Reading (for Test 4)
Define dyslexia
-specific learning disability -neurobiological in origin - characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities - result from an unexpected deficit in phonological component of language in relation to other cognitive abilities - secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension & reduced reading experience that can impede growth in vocabulary and background knowledge
Extrinsic Causes of Reading Disabilities
experiential or instructional deficits; may be the initial cause of reading problems or may occur secondary to intrinsic factors (Refer to environmental factors)
If there is discrepancy of fluency (@16%) and comprehension (@75%), this students is _____
gifted dyslexia
3 things to look for during assessment of word recognition?
1) Word reading accuracy (Both in and out of context) - good readers don't rely on context 2) Phonemic decoding 3) Reading fluency (Measures become more important after second to third grade)
Specific Comprehension Deficit: 1) AKA 2) Tend to perform poorly on tests of ____ 3) In its extreme case, is associated with __ 4) Can co-occur with ___
1) aka Hyperlexia 2) semantic and syntactic processing 3) one or more developmental disabilities such as ID, autism and schizophrenia 4) other "splinter skills" such as exceptional music talent or memory for names and dates
The intervention program most appropriate for each client will depend on the client's ___(8)
1) type of deficit; strengths/weaknesses 2) education level 3) presence of auditory discrimination deficits 4) Degree of sound segmenting and blending skill 5) presence of co-occurring speech deficits 6) client's current level of function regarding reading/decoding 7) expertise of instructors 8) amount of time available for instruction
3 Text Factors that affect successful reading comprehension
1) writing is clear and readable 2) text structure/genre 3) display characteristics, such as font size and type, layout and use of graphics
Students with Reading Disabilities need to acquire ____ before being able to read.
Phonological awareness (hear the different sounds of words)
What do you have to do to be able to identify words automatically?
When words are well practiced (orthographic representations well established) they can be identified automatically.
What program would be a good early first program to start with for reading intervention?
LiPS: A multisensory scheme including mouth pictures, sounds and letters, mouth movements, & labels for sounds
Define Comprehension
(Difficult to define due to different levels of understanding (e.g., basic/literal, elaborated/analytical)) BUT RAND defined comprehension as "the process of simultaneously constructing and extracting meaning through interaction and engagement with print.
How do Attention-based Deficits (as an intrinsic factor) affect poor readers?
- ADHD is not a primary cause RD but may co-occur. In a sample of children with ADHD, 36% had reading problems. - Overlap between reading disabilities and ADHD is stronger for ADHD symptoms of inattention that for those with hyperactivity/impulsivity - Appear to be distinct developmental disorders, each with its own set of causal factors
Spoken Language Profiles of Individuals with Mixed RD (LLD) (5)
- Depressed oral language skills in one or more domains - Deficits in phonological processing are often mild/ or do not occur -History of early language impairment - Deficits in production of oral language narratives - Deficits in use of morphological and syntactic forms Can't TELL a narrative or WRITE one
4 low-tech options for assistive technology
1) Use highlighter to mark important information 2) Use a colored card/ruler to follow line of text 3) Use spell check/grammar check 4) Learn key boarding skills
What is effective spelling instruction?
- Instruction on word structure, word origin, and word meaning - Teach regular spelling patterns first, then irregular - After first grade, instruction should follow and complement decoding instruction - Teach patterns such as syllable types because they represent vowel sounds in predictable ways - Teach basic rules for adding endings to words, such as when letters are doubled, when "y" changes to "I" and when silent "e" is dropped
How do Auditory Processing Deficits (intrinsic factor) affect poor readers? What's an alternative hypothesis to auditory processing deficits?
- It has been proposed that deficits in auditory perception, especially problems perceiving rapidly occurring or changing sounds, leads to poor phonological representations and, in turn, difficulties in phonological awareness and reading (No strong evidence for the presence and nature of auditory processing deficits in poor readers) - Alternative hypothesis states that a lack sensitivity to syllable-level prosodic information in speech could negatively affect the development of phonological awareness in children and lead to reading difficulties
How do Extrinsic Factors affect Early Literacy Experience?
- Lack of early literacy experience (joint book reading) is not a cause of RD, but does play a role - School instruction in reading may compensate for a lack of home literacy experience
Deficits in older students with dyslexia
- Major deficit is in phonological processing (oral or written) - Despite relatively high levels of reading comp. they continue to show slow word recognition - Average reading & spelling scores - Their difficulties with phonological decoding makes learning a foreign language very difficult - Even when they know basic decoding skills, higher level orthographic patterns are very difficult for them to remember (Many adolescents & adults with dyslexia can succeed in college with accommodations)
Why is phonemic awareness important to the growth of word-reading ability?
- helps with alphabetic principle and develops alphabetic knowledge - helps with regular ways that letters represent sounds in words - helps become flexible decoders to decode irregular words - helps generate possibilities for words in context that are only partially "sounded out"
How does neurobiology act as an intrinsic cause of RD?
- less left hemisphere dominance for language than normal readers - nondisabled individuals' planum temporale is usually larger in the LH than in the RH (dyslexics have symmetrical plana due to larger than expected R planum (MRI studies)) - fMRI studies find significant underactivation in dyslexics in the dorsal and ventral systems of the LH and overactivation of the frontal system and RH relative to controls
Describe the type of intervention that should be used with individuals with dyslexia
- multisensory - phonologically-based - teaches relationship between letters and sounds - explicit - intensive - cognitively and emotionally supportive With appropriate instruction, those with dyslexia can attain a level of reading accuracy sufficient for success in college
How do Extrinsic Factors affect Reading Instruction? How do schools rule out lack of appropriate reading instruction as a cause of RD?
-Because reading is a skill that must be taught, differences in the quality and/or quantity of instruction clearly affect reading development -By definition, children with RD do not have instructional deficits -RTI framework is an attempt to rule out lack of appropriate reading instruction as a cause of RD
Spoken Language Profiles of Individuals with DD (6)
-Deficits in phonological and orthographic coding -Depressed reading fluency (quickly & accurately) -Depressed ability to remember precise oral pronunciations of words learned -Relatively frequent history of articulation therapy -Low average to above average production and comprehension skills -Listening comprehension exceeds reading comprehension
How do genetics act as an intrinsic cause of RD?
-Familial risk for RD is continuous as opposed to discrete (Not only do many high risk family members have RD, but also many of those who do not, nevertheless will show some deficits in reading) -A brother or a sister of a child with RD has an approximately 40% chance of having a RD -A parent of a child with RD has a 30% to 40% likelihood of having a history of a RD -In 68% of identical twins, when one twin had a RD, the other one did too (Because this number is far from 100%, factors other than genetics also contribute to reading development)
Writing Characteristics in Persons with Developmental Dyslexia (6)
-Poor spelling -Omission of punctuation (Capitalization & Punctuation) -Omission of inflections (morphsyntactic - might spell "knowledge" wrong multiple times & not realize, "noledge," "knowlege," "nalig") -Omission of function words -Often poor handwriting -Sometimes letter reversals
3 high tech options for assistive technology
1) Intel Reader 2) Livescribe Pulse Smartpen 3) AudioNote
3 categories of measure for Assessments of Phonemic Awareness
1) Phoneme segmentation (counting sounds, pronouncing, deleting ("say cat without /k/"), adding or reversing the individual phonemes in words) 2) Phoneme synthesis (sound blending) 3) Sound comparison ("Which sound doesn't belong - cat, cook, can, book" tasks that include indicating which of several words begin or end with the same sound as the target word and generating words that have the same first, last or middle sound as a target word)
3 factors that determine successful comprehension
1) Reader abilities 2) Text factors 3) Comprehension task that measures the products of comprehension
3 major strategies to foster Fluency and Speed in reading
1) Repeated reading of text (time readings, work on errors, repeat readings) 2) Flash cards of sight words (daily practice reading & spelling, discard mastered words & add new words) 3) Reading on a daily basis (phonetically controlled book, basal readers @ appropriate levels for high rates of accuracy)
3 Visually-Based Deficits (intrinsic factors) said to affect RD
1) Reversal errors (not the result of perceptual problems, but in remembering letter order) 2) Erratic eye movements (reflection of cognitive processing difficulties during reading, not occulomotor control) 3) Scotopic sensitivity syndrome (oversensitivity to certain frequencies of light; no research supporting the existence of SSS; AAP and AAO discourage the use of colored lenses, as well as eye exercises or other forms of behavioral vision therapy for the treatment of reading difficulties)
2 Subgroups of Developmental Dyslexia
1) Single deficit: Moderately impaired (phonological OR rapid naming deficits) 2) Double deficit: More severely impaired (Both phonological AND rapid naming deficits...Classic dyslexic)
8 examples of classroom accommodations for students with dyslexia
1) Tape-record lectures and lessons rather than take notes 2) Use a speech-to-text software program for all written assignments (good so students don't feel the need to "dumb down" writing) 3) Use a text reader for classroom text or get books on tape 4) Allow extended time (or untimed tests) for in-class assignments, exams, tests 5) Do not penalize student for spelling errors, especially when none of the above accommodations have been provided 6) Allow a few hours per week with instructor to discuss study material 7) If listening comprehension is a strength, make provisions for oral testing in areas that require reading and writing 8) Allow student to dictate assignments whenever possible, thereby avoiding paper/pencil tasks
What is Phonemic Awareness?
Explicit understanding that words are composed of segments of sound smaller than a syllable and knowledge (or awareness) of distinctive features of individual phonemes themselves
Reading and Writing Profiles of Individuals with Mixed RD (LLD): 3 that's good and 2 that's bad
GOOD - word recognition, reading fluency and spelling BAD - reading comprehension & writing composition Can't READ or ANSWER COMPR ?
Child with Mixed Reading Disability has problems in (2)
Garden variety poor readers: -word recognition (& phonological processing which underlies difficulties in word recognition) -listening comprehension (sometimes associated with more global cognitive deficits (verbal and nonverbal processing))
What role should Invented Spelling play in teaching children to spell?
It is a good initial skill and should be used with kindergarten and first graders to show how letters are used to spell. After first grade, not recommended; children must learn spelling conventions and patterns of standard English writing
What is a relevant consequence of assigning students with a Reading Disability?
Language Problems; Because reading is a key source for new vocabulary and advanced grammatical and discourse knowledge, children who do not read much will often begin to fall behind
How do Language-Based Deficits (as an intrinsic factor) affect poor readers?
Language deficits are both a cause and consequence of RD; language problems are major component of almost all cases of RD
Profile of Specific Comprehension Deficit (subgroup of poor readers): 1 problem and 3 good
Many poor readers, especially those in the later grades, fall into this category. GOOD - word recognition, reading/phonological decoding, spelling BAD - listening comprehension & reading comprehension
What is Orthographic Processing? The orthography of a language refers to the way it is represented ____
Orthographic processing refers to the way words are recognized "by sight." Visually. -Words that are processed as orthographic units are recognized on the basis of a visual representation that has been integrated with the word's phonemic structure and its meaning.
After LiPS, what is a good multisensory set of principles used to teach reading that integrates explicit instruction with auditory, visual, & kinesthetic strategies? List 5 concepts covering in this reading intervention approach.
Orton-Gillingham Approach; 1) Sound-letter associations with real and nonsense words for reading and spelling 2) Syllable types (Open syllable, Closed syllable, Silent-e syllable, R-controlled syllable, -cle syllable, Vowel digraph syllable) 3) Spelling rules 4) Reading comprehension 5) Reading fluency
Phonemic awareness is an important prerequisite to learning to ____, more so than _____.
Read (and spell); phonological awareness.
2 MOST important factors for successful reading comprehension based on Reader's Ability. 3 other important abilities
Reader's ability to: 1) accurately and fluently decode words 2) understand spoken language 1) Background knowledge (how much you know about what you're reading) 2)Level of engagement (how motivated are you to read about it) 3) Inferencing abilities
Decoding refers to ____; Encoding refers to _____
Reading (seeing grapheme & identifying sound); Spelling
How do Extrinsic Factors affect Matthew Effects ("rich get richer; poor get poorer")?
Reading development may be negatively influenced & further reading problems may be added when: - Child is labeled with RD - Child is placed in low ability reading or remedial reading groups or in special education classes - Low expectations placed on child by teachers and parents - Surrounded by low-ability peers offer little support - Teachers provide them with little challenge
Reading problems directly result in poor ___. What else can come from reading?
Spelling; Vocabulary
How do children recognize words as they become more experienced in reading?
They begin to process letters in larger chunks called spelling patterns (common spelling patterns found at the ends of single syllable words include -ack, -ight, -unk, -eat, -ay; common affixes for longer words include -able, -ing, -ous, -ize) - Words that contain common spelling patterns are easier to decode if children are familiar with the patterns
What type of intervention/instruction for spelling do poor readers need?
They need instruction in sounds and letters to be systematic, explicit and structured
Why is the assessment of word recognition more complex than assessment of phonemic awareness? Give examples of Word Recognition Assessment questions.
because readers can identify words in a number of different ways as they process text: -identify & blend together the individual phonemes in words -notice and blend together familiar spelling patterns, which is a more advanced form of decoding -recognize words as whole units, or reading them "by sight" -make analogies to other words that are already known -use clues from the context to guess a word's identity -use morphological awareness to identify words
Intrinsic Causes of Reading Disabilities
biological factors (Refer to internal or child-based processes)
Why is phonemic decoding (for word recognition) important to reading success during the beginning stages of reading?
it provides a relatively reliable way to identify words that have not been seen before
4 subgroups of poor readers identified on the basis of ____ and _____
on the basis of strengths and weaknesses in word recognition and listening comprehension 1) DYSLEXIA - problems in word recognition alone 2) SPECIFIC COMPREHENSION DEFICIT - problems in listening comprehension alone 3) MIXED READING ABILITY - problems in both areas 4) NONSPECIFIED - Problems in neither area (includes children who have reading comprehension problems for reasons not predicted by the Simple View)
