REL101 Units 1-3
Avatara
"Descent" or incarnation, usually referring to one of the ten avatars of Vishnu who come to restore dharma.
Notions of Hindutva + "saffronization" =
"Politicization"
Varnashrama dharma
"duty (dharma) in accord with caste (varna) and stage of life (ashrama)" Varnashrama Dharma is a Sanskrit name given to the divisional structure of the Indian society. When this order of society is intertwined with the four orders of life or the ashramas
Fasting Buddha
(Emaciated Buddha), Kushan Dynasty, Gandhara (Pakistan), 2nd-3rd century CE, schist. Lahore Museum, Punjab, Pakistan "The Middle Path", i.e. not going to either extreme. It is written that in his quest for Enlightenment, Prince Sidharta (before he became Gautama Buddha) starved himself to the point of eating just a few sesame seeds a day, and thus he became so skinny he could touch his backbone through the belly! When he was near death, a 13 year old young girl ("Sujata") offered him a milk type porridge, which he accepted. Six years of self-imposed harsh and extreme asceticism came to an end, and the Buddha declared that going to the ascetic extreme (as is the cases with many religious Gurus at the time) is not the way. This was such a shock to his original 5 disciples that they abandoned him! Knowing not to go to the extremes is very hard. One person's extreme is another person's middle path! And to discern one's extreme requires wisdom arisen from deep meditative insights. And doesn't it conflict with the "Right Diligence" Eightfold Noble path exhortation to try your best - The (not yet "awakened") Bodhisadva realizes that he cannot reach enlightenment by either extremes. - One must practice the 'middle way.' - Sujata on hearing about this special ascetic man, offers him (rice) milk (porridge). He drinks and stops this . . . asceticism.
Karma
(Hinduism and Buddhism) the effects of a person's actions that determine his destiny in his next incarnation
Samsara
(Hinduism and Buddhism) the endless cycle of birth and suffering and death and rebirth
What was left out of almost all of these texts that presented the "religion" of "Hinduism" includes:
(a) dharmic practices like the giving of gifts, making donations, and merit-making exercises like digging wells or celebrations in planting trees (b) vernacular literature and, therefore, the voices of women, who did not compose in Sanskrit but, rather, in the regional languages (c) rituals and practices of the so-called lower castes, especially of women (d) practices that came under the categories of "pollution" and "purity," "auspiciousness" and "inauspiciousness."
Mandala
(in Buddhism, esp. Tibet) - Sanskrit: mandala = circle - Sacred geometry - Cosmic diagram/microcosm of the universe - A visualization of the teachings, a support for meditation - Time, resources, skills (tapestries, sand painting, etc.) - Designs are codified to a great extent - Every element (shapes, colours, etc.) has meaning - Dissolution of the mandala: half of the sand given to the audience, other half in an urn then poured into flowing water Visual / Visible / Material religion - Religious expressions through various media
Herodotus and others: An intellectual curiosity
(not a scientific and academic inquiry) Herodotus (the 'father' of history) - The Histories - What are the nomoi of others? "... Everyone without exception believes his own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best..." (Hdt 3,38) "Custom is king" < Pindarus
Herodotus ~480-425 BCE
(of Halicarnassus) Asia minor - Ancient Greece
Sanskrit
*vernacular languages (regional dialects) *Written traditions and textual materials - Oral traditions *Great classical traditions - Folklore *Pan-Indian or Pan-Hindu traditions or notions - Regional variations *Prescriptions/laws - Practices (for real!) *Indology (classical Indology as academic field) - Anthropology
A word of caution - CONTEXT
- "Primitive", "savage", "un/evolved," "un/civilised," "less evolved" are NOT descriptors that we would use today in religious studies or in anthropology! - Most of these 19th C. theories are considered as outdated. - However, most definitions and the names of various theories and schools are still in use - Some of the questions remain relevant: other new questions and methodologies have emerged (cf. REL100 course)
Dayānanda Sarasvatī (1824/5-1883)
- Brahman from Gujarat; wandering samnyansin (renunciant) in North India - founded the rya Samāj in 1875 - success in Punjab (but debates with Sikhism) - authority = Veda - did not know English - influenced by modern ideas - criticized Christianity, the Bible, etc. - denounces images-worship and elaborate rituals - promotes worship of God through homa (Vedic offering of ghee and plant products into a fire) - restoring the practices of "ancient Aryans" - four varnas only (not hundreds of castes) - membership in caste ≠ hereditary but should be decided by public examination - -> caste based on merit, not on birth - conservative on inter-caste marriage and commensality
Universities at the time (Euro-American world / late 19th-early 20th century):
- Emergence of specialization (academic "disciplines" and "fields" emerge) - New chairs created, new courses of study - Religious studies separate from theology (though not everywhere) - Influence of the natural sciences and a positivist model of "science" - Privileged, educated elite attended: men - Issue of SOURCES ("armchair anthropologist")
General agreement in the "reform" Hindi movements on the following:
- Hindu society must have roots in the past and it must have a religious basis - Emphasis on past refutes both - those who argue that reform (and progress) could only come from the West - those who thought reform was precluded by an unchanging dharma - reference to "ancient" prac^ces and textual authority - Indian culture inherently spiritual vs. materialis^c West
James George Frazer (1854-1941)
- Trained as a classicist (Greek, Latin) - Oxford - Myths and rituals of ancient Greece and Rome and of many peoples - Theory of a general development of modes of thought - "Armchair anthropologist" - "Magic - religion - science" -> world is becoming "secular" Major work: - The Golden Bough: A Study in Comparative Religion (1890) - Enlarged and republished with the subtitle A Study in Magic and Religion (12 volumes, 1911-15). - Aftermath, a Supplement appeared in 1936
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891 -1956 / Dr. Ambedkar)
- born into poor low Mahar family (untouchables) - Dalit, scheduled castes - considered conver^ng to Sikhism first - converted just before his death to Buddhism - massive conversions of Dalits to Buddhism
Religious studies as an academic discipline: Perspectives and methodologies
- comparative - interdisciplinary - reflexive - attentive to internal diversity
19th C. - early 20th C. in the Indian subcontinent (under British Raj)
- reaction to criticism by British (and other) missionaries and colonial administrators - internal critique and response - addressed both to Hindus (elites and masses) and to others - reform: new practices, new attitudes - not just opposition or reform but a negotiation of a way of being Hindu in the modern situation - rebelling against Hinduism = adopting Western ways of thinking and living (?) - focus of these movements: worship and spiritual experience, social reform, or both? - strong impact on today's Hinduism (in India and in the diaspora), modern Hinduism ("neo-Hinduism") emerged from these - Hinduism as sanatana dharma
Which of the following authors is known as the "founding father" of religious studies as an academic discipline? Hint this author emphasized comparison as a key method in religious studies. -Christopher Partridge -Friedrich Max Muller -Sigmund Freud -Claude Levi-Strauss -Herodotus
-Friedrich Max Muller
Religious studies or the academic study of religion's is known as interdisciplinary. What does the term interdisciplinary mean in this context? Select the one correct answer. -It attracts many disciples who are themselves followers of many different religious traditions. -This refers to the use of specific methodology to study religions known as methodology agnosticism that only this discipline (religious studies) is using. It is never used in the other social sciences. -This refers to the idea that the early scholars who studied religions academically were very disciplined men especially in their intellectual efforts. -None of these answers is correct
-None of these answers is correct
Which one of the following terms refers to a ritual of devotional worship regularly conducted in temples or, privately, at household shrines? -Puja -Bhajan -Navaratri -Sampradaya -Yajna -Tirtha
-Puja
Which one of the following was NOT a key figure in the movements of reform of Hindu society, culture, and religion in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? -Ramanuja -Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi -Ram Mohan Roy -Dayananda Sarasvati
-Ramanuja
Among the following which ones best describe religious studies as an academic discipline? Select all that apply: -reflexive -interdisciplinary -comparative -devotional -doctrinal
-reflexive -interdisciplinary -comparative
What is the perspective and background of Wiriya Sati, the film director, as shown in the documentary (online materials for Unit 3 on Buddhism) entitled Buddha's Forgotten Nuns? 1 She was raised a Buddhist and faced issues when she started exploring opportunities to become a nun, due to sexism within the traditional Theravada order. 2 She was raised a Christian and started engaging in interfaith dialogue with Buddhists when she married a Buddhist man. Together, they film an encounter between Catholic and Buddhist nuns taking place in Thailand. 3 She had converted to Buddhism in her late twenties, became a nun, but then renounced her status when she fell in love with a monk: she left the Theravada order, completed a degree in media studies, and produced this documentary. 4 She was raised a Buddhist and moved to China as a volunteer to help in a Buddhist orphanage for girls. As she was shocked to see that girls who could not be adopted were forced into becoming nuns, she decided to document this situation and made this documentary.
1 She was raised a Buddhist and faced issues when she started exploring opportunities to become a nun, due to sexism within the traditional Theravada order.
Four Noble Truths
1) All life is full of suffering, pain, and sorrow. 2) The cause of suffering is nonvirtue, or negative deeds and mindsets such as hated and desire. 3) The only cure for suffering is to overcome nonvirture. 4) The way to overcome nonvirtue is to follow the Eightfold Path
What happened to the monastery in Western Australia (Bodhinyana Monastery at the Buddhist Society of Western Australia) that decided to proceed to the (full) ordination of bikkhunis in the Forest Tradition for the first time in October 2009? This is shown in the documentary (online materials for Unit 3 on Buddhism) entitledThe Buddha's Forgotten Nuns. 1 Thai authorities intervened and sent a delegation to Australia to demand that the monastery be shut down. The issue took on a political turn in addition to the religious debates. 2 The monastery was "de-listed" and the ordinations were regarded as invalid: the bikkhunis there are not officially recognised by the Thai Forest Tradition. The activities of this community nevertheless continued. 3 The debates between the monks who supported the bikkhunis ordination and those who opposed it became so vehement that the Dalai Lama himself was called in for a mediation. 4 The monastery gradually lost the support of the laypeople who opposed women's ordination: due to financial difficulties, the monks had to sell their estates and disperse, joining other communities. 5 Other Theravada monks attacked this monastery and destroyed the property there. Lay people subsequently donated more money to rebuild it.
2 The monastery was "de-listed" and the ordinations were regarded as invalid: the bikkhunis there are not officially recognised by the Thai Forest Tradition. The activities of this community nevertheless continued.
In Thailand, there are women Buddhist "nuns" known as "maechis" (mae chees). What does the documentary (online materials for Unit 3 on Buddhism) entitledThe Buddha's Forgotten Nuns emphasise about their physical appearance? 1 Physically, the maechis living in nunneries cannot be distinguished from lay women: they wear regular clothes (though always dressing modestly) and do not shave their hair. 2 They wear white robes and may not wear the orange ones as this is regarded as "impersonating" the monks. They also shave their heads. 3 They wear pink robes to be easily distinguished from the (male) monks who, in Thailand, where dark orange and brown robes.
2 They wear white robes and may not wear the orange ones as this is regarded as "impersonating" the monks. They also shave their heads.
Select the ONE (1 only) correct statement about the documentary (online materials for Unit 3 on Buddhism) entitled Buddha's Forgotten Nuns. 1 The documentary makes a strong case against the ordination of women as bikkhunis as this would go directly against the teachings of the Buddha and other early Buddhist scriptures. 2 The documentary shows the strong revival of feminine monastic tradition in Thailand, widely supported by the laity, by monks themselves, and by the Thai authorities. 3 The documentary features a woman who just converted to Buddhism. She believes that she is to be chosen as the next Dalai Lama. The monks in the "Thai Forest Tradition" do all they can to support the advancement of such feminine leadership in the Buddhist community worldwide. 4 The documentary shows that the ordination of women as bikkhunis is still a matter of debate within the Theravada tradition, and especially within that tradition referred to as the "Thai Forest Tradition." 5 The documentary shows how bikkhunis in China have revived a tradition of setting up orphanages for children whose families cannot care for them. Children and people in general address these bikkhunis as "aunty" in reference to the aunt of the Buddha.
4 The documentary shows that the ordination of women as bikkhunis is still a matter of debate within the Theravada tradition, and especially within that tradition referred to as the "Thai Forest Tradition."
According to the documentary (online materials for Unit 3 on Buddhism) entitled The Buddha's Forgotten Nuns, what did women in Thailand who wanted to be fully ordinated as bikkhunis do? Select the ONE correct statement. 1 All of them gave up on this idea of a full ordination because of the direct pressure from the monks and the people. 2 As a way to protest against the "Thai Forest Tradition," they left Buddhism and converted to Catholicism, where they were ordained as nuns. 3 As a group, they went to a specific monastery in Japan to be ordinated as nuns in the Zen tradition. They then returned to Thailand and started their own nunneries in the Zen tradition, giving up on the "Thai Forest Tradition." 4 They went to other Buddhist countries where the full ordination of nuns was taking place and then they returned to Thailand to have their own nunneries. Many monks still do not recognise their ordination as valid. 5 They persisted and, after a few years of activism, they finally obtained the possibility to be fully ordained as bikkhunis by the Thai sangha in the "Forest Tradition."
4 They went to other Buddhist countries where the full ordination of nuns was taking place and then they returned to Thailand to have their own nunneries. Many monks still do not recognise their ordination as valid.
Mīrābāī (~1498-1536?)
A multiple tradition of devotional (bhakti) poetry (16th-18th c. CE) Padāvalī Braj, Rajasthani, Gujarati Feminine voice Princess -> wandering ascetic bhakta Persecuted by a king
Sampradaya
A tradition handed down from a founder through successive religious teachers which shapes the followers into a distinct fellowship with institutional forms; a religious fellowship; a sectarian group
Dr B. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956)
Advocate of massive conversions of Dalits to Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths ("Living the Holy Life")
After his enlightenment - a discourse (sermon, teaching) o Suffering (duḥkha/dukkha): all that is unenlightened is marked by this dukha / 'dis-ease' o Origin (samudaya): the origin of dukkha lies in craving (tṛṣṇā / taṇhā). The unenlightened crave sensual pleasures, things that they do not have and the removal of things that they do not want. The root of this lies in ignorance. o Cessation (nirodha): the cessaNon of dukkha, will come through the cessation of ignorant thought and action. If the craving is destroyed, then dukkha cannot arise. In other words, the only cure for dukkha is nirvāṇa/ nibbāna. o Way (mārga/ magga): the path to enlightenment is outlined in in the eightfold path. The Dhamma (Pali; Sanskrit, Dharma ) - literally, 'that which constitutes', or 'the way things are' - is what the Buddha 'awoke to' at his enlightenment, and what he taught for forty years after.
DESCRIPTIVE OR NORMATIVE?
Although the academic study of religion—sometimes called Comparative Religion, Religious Studies, the History of Religions, or even the Science of Religion—is concerned with judging such things as historical accuracy and descriptive accuracy, it is not concerned to make normative judgements concerning the way people ought to live or behave. two enterprises have very different data: the academic study of religion studies people, their beliefs, and their social systems: the theological study of religion studies God/the gods and their impact on people.
Ashrama
An Ashrama in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed in Indian texts of the ancient and medieval eras. The four ashramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and Sannyasa (renunciate). The Ashrama system is one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism Ashrama (≠ ashram)
Buddhism: Context of emergence
Ancient India then expansion - Asce/c movements - Some people disagreed with brahmanic thought! - Samnyasi "renunciant" or "wandering ascetic" as the last stage of a dvija's life (men) • Buddhism emerged from a cultural and religious context in which (prevailing views of Brahmins over society, religion, ritual, worldviews, etc.) was the dominant perspective. system of teachings, philosophies, instructions for rituals
Bhatki Tradition
Bhakti movement in Hinduism refers to ideas and engagement that emerged in the medieval era on love and devotion to religious concepts built around one or more gods and goddesses. Bhakti movement preached against the caste system using the local languages so that the message reached the masses.
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)
Brings "Hinduism" to the West, first World Parliament of Religions in Chicago, 1893
The "Three Jewels" of Buddhism
Buddha - the teacher Dharma/dhamma - the teachings Sangha - the community
Varna
CASTE = colour varṇa jātī kul = all different names for caste
Other motivations of religious studies:
Colonization, conquest, mission, conversion, normative statements on values and customs, but also using "the other" as a mirror to criticize one's own culture (e.g. Montesquieu), etc...
Dharma for women
DHARMA SUTRAS Of the Dharma Sutras (literally, aphorisms relating to duties) The most important is the compendium of law known as Manava Dharma Shastra (The laws of Manu), which stipulate the duties, laws, and regulations binding on all categories of Hindus, whatever their caste (varna), stage of life (ashrama), or gender. Because ideas of salvation in Hinduism involve adherence to these laws, regulations, and duties, it is vital for Hindus to know and understand them. In other words, devout Hindus seeking release from samsara - the cycle of lives, deaths, and reincarnations - need to obey the Dharma Sutras .
Until recently only some elements of Sanskrit were considered as being relevant were studied
Double set of bias: 1. Those of (formerly mostly 'Western') scholars 2. Those stemming from the "representatives" of these traditions themselves (Brahmans, literate elite, men)
Dvija
Dvija means "twice-born" in ancient Indian Sanskrit. The concept is premised on the belief that a person is first born physically and at a later date is born for a second time spiritually, usually when he undergoes the rite of passage that initiates him into a school for Vedic studies. members of the three upper varnas, or social classes—the Brahmans (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors), and Vaishyas (merchants)—whose sacrament of initiation is regarded as a second or spiritual birth
New academic discipline: science of religion/s
Emerged Late 19th C. : Religionswissenschaft (German)
Studying religions as fossils
Every culture and religion is not a fixed or static entity. The study of culture and religion requires us to understand that all cultures are hybrid and all religions are syncretic. Such hybridity is at the centre of the study of religion and culture.
Is the following statement about the documentary (online materials for Unit 3 on Buddhism) entitledThe Buddha's Forgotten Nuns, correct (true) or incorrect (false)? "In the movie The Buddha's Forgotten Nuns, a long section is dedicated to explaining how, according to tradition, the (historical) Buddha's aunt, Mahapajapati, had to ask the Buddha several times to allow women to become nuns. The Buddha initially refused. He finally was persuaded by a close, male disciple who also asked several times. In the movie, a senior nun, Dhammananda, abbess at the Songdhammakalyani Monastery in Thailand, comments extensively on this narrative."
FALSE
Teachings of the Buddha
Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path
Hindu Period History
Harappan period (~2700 -1500 BCE) Vedic period (1500 - ~500 BCE) Transition from "Vedism" to Hinduism North Indian empires (500 BCE-600 CE) Regional kingdoms (600-1200 CE) Muslim rule (1200 - 1800 CE) British rule (1800 - 1947 CE) Post-Independence period 1947 onwards
Before "religious studies" as an academic discipline
Intellectual inquiries into the religions and cultures of "other" people: • Herodotus (480-425 BCE) - Greece and beyond • Al-Biruni (973-1050) - India (among others) • Matteo Ricci (1543-1610) - China • Joseph François Lafitau (1681-1746) - « Nouvelle France »
Religion culture and diversity: Diversity within a tradition
Looking at any religion, as a 'religion' means looking at the variations within that religion, how in different cultures the forms of the religion will have varied, even though some of the basic characteristics have remained constant
2 Queens of the Ruler (elite) Śuddhodana
Māyādevī and Mahāpajāpat Gotamī - Māyādevī dreamt of . . . - Conceived the Buddha-to-be (Bodhisativa/Bodhisatia) - In Lumbinī, she gave birth standing up - The Bodhisativa took seven steps an declared that this would be his last birth. - Sages predict that he will become a "wheel turning monarch" or a Buddha - Māyādevī dies shortly after his birth... Mahāpajāpat Gotami will be a mother to the Buddha.
The Disrobing of Draupadi: Attributed to Nainsukh (1710-1778). India, Punjab Hills, Basohli, ca. 1765.
Opaque watercolor and gold on paper. Lent by the Howard Hodgkin Collection, London.
Montesquieu (France 1689-1755 time period of "Les Lumières" = The Enlightenment)
Persian Letters (1721, Les Lettres Persanes) published anonymously, criticizing through satire (his own) French and more specifically Parisian culture and the reign of king Louis XIV, as seen through the eyes of two (imagined, fictional) Persian travelers.
Sacred Writings
Perusal of the two epics of Hinduism: the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
The Disrobing of Draupadi
Poem by Mirabai (~1498-~1546) Translation by Alston, Devotional Poems of Mirabai # 59, modified Hari, the oppressed citizenry is in pain make their suffering cease miraculously you protected Draupadi's honor draping her with the gift of unending cloth Hari, the oppressed citizenry is in pain make their suffering cease for the sake of your devotee you took human form instantaneously destroying evil Hirankashyapu Hari, the oppressed citizenry is in pain make their suffering cease you saved the old elephant from drowning by drying the water of the river Hari, the oppressed citizenry is in pain make their suffering cease you are Lord Giridhar and I am your daasi* Meera make our suffering cease in the misery of oppression there is terrible suffering
Puja
Rituals - 2 examples: Hinduism in practice A ritual of devotional worship regularly conducted at temples, usually by Brahman priests, and often observed privately at household shrines. Puja may be addressed to any of the manifold gods and goddesses in the Hindu pantheon, important among whom are the great gods Vishnu and Shiva, and the goddess Shakti, all of whom appear in myriad forms and aspects in Hindu mythology, and across the contemporary Hindu sacred landscape.
The Four Sights
Siddharta Gautama gets out of his palace and sees: Old Man, Sick Man, Dead Man, Holy Man (Spiritual Pilgrim)
Moksha
The Hindu concept of the spirit's 'liberation' from the endless cycle of rebirths.
ANTHROPOLOGY OR THEOLOGY?
The academic study of religion is fundamentally an anthropological enterprise. That is, it is primarily concerned with studying people, their beliefs, behaviors, and institutions, rather than assessing "the truth" or "truths" of their various beliefs or behaviors. An anthropological approach to the study of religion (which is not to say that the study of religion is simply a sub-field of anthropology) is distinguished from a confessional, religious, or theological approach (theos is an ancient Greek term for "deity" or "god") which is generally concerned with determining the nature, will, or wishes of a god or the gods. The term "theology" refers to specifically Christian discourses on God (i.e., theology = systematic Christian thought on the meaning and significance of the Christian witness), though the term now generally applies either to any religion's own articulate self-study or to its study of another religion (e.g., evangelism or religious pluralism are equally theological pursuits).
Krishna Tradition
The eighth incarnation of Vishnu according to Hindu tradition. His name means 'black'. Though of noble birth, he was brought up as a cowherd. Eventually he obtained his inheritance and ruled in justice. He was also a great lover: the Mahabharata describes his romances with the cow-girls which are seen as a type of God's love for the soul (1). He is also the main character in the Bhagavad Gita , where he appears disguised
Varna
The four major social divisions in India's caste system: the Brahmin priest class, the Kshatriya warrior/administrator class, the Vaishya merchant/farmer class, and the Shudra laborer class.
Late 19th C. Emergence of religious studies as an academic discipline
Theorists and contributors in their historical context Marked the early academic study of religions (≠today: legacy) Historically: - Colonialism, colonization - European empires (e.g. British Empire: British Raj in South Asia) - Racism - Idea of "progress" - Evolutionism: perceived superiority of Europeans Natural sciences: - provided an epistemological "model" for how to study religions // geology, biology, botany... - Collect, document, describe, then classify, organize, analyze, compare, interpret...
Cross-cultural comparison - J. G. Frazer. 1927. Gorgon's Head
Using comparison cross-culturally and across different time periods "Now when laying aside as irrelevant to the purpose in hand the question of the truth or falsehood of religious beliefs, and the question of wisdom or folly of religious practices, we examine side by side the religions of different races and ages, we find that, while they differ from each other in many particulars, the resemblances between them are numerous and fundamental, and that they mutually illustrate and explain each other, the distinctly stated faith and circumstantial ritual of one race often clearing up ambiguities in the faith and practice of other races"
Cosmic being Purusha Sacrifice
When the gods divided Purusa how many portions did they make: BRAHMAN = MOUTH RAJANYA = ARMS VAISYA = THIGHS SUDRA = FEET
Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Birunī - 973 - ~1050 CE
Writes about South Asia (among others)
Yuga
Yuga in Hinduism is an epoch or era within a four-age cycle. A complete Yuga starts with the Satya Yuga, via Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga into a Kali Yuga.
essence of religion: there is some non-empirical, core feature without which something is not religious
a historical development - it is around the seventeenth century that we first see evidence that words that once referred to one's behaviour, public standing, and social rank (such as piety and reverence) became sentimentalized as matters of private feeling - today the assumption that religion involves an inner core of belief that is somehow expressed publicly in ritual is so widespread that to question it appears counterintuitive. It is just this assumption that inspires a number of people who, collectively, we could term 'essentialists'. They are 'essentialists' because they maintain that 'religion' names the outward behaviours that are inspired by the inner thing they call 'faith'. Hence, one can imagine someone saying, 'I'm not religious, but I'm spiritual.' Implicit here is the assumption that the institutions associated with religions - hierarchies, regulations, rituals, and so on - are merely secondary and inessential; the important thing is the inner faith, the inner 'essence' of religion. Although the essence of religion - the thing without which someone is thought to be non-religious - is known by various names (faith, belief, the Sacred, the Holy, and so on), essentialists are in general agreement that the essence of religion is real and non-empirical (that is, it cannot itself be seen, heard, touched, and so on); it defies study and must be experienced first-hand.
The Hindu tradition like many other religions is complex and diglossia is rampant. There are clear distinctions between androcentric Sanskrit texts and practice. There is a further removal from the "on the ground" picture when we come to the representation of "Hinduism" as a tradition trying to fit the straightjacket of a nineteenth-century understanding of "religion." Why is this?
because early western Indologists and scholars of religion relied on male brahmins for their understanding of the tradition. None of this was wrong.
REFLEXIVE posture
critical about our own categories of inquiry (as students/scholars in the field) the theory that a two-way feedback loop exists in which investors' perceptions affect that environment, which in turn changes investor perceptions. "In addition to historicizing and contextualizing foundational definitions in the field (what constitutes 'religion' : descriptions like 'primitive religion'), adopting a postcolonial perspective requires a foundational reassessment of the theoretical frameworks of the 'founding fathers', as bound with parochial assumptions of Western cultural superiority. Further the gendered character of such discourses and assumed primacy of "the" rational invite scholars to explore, indeed, reinvent/recreate the field anew."
sahamarana
death together" (with the deceased husband) against sati (suttee) legislation passed in 1829 against it
OTHER example of a new goddess: Late 19th - early 20th century Emergence of nationalism: Context = British colonial rule
dharma , responsible action, and the maintenance of social order and stability, combined with the importance of devotion to the transcendent as a personal god. Sectarian devotional groups emerged, dedicated to the worship of Vishnu (Vaishnavas), Shiva (Shaivas), and the goddess Devi (Shaktas)
daasi
female servant
Kaliyuga
fourth eon, time of degeneracy, for which the purāṇas and tantras were preached
Which one of the following images represents the Hindu goddess Durga?
goddess of war, the warrior form of Parvati, whose mythology centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and Dharma the power of good over evil
The three paths (marga/yoga):
jnana, karma, bhakti
The four goals
kama, artha, dharma, moksha
The Disrobing of Draupadi: 20th C. llustration in a ISKCON book
key feminine figure in Mahabharata and the importance of the re-tellings of these Sanskrit narratives in vernacular languages and other mediums - Sanskrit text (optional read on D2L) - 18th C. (painting) - 20th C. (popular image) - 1971 painting (by a Muslim Indian painter) - Contemporary folk style painting (Madhubani Bihar) - 2010 advertisement - 1988-1990 TV series - Music: devotional songs such as the one we heard at the beginning of Class
Who does Narayanan thinks speaks for Hinduism?
listen to the goddesses—not the demure, circumspect ones but the dynamic ones who possess and who are progressive. Listen also to the exponents of the performing arts, the musicians, the dancers, who think of their art not as being derived from the Vedas but as a method of communicating complex social problems and as a way of self transformation.
āśrama
phase in one's life, a Time to pursue the '4 goals' Phases/stages: • Student = brahmacarya • Householder = gṛhastha • Retreat in the woods = vānaprastha • Renunciation = saṁnyāsa solitary peregrination, no fixed abode
"Asceticism" in religions
severe self-discipline and avoidance of all forms of indulgence, typically for religious reasons
Friedrich Max Müller (1823-1900)
the "founding father" of religious studies - Scholar in Sanskrit philology - + Religions of South Asia - // linguistics - Chips of a German Workshop - Oxford: 1867 - "He who knows one, knows none" - COMPARATIVE approach
COMPARISON AND THEORY
the academic study of religion is a product of nineteenth-century Europe. Although influenced a great deal by European expansionism and colonialism (the study of religion is largely the product of Europeans encountering—through trade, exploration, and conquest—new beliefs and behaviors, sometimes understood as strange, sometimes as familiar), early scholars of religion were interested in collecting and comparing beliefs, myths, and rituals found the world over. early scholars tried to perfect the use of the non-evaluative comparative method in the cross-cultural study of people's religious beliefs, "our's" and "their's". To compare in a non-evaluative manner means that one searches for observable, documentable similarities and differences without making normative judgments concerning which similarities or differences were good or bad, right or wrong, original or derivative, primitive or modern
INTERDISCIPLINARITY
the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several other fields -Psychology -Sociology -Anthropology -Economics -Law -Geography -Art history -History -Neurosciences -Qualitative or quantitative methods+ other disciplines that contribute to the study of religion/s
the Eightfold Path
the path to nirvana, comprising eight aspects in which an aspirant must become practiced: right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
DHARMA
the regulation of individual behaviour in accordance with the all-encompassing ideology of duty, or righteousness. Dharmic ideology related to ritual and moral behaviour, and defined good conduct according to such factors as one's class (varna) and one's stage of life (ashrama). It operated simultaneously at several levels: -the transcendental, and therefore eternal (sanatana dharma), -the everyday (sadharana dharma), -the individual and personal (svadharma). Neglecting dharma was believed to lead to undesirable social, as well as personal, consequences.
A scientific study of religions is NOT
theology (Christian theology)
RELIGION' AS CLASSIFIER
word 'religion' likely tells us more about the user of the word (i.e. the classifier) than it does about the thing being classified. For instance, a Freudian psychologist will not conclude that religion functions to oppress the masses, since the Freudian theory precludes coming up with this Marxist conclusion. a scholar who adopts Wittgenstein's approach will sooner or later come up with a case in which something seems to share some traits, but perhaps not enough to count as 'a religion'. If, say, soccer matches satisfy many of the criteria of a religion, what might not also be called religion if soccer is? And what does such a broad usage do to the specificity, and thus utility, of the word 'religion'? As for those who adopt an essentialist approach, it is likely no coincidence that only those institutions with which one agrees are thought to be expressions of some authentic inner experience, sentiment, or emotion, whilst the traditions of others are criticized as being shallow and derivative. So what is religion? As with any other item in our lexicon, 'religion' is a historical artefact that different social actors use for different purposes: to classify certain parts of their social world in order to celebrate, degrade, or theorize about them. Whatever else it may or may not be, religion is at least an item of rhetoric that group members use to sort
Nirvāṇa
• "Cessation" - "Going out" - "Becoming cool" - "Becoming extinct" • Nirvāṇa = a form of existence which is free from the conditions of saṃsāra. • Nirvāṇa is attained through seeing the world as it really is (understanding of saṃsāra, karma, causes) • Nirvāṇa is often described using negatives. This is to show that it is not conditioned, there is no more dukkha, no death, no rebirth, no karma. • In Mahayana Bd: a saint or semi-divine being who has voluntarily renounced nirvāṇa in order to help others to salvation; popular devotion = symbols of compassion
Topics that the movements of social and religious reform of Hinduism challenged in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
• "idol-worship" + some other ritual practices • polygyny • infanticide • marriage before puberty • prohibition of remarriage for widows • sati • placing of the dying in the Ganges • caste discrimination • prohibition of inter-caste marriage • prohibition of inter-caste commensality • purity rules more generally
Religious studies scholars
• (Ideally) work on first hand materials (Texts in their original languages, data, interviews, fieldwork, observation,...) • Critical distance from "emic" categories • Develop research questions • Reflexive: think about our own positionality and critical about our own categories of inquiry (e.g. postcolonial critique) • Different methods -> Interdisciplinarity • Methodological agnosticism • As such, religious studies are not - theology of religions - interreligious or oecumenical dialogue
Death of the Buddha
• According to tradiNon, the Buddha dies at the age of 80 years old • Upon death, Buddha enters into parinirvāṇa/parinibbāna • No longer reborn (into samsara)
Other teachings of the Buddha
• Dukkha: life in this world is filled with suffering • Anitya: everything in this world changes • AnaHa (anatma): nothing has a permanent Self; there is no eternal, unchanging self, no underlying consciousness or sense of person that is carried from life to life, ("no soul" - no atman; contrast with Hinduism)
Religious studies as an autonomous discipline
• Mostly anthropological perspective • Distinct from theology • Centered on religion as a human phenomenon • ≠ notions of g/God/s, truth claims, etc... • Study religious phenomenons from a non-confessional perspective • External perspective, not dogmatic, open • Not religious nor anti-religious
Mahāpajāpan
• Sister of the Buddha's mother; raised him • Plea for allowing women to become bikkhunis (nuns) - "allow women to go forth from the home into homelessness" -> permission to enter the Sangha • Denied (asks several times) • Mahāpajāpat cuts off her hair, dons robes and with many other women following her walks barefoot to the Buddha to ask again. • She meets Ananda and tells him what happened, Ananda asks permission for her (several times) • Buddha finally grants permission but on the condiNon that nuns must follow the 8 Garudhamma rules (addition to rules that monks observe) • Nuns always defer to monks
What do we know about the Buddha?
• Story of conception and birth, date (around 500-400 BCE?) , family/clan name Gautama, given name = Siddartha • Pali sources: Shakkya Prince • Education, story of his childhood, youth • The "four sights" - old age, disease, and death, and decided to follow the way of the monk • What he does (asceticism, then rejects this extreme) • Media/on - Nirvana - awakening to the truth about life • Becomes the Buddha, meaning the "Awakened One" at the age of 35 • Dies peacefully in old age This teaching, they say, leads people to understand how things truly are, and thence to a radical reassessment of their lives. The Buddha simply awakened to this truth and taught it. -Buddha taught that 'seeing things the way they really are' is the way to overcome every sort of unpleasantness, imperfection, and frustration. These are all classed under the expression dukkha (Pali), a term which in the everyday context of the time meant literally 'pain' or 'suffering'. He taught that, when we look deeply, we can see that all our lives are, one way or another, at root simply dukkha . 563 BCE: Traditional date of birth of the Buddha Modern scholarship: Around 400 BCE
Modern era (modernity)
• Travels, discoveries, colonialism/colonization and settlements (European perspectives) • Scientific discoveries - Older worldviews are questioned • Renaissance - A rediscovery of Greek mythology and of the philosophy of Antiquity, classical thought • Religious crisis in the 16th C. - Protestant Reformation (e.g. Luther 1483-1546) • Presence of other religions (+ diversity within Christianity itself) - Missionaries, merchants, etc... • A rational criticism of religion • The Enlightenment (intellectual cultural movement in 18th century Europe that promoted the power of reason and science instead of religion and tradition: Les Lumières: philosophers likeHume, V • oltaire, etc...) • More scientific discoveries, globalizationLATE 19th C. - early 20th C. Emergence of the academic study of religions
Important Buddhist texts
• Tripitaka (the Pali Cannon) - the "Three Baskets": • Vinaya ("discipline") - rules for monas/c life • Sutta ("discourse") - sermons of the Buddha • Abhidhamma (metaphysical "teachings") • Dhammapada - collected sayings of the Buddha • Other texts used by specific schools
