable assignments, lower salaries, and more limited advancement opportunities once they become mothers
sticky floor
women have little or no job ladder, or path, to higher positions
Describe progress made toward educational equality in the areas of dentistry, medicine, and law. Why isn't this directly related to equal numbers of males and females in the work force?
women have made progress in earning professional degrees make contributions in law
Sharing of Childcare
women perform the majority of childcare; between 60 and 90% - although fathers and children do benefit when fathers play an active role in their lives
IQ test stats: women score better on what? men's IQ scores have greater what?
women score better on memory tasks and processing speed. men have greater variability in IQ tests.
Describe the sex difference in chronic illness.
women tend to outperform men on most abilities, men outperformed women in visual memory and visuospatial abilities, men show steeper decline in those abilities over time , women are less vulnerable to age-related changes in brain functioning and cognition
empty nest period
women who are reluctant to let go of their parenting role may perceive this period as stressful and as a time of loss -mothers who are employed during childbearing years establish a identity in addition to motherhood roll and this can ease the difficulty of relinquishing parenting responsibilities
Unacknowledged Victims
women who fail to realize they have been raped * more likely to have violent, stranger rape
What are the average ages of the first marriages for men and women in the US?
women: 27, men: 29
employment
work for pay activities that produce a good or a service and get paid
Motherhood penalty
working mothers that encounter systematic disadvantages in pay, perceived competence, and benefits relative to childless women.
Scarcity hypothesis
xcessive role responsibilities deplete the individual's limited supply of time and energy and, consequently, can lead to stress.
Can someone be fired from their job during pregnancy because they need reasonable pregnancy-related accommodations?
yes
is interacting with media (television, movies, video games) that often show gender stereotypes related to increased gendered behavior and bias?
yes
Discuss discrimination in work product (e.g., Goldberg, 1968 and Swim et al., 1989)
♀Women's work judged inferior (Goldberg, 1968), college students assigned to 2 groups and asked to evaluate essay, one evaluated an essay by John T and one by Joan T, John T rated higher, but essays were the same, gender of the writer mattered
Widowhood
women are far more likely to be widowed than men are - death of spouse is harder on men than it is on women (women cope better)
Do Mothers or fathers tend to view their children in more gender-stereotypical ways?
At first the woman does but then gets to know the child more compared to the father where as he still stereotypes
Gender Learning in Infants
- habituation paradigm for infants *interested in new/novel thing, get bored over time (pitches) - 6 mos: can distinguish between male vs. female voices - 9 mos: can tell male vs. female faces (learning gender binary)
Experiencing the excitement phase of the sexual response cycle but not achieving orgasm
Female orgasmic disorder
What is the most common rationale for harassment?
"i thought it was funny"
Yes
Do lesbian women have a higher body image than heterosexual women?
Soft hairless flaps of skin
Labia minora (inner lips)
Glass cliff
Women leaders more likely to be given units with high risk of failure
pregnancy coercion
forcing a partner into having children
chapter 12
starts here
Menarche
the first menstrual period
Sticky floor
women have little or no job ladder, or path, to higher positions
