Religious Literacy (Stephen Prothero)

Exodus

-"departure" in Greek, refers to second book of Hebrew Bible and epic flight of the Israelites and their leader Moses out of slavery in Egypt and into the Promised Land (after 40 years in wilderness and Moses's death) -key events: Moses receiving 10 commandments on Mount Sinai, Ten Plagues of Egypt, parting of the Red Sea, appearance of manna from heaven, God's guidance of his chosen people by pillar of cloud by day and pillar of fire by night -African-Americans interpreted passage from slavery to freedom to civil rights as Exodus tale -Mormons understood their trek from Illinois to the Great Salt Lake basin in Utah (Brigham Young = "American Moses") -Puritans saw themselves as a chosen people in covenant with God in Promised Land of New England

Imam

-"leader" in Arabic -Sunni Muslims, is the man who leads a congregation in prayer -Shiite Muslims, far more important: a descendant of Muhammad chosen by God to lead the community in all areas of belief and practice -Shiites disagree on whether there were 5, 7, or 12 imams, but most believe that a "hidden imam" is coming at the last days to restore peace and justice on earth -during 1979 Iranian Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini was referred to as an imam

Puritanism

-16th century Protestant movement to "purify" the Church of England of unscriptural beliefs and practices, particularly lingering vestiges of Roman Catholicism (including celebration of Christmas) -most radical Puritans (Pilgrims among them) separated from Church of England, which they regarded as apostate -many immigrants to British colonies were Puritans, and Puritanism became dominant theology in N. England in 17th and 18th centuries -came to New World in search of religious freedom but did not extend that courtesy to others; didn't understand separation of church/state and sought to create "holy commonwealths" in Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, & New Haven; dealt strictly (sometimes lethally) with Quakers, Baptists, others who didn't share understanding of scripture -dominated by Calvinism: absolute sovereignty of God and total depravity of human beings; convinced that salvation not a matter of individual free will - God had predestined all human beings either to heaven or hell

Paul

-1st century church leader, author of many N. Testament epistles and, according to some, real founder of Christianity -born Jewish (given name Saul), was a Pharisee and persecutor of Christians; saw resurrected Christ on road to Damascus and converted to Christianity -traveled widely, preached the gospel as he understood it to Jews and Gentiles alike -arrested, tried, executed under Roman emperor Nero in roughly 65 CE -Martin Luther's reading of Paul's Letter to the Romans as a brief for "justification by grace through faith" set the Protestant Reformation in motion, but Paul has long been contested figure in American life; many perceive a yawning gap b/w ideals of Jesus and realities of institutional Christianity, and some blame Paul for turning Jesus' faith into "Churchianity" -some Af-Am, noting Paul's insistence that slaves obey their masters, have even refused to read the letters of Paul aloud in their churches

Eid

-Arabic for "feast", refers to 2 festivals in Muslim calendar: Eid al-Fitr (feast of the breaking of the fast at the end of the month of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (feast of sacrifice that concludes the pilgrimage to Mecca

Adam & Eve

-Bible begins with Book of Genesis with two creation accounts -in latter, God creates Adam as the first human; God then creates Eve, the first woman, out of one of Adam's ribs and instructs them not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil -tricked by a serpent, they eat this "forbidden fruit" prompting God to banish them from Eden -many Christians believe that this event (the "Fall") led to subsequent humans being born with a rebellious nature called original sin

4 Noble Truths

-Buddhism's core teachings, delivered by Buddha in his first sermon at Sarnath, outside Varanasi (now northern India) -1st: existence of suffering; human life characterized by "dukkha" (suffering) -2nd: origin of suferfering; suffering caused by clinging, which is caused by ignorance, esp. of impermanence of things -3rd: cessation of suffering; chain of cause and effect that produced suffering can be reversed, resulting in liberation from suffering (NIRVANA) -4th: path to the cessation of suffering; outlines way to nirvana via Eightfold Path of Buddhist practice

Sermon on the Mount

-Christianity's most famous sermon, delivered by Jesus in Gospel of Matthew -begins with Beatitudes (meaning "blessed") starting with "Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." -includes Lord's Prayer and Golden Rule, which many take to be Jesus' central moral teaching

atonement

-Christians: death of Jesus on the cross, which somehow gets sinners right with God and wins them salvation; "somehow" is significant b/c Christians disagree (conservative Christians claim Jesus took upon himself punishment brought on by human sins or paid a ransom to devil to free humans from everlasting torment; liberal Christians see death as example of divine love) -benefits of atonement available to all who have faith (Protestants) or just those who partake in sacraments (Catholics)

Pharisees

-Democrats in Georgia and Alabama started agitating for Bible classes and Republicans denounced them as "modern-day Pharisees" on grounds they were exploiting religion for political gain -term originally referred to Jews around time of Jesus who were known for their openness to oral tradition and belief in bodily resurrection (i.e. Paul); Sadducees by contrast were wary of oral traditions and rejected the resurrection of the body

Martin Luther

-German leader of the 16th century Protestant Reformation and founder of Lutheranism -published Ninety-five Theses on indulgences (1517) a bold action that prompted Pope Leo X to excommunicate him from the Roman Catholic Church -central to his thought: 1) justification by grace through faith, which he found in the Pauline epistles and the writings of Saint Augustine, and 2) solo scriptura, which asserts that the "Bible alone" is authoritative for Christians, not (as Catholics claim) both the Bible and tradition

Abraham

-Hebrew Bible patriarch and father of the "Abrahamic" religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam -Abraham and God enter covenant - Abe's wife is barren, so God promises to make him the father of a great nation residing in a promised land and Abraham agrees in turn to circumcise his male children -best known for sacrificing his son Isaac; Abraham bound his son on an altar and raised knife to slay him, but angel stayed his hand and a ram was sacrificed instead -Christians think Abe has great faith, Muslims cite the story of the binding of his son (not Isaac but Ishmael, Ismail in Arabic) to support their view of him as the first Muslim and their understanding of themselves as heirs of his promises (including the Land of Canaan)

Tower of Babel

-Hebrew Bible story about prideful people who try to build a tower to heaven, appearing in Genesis -ends when God thwarts these people's arrogance (and their construction project) by causing them to speak many different languages -unable to communicate, they abandon their tower and scatter across the globe, carrying their languages with them -name of tower derives from two Hebrew words (Babel or Babylon and balal or confuse) and contributed to English word "babble"

Fatwa

-Islamic legal opinion given by a legal scholar (mufti) in the context of a particular school of law and in response to a specific question posed by a court or individual -non-Muslims believe fatwas are infallible declarations, but most Muslims understand them to be binding only on those who recognize the authority of the legal scholar who issues them -Ayatollah Khomeini issued a fatwa calling for the assassination of Salman Rushdie, whose novel Satanic Verses (1988) he deemed blasphemous -bin Laden fatwa: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies - civilians and military - is an individual duty for every Muslim." (many Muslim leaders argued that bin Laden has no right to issue a fatwa b/c he is not a legal scholar)

Hadith

-Islamic sacred tradition, second in importance only to the Quran, relating the words and deeds of Muhammed and his companions as transmitted by trusted confidantes -Muslims interpret the Quran in light of these hadith and use their teachings, believed to be divinely inspired, to conform their lives to exemplary life of Muhammad -hadith contains two parts: a text and chain of authority (latter traces transmitters of text back to its source, and used to determine how much trust to place in a given hadith..."sound" "good" or "weak") -six major Sunni compilations and Shiites have their own collection

Mary Magdalene

-Jesus' most famous female follower, eyewitness to death, and first to witness his resurrection -popular tradition that she was once a prostitute seems to be based on the identification of her with an unnamed "sinner" who anoints Jesus' feet in Gospel of Luke -more controversial tradition is that Mary Magdalene and Jesus married and had children (DaVinci Code)

Bible

-Jewish and Christian scriptures -Hebrew Bible: 24 books divided into three sections: the Law, consisting of the Pentateuch, or the five books attributed to Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy), the prophets (Jeremiah, Isaiah, etc.), and the Writings (various additional books, including Psalms, Proverbs, and Job); also called Tanakh, an acrostic for Hebrew words for all three parts (Torah for Law, Neviim for Prophets, Ketuvim for Writings) -Christian Bible: Old & New Testaments; New Testament: 27 books (four gospels, Acts of the Apostles, twenty-one letters (Epistles, many from Paul), apocalyptic book of Revelation

Hanukkah

-Jewish festival of lights, lasting for eight days and roughly coincides with Christmas -minor holiday, commemorates a miracle first described in a compilation of rabbinic disputations called the Talmud -after foreign soldiers desecrated Jerusalem's Second Temple in second century BCE, Judas Maccabee purified and rededicated it on the 25th day of the Jewish month of Kislev (when Hanukkah now starts); there was a one-day supply of holy oil, but it miraculously lasted for eight days while Maccabee completed his work

Jehovah's Witnesses

-Protestant denomination, officially known as the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, rooted in end-of-the-world teachings of Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916) -claims 1 million adherents in U.S. and 7 million worldwide -aggressive door-to-door evangelizers and publish Watchtower magazine which Russel began in 1870s -became notorious for refusing to salute the flag (considered idolatry) and serve in the military; they deny Trinity and refuse blood transfusions -Minersville School District vs. Gobitis (1940) - Supreme Court rules that Witnesses in public schools could be forced to salute the flag; vigilantes interpreted this as a warrant to attack Witnesses and burn down their halls -Supreme Court reversed itself in 1943 (WV State Board of Ed vs. Barnette) upholding right not to salute flag

Pentecostalism

-Protestant movement that affirms that the gifts of the Holy Spirit manifested among the apostles on the first day of Pentecost are still available today -emphasize experience and downplay doctrine; like evangelicals, affirm centrality of conversion but also insist on importance of second experience of grace, which they refer to as baptism in the Spirit -the "second baptism" can instill such charismatic gifts as glossolalia (speaking in tongues), prophecy, and healing -originally a movement of the dispossessed, has increasingly attracted middle-class Americans; sex scandals (i.e. Jimmy Swaggart) rocked the movement

Calvinism

-Protestant theological tradition based on teachings of Swiss theologian John Calvin -established in N. American colonies through the Puritans, spread nationwide through Congregational and Presbyterian churches -two foundational tenets: absolute sovereignty of God, total depravity of human beings -controversial doctrine: God fated every human being, before birth, to either heaven or hell -dominated American theology until late 18th / early 19th centuries, when Arminianism (humans are free to accept or reject the saving grace of Jesus) took hold

Medina

-after Mecca, Islam's holiest city, lying in Saudi Arabia -place where Muhammad fled after leaving Mecca in 622 CE, where he founded the Islamic community (ummah) and where he established himself as not only a prophet but also a patriarch, politican, and military leader -city where Muhammad built the first mosque, where he died, and where he is buried -Muhammad's flight in 622 from Mecca to Medina (the hijra) is so important in Islam that Muslims date their lunar calendar from that moment

Orthodox Christianity

-along w/ Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, one of Christianity's three main branches -split from Roman Catholicism in 1054 over the now arcane matter of whether the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone (Orthodox position) or from both the Father and Son (Catholic position) -led today by patriarchs with authority in their own nations yet in communion with one another (no Orthodox pope) -orthodox piety emphasizes ritual, specifically the celebration of the eucharist - the "mystery or mysteries" - which is done in high style (incense, sacred music, colorful clerical vestments) -allow parish priests to marry but insist on celibacy for bishops -arrived in North America as early as 1794 Russian mission to Alaska, but numbers remained small until immigration from Greece, Russia, and other Orthodox countries picked up in late 19th and early 20th centuries

Sunni Islam

-along with Shiite Islam, one of two main divisions in the Muslim tradition and larger of the two -Sunnis get name from "sunna" ("custom" or "tradition" in Arabic) which refers to religious and ethical model set by Muhammad -Sunnis are those who adhere strictly to the traditions of the Quran and the exemplary sayings and actions of Muhammad - the "way of the prophet" - as recorded in the hadith -Sunnis split from Shiites after Muhammad's death, when Sunnis said that the prophet's successor should be elected by the ummah, or Muslim community, rather than coming (as Shiites insisted) from Muhammad's bloodline -Sunnis invest less authority in their leaders than do Shiites; view Shiite prayers uttered in the name of Ali or Husayn or other imams as violations of the principle of divine oneness (tawhid) -85% of world's Muslims are Sunnis (predominant in Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Turkey)

Taoism

-alongside Buddhism and Confucianism, one of three "Great Teachings" of China -began with Lao Tzu (570-490 BCE), author of Tao Te Ching ("The Classic of the Way and Its Power") -early Taoists criticized Confucianism as a tradition of meaningless etiquette, empty ritual, and hyperformality; commended instead a way of self-cultivation that emphasized naturalness, spontaneity, and freedom -ideal human being hungered after intuitive wisdom rather than book learning of Confucian sage; acted not so much in keeping with civilization as in accordance with the Tao ("The Way" "Ultimate Reality" or "The Source") -came to U.S. w/ Chinese immigrants in 1840s; current popularity due to vast network of martial arts academies (Taoist concepts as yin/yang, qi (energy), wu-wei

David and Goliath

-antagonists in classic underdog story that appears in Hebrew Bible in 1 Samuel 17 -David: small Israelite shepherd boy who would later became second king of Israel and author of Psalms; Goliath: Philistine giant; David felled Goliath with a single stone rocketed from his slingshot and act of bravery scattered the Philistines and propelled Israelites to victory

Predestination

-belief that God has predetermined the eternal destiny of each individual, assigning the elect to heaven and (in case of "double predestination") the damned to hell -characterized theology of Swiss theologian John Calvin and, through him, Puritanism and other expressions of Reformed theology -most famous opponent of predestination was Dutchman Jacob Arminius whose Arminian theology insisted human beings were free to cooperate with God in their salvation or damnation -Arminianism routed Calvinism during Second Great Awakening and predominates among American Christians today

Creationism

-belief that the creation account in Genesis is historically and scientifically correct; key claim not that God created world in precisely seven days but God created all species in short amount of time and human beings are not the result of random process of natural selection (Darwin) -Scopes "Monkey Trial" (1925): featured Dayton, TN science teacher accused of violating a state law forbidding teachers from mentioning "any theory that denies the Story of Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible" -Darwin's critics now talk more of "intelligent design," where the universe and individual organisms are too complex to be the result of either chance or natural selection and must instead have been caused by an intelligent designer (scientists believe this is pseudoscientific)

City Upon a Hill

-biblical image that became part of American public lexicon through sermon delivered in 1630 on board the Arabella off New England coast by Massachusetts Bay Colony governor John Winthrop -core message = "only if God's people acted well would God bless them"; Reagan dropped the conditionality of covenant b/w God and his chosen people

Jesus

-central figure in Christianity, second person in Christian Trinity -born to Virgin Mary, raised as a carpenter by her husband, Joseph -began public ministry at age 30, preached kingdom of God, healed the sick, cast out demons, and gathered twelve apostles -The Passion - the story of his suffering and death told in all four Gospels - begins with Last Supper, includes charges brought by Jewish authorities, trial before Roman governor Pontius Pilate, and ultimately his scourging and crucifixion -Christians affirm that after three days Jesus rose from the dead, appeared to his followers, and rose to heaven -Non-Christians embrace Jesus too: Buddhists = bodhisattva, Hindus = avatar of God, Jews = great rabbi, Muslims = don't believe he was crucified or resurrected but regard him as a prophet and affirm virgin birth and ascension into heaven

Sodom & Gomorrah

-cities destroyed by God for their sinfulness -in Genesis, people from Sodom & Gomorrah demand that Lot give over two angels staying with him so that they might "know" them; Lot refuses, the people attack his home but are thwarted by God, who strikes them blind and destroys their cities -many Christians have understood this story as condemnation of homosexuality ("sodomy" derives from this text) but others argue that the theme here is hospitality to strangers rather than gay sex

8-Fold Path of Buddhism

-culmination of the Four Noble Truths, charts the course from suffering to nirvana 1. wisdom (right view and right intention) 2. morality (right speech, right conduct, right livelihood) 3. concentration (right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration)

Jihad

-derived from Arabic word for "to struggle" or "make an effort" -first type (greater): spiritual struggle of each believer against his or her lesser nature -second type (lesser): physical struggle against enemies of Islam, a category that traditionally includes polytheists but not Jews or Christians; in physical struggles Muslims are enjoined to fight in accordance with strict regulations (including prohibitions against harming women, children, the old, the sick, and other noncombatants) -Mujahideen = those who participate in second type of jihad; popularized by Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1980s -individuals who die in this sort of battle may be revered as martyrs who go straight to paradise without having to wait (as others must) for the final judgement -some radical Muslims have tried to modify the strict rules governing the second type of jihad, or add a 6th pillar to Islam, but few accept these reinterpretations

Islam

-faith of over 1 billion people worldwide, second largest religion after Christianity; Islam means "submission" -Five Pillars of Islam: 1) praying, 2) fasting during month of Ramadan, 3) almsgiving, 4) going on pilgrimage to Mecca, and 5) testifying to the oneness of Allah and the prophethood of their founder, Muhammad -holy book is Quran and speaks of caring for the poor, a day of judgement, and the bodily resurrection -holiest cities: Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem (in that order) -two major branches: Sunnis (majority) and Shiites -Islam came to the colonies with African slavery but Islam vanished in the colonies; then Muslims began immigrating to the U.S. in significant numbers after liberalized immigration in 1965

Muhammad

-founder and last prophet of Islam, and the vehicle through whom God revealed the Quran -born in Mecca in 570 CE, raised as an orphan, and buried in Medina in 632 -received first revelation from God at roughly age of 40, when angel Gabriel appeared to him in a cave outside Mecca and commanded him to "recite" -words he subsequently recited were memorized by his followers and eventually written down as the Quran; revelations emphasized oneness of God (as opposed to polytheistic viewpoints) -in polytheistic Mecca, hostility drove him to flee with followers to Medina where they established Muslim community -after Khadijah's death (wife) he took multiple wives, and was political, legal, and military leaders; also a diplomat who embraced Jews and Christians not as mortal enemies but as "people of the book" -more comparable to Virgin Mary than Jesus b/c it was through him (by tradition an illiterate man) that God delivered his revelation (Quran) to the world

4 Gospels

-four narratives of the life of Jesus in New Testament -written in Greek, gospel = "good news" -birth, teachings, miracles, death, and resurrection of Jesus -Matthew: earliest and favorite of Americans, how Jesus fulfills Old Test. prophecies -Mark: the "messianic secret" that Jesus is long-awaited messiah of Jews -Luke: accents Jesus' concern for women and the poor -John: "I am" sayings underscoring Jesus' divinity

Evangelicalism

-from Greek word meaning "good news" -theologically conservative Protestants who stress the experience of conversion (being "born again"), view the Bible as the inspired and authoritative Word of God, emphasize evangelism, and believe that salvation comes by faith in the atoning death of Jesus Christ (conversionism, Biblicism, activism, crucicentrism) -became dominant religious impulse in U.S. in early 19th century, played major role in American life, especially on left (spearheading abolitionism, temperance, women's rights) -disappeared after embarrassing Scopes Trial, but reemerged in 1970s -unpopular among secular left but antipathy may be based on misunderstanding; for example, many favor increasing taxes to help the poor and stricter government regulations to protect environment

Quran

-holy book of Islam, the final revelation of Allah, and the ultimate authority for Muslims in law, religion, and ethics -miraculously revealed by Allah via the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, recited to Muhammad, and memorized by his companions, written down by scribes, and later compiled into a codex -affirm that Hebrew and Christian Bibles were revealed by God, but believe they have been corrupted over time; Quran remains pure -teaches bodily resurrection and coming judgement; requires prayers and almsgiving and fasting and pilgrimage; portrays world in which one God repeatedly reveals his will to human beings through prophets and messengers that stretch from Moses to Jesus to Muhammad -Jesus mentioned ~100 times where he is hailed as miracle worker and messiah; affirm virgin birth of Jesus, but don't believe he was killed on cross or raised from dead (instead, ascended into paradise

Promised Land

-in Hebrew Bible, land of Canaan promised by God to Abraham and claimed by the people of Israel following their exile -contributed mightily to Zionism and creation of the state of Israel -others have "promised land": Pilgrims and New World, African slaves and North, Mormons and Utah

1st Amendment

-in addition to protections of freedom of speech, press, assembly, and petition....two clauses concerning religion -establishment clause: "Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion" -free exercise clause: "...or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." -rejected European model of one religion per state, transformed American religious landscape into a thriving spiritual marketplace in which different religions (and different versions of each) competed for believers, donations, and public power -originally, only applied to federal gov (Massachusetts maintained a Congregational establishment until 1833) but after 14th amendment in 1868, all state and local laws had to answer to entire Bill of Rights

al-Qaeda & Taliban

-international terrorist organization founded in late 1980s by wealthy Saudi-born financier Osama bin Laden; known for 9/11 -"the base" in Arabic, influenced by Wahabism and other forms of Islamist thought -emerged in 1989 out of an organization bin Laden used to finance the struggle of the Mujahideen ("holy warriors") against Soviet occupation of Afghanistan (Soviets invaded to prop up their communist proxy) -after Soviet withdrawal, Taliban (theocratic Sunni state that banned TV, punished theft by amputation, and mandated that women wear full burqa) gave them sanctuary -from safe sanctuary, Taliban launched "holy war" against Western occupation of Muslim holy lands, esp. American troop presence in Saudi Arabia -two fronts of jihad: 1) "near enemy": Muslim-majority states like Saudi Arabia that it regards as apostate, 2) "far enemy": U.S. and other Western powers that support apostate regimes -long term Al-Qaeda wants transnational Islamic empire that adheres to strict interpretation of Islamic law -near term Al-Qaeda wants "clash of civilizations" b/w Muslims and "Zionist crusaders alliance" (that goes back to medieval crusades and life of Muhammad himself)

5 Pillars of Islam

-key practices of Islam, obligatory for all Muslims; Islam more focused on right practice (orthopraxy) than on right belief (orthodoxy) 1. Shahadah: "There is no god but God, and Muhammed is the messenger of God." 2. Salat: prayer in the direction of Mecca five times a day (dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, evening) 3. Sawm: fasting (from sunrise to sunset) during the lunar month of Ramadan 4. Zakat: almsgiving to the poor (via an asset tax) 5. Haji: pilgrimage to Mecca, once in a lifetime for all who are physically and financially able -jihad is NOT one of the five pillars

Jerusalem

-known by Muslims as al-Quds ("The Holy") and mentioned more than 600 times in the Hebrew Bible, Jerusalem is a sacred place for Jews, Christians, & Muslims and a magnet for pilgrimage and tourism -as much of an idea as a reality, built on metaphors of exile and return and on the blood of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim martyrs who fought to control it during the crusades -Jews: remains of the Western Wall of the Second Temple -Christians: Via Dolorosa, along which Jesus walked to crucifixion; Church of the Holy Sepulcre, on site where Jesus was buried and resurrected -Muslims: consider Jerusalem sacred b/c it is where the angel Gabriel took Muhammad on his famed "night journey" - from the mosque in Mecca to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and then to the heavens to converse with prior prophets and to learn how to pray -conquered by King David, Jerusalem was the site of Solomon's Temple until Babylonians sacked the city and destroyed that landmark in 586 BCE -Second Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 CE and since that time control over Jerusalem has passed back and forth b/w Christians, Muslims, and Jews -today both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital

Baptists

-largest Protestant group in U.S. -distinguished from other Christians chiefly by their rejection of infant baptism in favor of believers' baptism -staunch advocates of separation b/w church and state; Baptist Supreme Court justice Huge Black grafted the "wall" metaphor onto the Constitution in Everson v. Board of Education (1947) -since 1980s, some (Jerry Falwell, Ray Moore) have vocally opposed strict separationism -split regionally (North/South) and racially (black/white) -came into prominence during Second Great Awakening of early 19th Century; four Baptist presidents: Warren Harding, Harry Truman, Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton

Christianity

-largest of world's religions, perhaps 1/3 of world's population -see sin as the core human problem and describe liberation from sin as salvation; key to salvation (bringing with it eternal life in heaven) lies in the incarnation, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus -Trinity of Father, Holy Spirit, and Jesus (Nicene Creed, dominant view, is that Jesus is "very God of very God") -key practices: baptism (rite of initiation by water), Holy Communion (reenactment of Last Supper) -three main branches: Roman Catholicism (biggest), Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodoxy; split into Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy in year 1054, and Protestantism splintered from Roman Catholicism during Reformation of 16th Century -in U.S. Protestantism accounts for 50% of Christians and R. Catholicism for 25%

Methodism

-mainline Protestant denomination founded in 18th century England by John Wesley and his brother and, after Baptists, largest Protestant family in U.S. -refers to "methodical" pursuit of Christian holiness -one of distinctive teachings concerns the Christian doctrine of sanctification; according to Wesley, sanctification culminated in a second work of grace (the first was salvation) which perfected the believer in love; this idea of Christian perfectionism helped fuel many 19th century social reform movements, including campaign to abolish slavery

Fundamentalism

-many Americans cannot tell an evangelical from a fundamentalist but differences are significant -both groups stress conversion and oppose premarital sex, abortion, and homosexuality -both emphasize Bible, but evangelicals speak of divine inspiration and fundamentalists as inerrancy on all subjects, including history and science -fundamentalists are angry about modernity but evangelicals are unabashedly modern (biggest difference) -Scopes Trial sent fundamentalists into self-imposed exile for years (Williams Jennings Bryan and creationists won the trial, but Clarence Darrow, representing the science teacher won the PR war...)

Crusades

-medieval military campaigns of 11th-15th centuries waged by Christians to recapture the Holy Lands from Muslims -church offered indulgences for the remission of sins to crusaders and lauded those who died in "holy wars" as martyrs -successful militarily, but crusades badly damaged Christian-Muslim relations, bringing an era of mistrust and hostility that we still see today

Black Muslims

-member of black nationalist sect the Nation of Islam (NOI) founded in Detroit in 1930s by Louis Farrakhan -combination of black nationalism and Islam that denounces whites as "blue eyed devils" and hoped for separate black nation -traditional Muslims looked askance as BM (view that leader Fard was divine, fasting in December instead of Ramadan) -movement grew in 60s, esp. among young black males in prisons who gravitated to strict discipline and emphasis on self-help and self-respect; one prison convert was Malcolm X; Cassius Clay also converted -after Elijah Muhammed died, Warith Deen Muhammed took NOI in direction of orthodox Sunni Islam, admitting whites and renaming it American Society of Muslims; 1977: Farrakhan disagreed and voiced disapproval; some thought him racist and anti-semitic but still had clout to organize Million Man March in 1995

Conservative Judaism

-middle path b/w Orthodox and Reform Judaism, arose in response to perceived excesses of Reform Judaism in 19th century Europe -observes Sabbath, kosher dietary laws but accept ordination of women, mixed-gender seating in synagogues, and biblical criticism

Moses

-most important figure in history of Judaism and, according to Muslims and Christians, a great prophet -man who received Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai and led Israelites on the Exodus out of bondage in Egypt -born in Egypt, hidden in reeds in the Nile River after Pharaoh ordered the slaughter of all male Israelite babies, and, discovered by Pharaoh's daughter, was raised by her in luxury as her son -fled his life as adopted prince and God spoke to him through a burning bush, commanding him to lead Israelites out of slavery and into Promised Land; Moses then appealed to Pharaoh "let my people go" -Pharaoh refused and God sent ten plagues against Egypt; Pharaoh relented, but when Moses led people out of Egypt, Pharaoh's armies pursued them; at Red Sea God miraculously parted the waters, allowing Moses and Israelites to cross into dry land, but as Pharaoh's armies pursued them God ordered the waters to return and the soldiers drowned -at Mount Sinai God gave Moses the Torah ("Law") and for forty years Moses led the Israelites through the wilderness and to the edge of the land promised by God to Abraham's descendants; Moses died at age 120 before he could enter into Canaan -in Af-Am tradition (esp. slave spirituals), Jesus is a Black Moses who saves his people from sin and delivers them from bondage (i.e. MLK Jr.)

Bhagavad Gita

-most popular scripture in contemporary Hinduism, part of Hindu epic called the Mahabharata, written in Sanskrit b/w 200 BCE and 200 CE -central is battlefield discussion of Hindu ethics b/w Indian warrior Arjuna and Hindu god Krishna -three paths to God: disciplines of devotion (bhakti yoga), action (karma yoga), and knowledge (jnana yoga) -favorite of Transcendentalists, and Ralph Waldo Emerson once mistakenly referred to it as "much reknowned book of Buddhism" -Robert Oppenheimer (Manhattan Project) after witnessing first nuclear explosion: "I am become death, the destroyer of worlds." (B. Gita)

Moral Majority

-most visible and powerful instrument of the Religious Right during Reagan Revolution of the 1980s -founded by Rev. Jerry Falwell, a fundamentalist Baptist pastor, Liberty University chancellor, and televangelist -defined itself as Judeo-Christian organization open to Protestants, Catholics, and Jews committed to promoting "family values" by opposing pornography, homosexuality, abortion, feminism, and secular humanism

7 Deadly Sins

-most weighty human failings according to Roman Catholicism -pride, envy, greed, anger, sloth, lust, gluttony

Mary

-mother of Jesus and, after Jesus himself, most popular figure in Christian history -Roman Catholics give Blessed Virgin Mary, as they call her, a role in sacred history above the saints -1854: Pope Pius IX proclaimed that she was sinless from conception (Immaculate Conception) and 1950: Pope Pius XII promulgated the doctrine that she was assumed bodily into heaven (Assumption) -major figure in Islam, where she is revered as Maryam and mentioned repeatedly in the Quran as the mother of Jesus

Reformation

-movement in 16th century Europe that intended to reform the Roman Catholic Church but instead gave birth to Protestantism -sparked in 1517 w/ Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses against indulgences (payments for remissions of sins), Reformation spread across Europe producing four types of Protestantism (Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Anabaptist) -"justification by grace through faith," "the priesthood of all believers," and sola scriptura (Bible alone) -rejected papal and priestly authority in name of individual conscience

Zionism

-movement to create a Jewish nation in the land of Zion, namely Israel/Palestine -rooted in Jewish hope for a messiah who would fulfill God's promise of a land for Abraham's descendants, dating to destruction of First Temple in 586 BCE and subsequent scattering of Jews in the diaspora -initially opposed by Orthodox Jews who thought this task belonged to God alone and on left by Reform Jews who did not want to be accused of having mixed loyalties to their homeland -after Holocaust, consensus emerged among Jews and non-Jews alike, and Israel was created in 1948

Catholicism, Roman

-one of Christianity's three main branches, along w/ Eastern Orthoxy and Protestantism, largest of three -Catholic = "universal", try to be church for the whole world; Roman implies centered in Rome and led by Pope who doubles as that city's bishop -administered by hierarchy of bishops and priests, since 1870 Pope seen as infallible on matters of faith and morals -Catholics preceded Protestants to New World, planting faith in New Spain and New France, welcomed in colony of Maryland (founded as safe haven for Catholics in sea of Puritans and Anglicans) -didn't come to U.S. in large numbers until 1830, but by 1860 they were nation's largest single Christian denomination -anti-Catholicism major theme in American history well into 20th century; JFK first Catholic president; long history speaking out on issues of war, peace, poverty, inequality, but sex scandals rocked credibility

Protestantism

-one of Christianity's three main branches, along w/ Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, dominant form of American Christianity -began as a "protest"; in 16th century, thinkers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin harshly criticized the Roman Catholic Church and, thanks to recent advances in literacy and print technology, reached wide audience -these reformers insisted on "sola fide" ("faith alone") in enough for salvation, as opposed to Catholics and "both faith and works" -Catholics based tradition on authority of both Bible and tradition, and Protestants insisted on authority on Bible alone ("sola scriptura") -Protestants whittled Catholics' seven sacraments down to two and also believed in "priesthood of all believers", an egalitarian posture that elevated the status of the laity at expense of priests -four main branches: Lutheranism (Germany, Scandinavia), Calvinism (produced Puritan impulse and three key denominational families: Presbyterians, Baptists, Congregationalists), Anglicanism (King Henry VIII set himself up as head of the Church of England in 1534; later gave birth to Methodism), and Anabaptism (most radical wing of Reformation; insisted on adult rather than infant baptism, strict separation of church/state, and pacifism; Mennonites/Amish developed out of this branch)

Congregationalists

-one of mainline Protestant denominations, most visible in contemporary America in United Church of Christ -arrived in U.S. when Pilgrims landed in Plymouth and Puritans established Massachusetts Bay Colony -during Great Awakening in 18th century, split into prorevival (New Light) and antirevival (Old Light) factions -get name from insistence on the autonomy of the local congregation

Reform Judaism

-one of three main branches of Judaism (alongside Orthodox and Conservative) and most liberal -product of 18th century Enlightenment -Pittsburgh Platform (1885): Reform rabbis referred to Judaism as "progressive religion, ever striving to be in accord with the postulates of reason" and accepted as binding only the moral (as opposed to the ritual and dietary) laws of their tradition -ordain women, worship in vernacular languages, view a child as Jewish if either parent was

Quakers

-pacifist Protestant group founded in England in 1650s by George Fox -believe individuals should follow their God-given "Inner Light" rather than external authorities -oppose war and refuse to take oaths -Quaker William Penn founded Pennsylvania (1681) as a safe haven for Quakers and granted liberty of conscience to all but atheists -played key roles in 19th century social reform movements, including campaign for women's suffrage; belief in equality of all human beings before God - manifested in refusal to tip hats to monarchs - propelled them to forefront of abolitionist movement

Episcopalianism

-part of the international Anglican Communion, 70 million members in a worldwide fellowship of self-governing churches that trace roots to the Church of England -church founded in 1534 when King Henry VIII rejected papal authority and declared himself the head of the church of England -episcopal = "includes bishops"; closest Protestant denomination to Catholicism...liturgical, Holy Communion weekly, vests authority in scripture but also tradition -established in colonial Virginia, SC, Georgia, Maryland but suffered mightily during Revolution b/c many clergy sided with Great Britain; still, continues to have influence today in government (i.e. 1/4 of all U.S. presidents)

Ramadan

-period of obligatory fasting from dawn to sunset, observed by Muslims during ninth month of Islamic year -ends with Eid al-Fitr, the feast of the breaking of the fast, commemorating first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad

Hare Krishnas

-popular name for members of International Society of Krishna Consciousness, a Hindu devotional movement based on the teachings of the Bengali mystic Caitanya and brought to the U.S. in 1965 -practices center on chanting a mantra to Krisha - "Hare Krishna...."

Deism

-rationalistic religion based on reason and nature rather than revelation -rejecting miracles and prayer, Deists classically describe the Almighty as a Watchmaker who, after creating the world, sits back and observes history without intervening -critical of "priestcraft" and institutional religion; see morality as essence of religion (Thomas Paine: "My religion is to do good.") -emerged in 17th century Europe and spread under influence of Enlightenment was popular in colonies at time of Revolution but was overrun by forms of faith more recognizably Christian

Shariah

-refers in Arabic to a path to water worn by camels; the "Islamic path" -body of divinely inspired laws for individual and social life rooted in the Quran and the hadith -Shiites recognize different schools of legal interpretation; Sunnis recognize four: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali -Hanbali school (big in Saudi Arabia) is most conservation and promotes literal interpretation of the Quran

Confucianism

-religion (or, for some, simply a philosophy) founded by Confucius during the Warring States period of Chinese history (551-479 BCE) -teachings focus on this world rather than the next and show scant interest in theological explanation -Confucius' goal was social harmony, which resulted in his view from a combination of individual self-cultivation and social rites -Five Great Relationships: b/w parent and child, elder and younger siblings, husband and wife, friend and friend, ruler and subject -"Do not do unto others what you do not want them to do to you." (negative golden rule) -along with Taoism and Buddhism constitutes one of China's "Three Teachings" and had profound impact on China after it became official state religion of Han dynasty during 2nd century BCE; then spread across E. Asia, where emphasis on respect for elders still resonates

Buddhism

-religion founded in northern India by Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as Buddha ("Awakened One") after experiencing enlightenment -converts vow to "take refuge" in the "Three Jewels": the Buddha, the Dharma (teaching), and Sangha (Buddhist community) -dukkha (suffering) is core human problem and trace the origin of suffering to ignorance -refer to uprooting of ignorance and suffering as enlightenment, or "nirvana" -one difficult teaching is that person we refer to as "I" is actually a composite of other things -practitioners seek to bring an end to suffering by eliminating desire and ignorance, via chanting, meditation, and other things -do not traditionally see Buddha as a god -three major vehicles: 1. Theravada ("way of elders", S & SE Asia, efforts of monks and nuns to achieve wisdom) 2. Mahayana ("great vehicle", China/Japan/Korea/E. Asia, karmic merit transferred simply so it's possible to win nirvana with help of others...key virtue is compassion), 3. Vajrayana (Tibet and Mongolia, uses texts called tantras, cosmic maps called mandalas, sacred sounds called mantras to achieve nirvana...represented by Dalai Lama)

10 Commandments

-religious and moral laws given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai and incribed on two stone tablets -human beings' duties to God and obligations to one another -Jewish: don't "murder" and Catholic/Protestant: don't "kill" (capital punishment and war would seem to be permissible in former case but not latter)

Mormonism

-religious movement founded in NY in 1820s by Joseph Smith Jr. -according to Smith, and angel revealed to him the location of gold tablets buried in the 5th century in modern-day upstate NY; Smith found the tablets, used two seer stones to translate their "reformed Egyptian" into English, and published the resulting Book of Mormon in 1830 -in Book of Mormon, viewed as scripture, Jesus visits the New World after his resurrection and before his ascension, founding his true church among Native Americans -persecuted for their beliefs and practices (including polygamy), moved westward from NY to Ohio to Missouri before settling in Illinois, where Smith was arrested, jailed, and killed by mob in 1844 -later migrated under Brigham Young to Utah, where they established a pseudo-theocratic state; after Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints renounced polygamy in 1890, Utah was admitted into Union -Mormons recognize four scriptures: the Bible, Book of Mormon, Pearl of Great Price, and Doctrine and Covenants; they also believe in ongoing revelation, investing in their successive presidents the power of prophecy -one of world's fastest growing religious movements

7 Sacraments

-religious rite that involves the manipulation of some tangible object (water, oil, bread, wine) and conveys God's grace to participants; Catholics acknowledge 7, Protesants 2 (baptism, Holy Communion) while some Prot. sects reject sacramentalism period -baptism, confirmation, reconciliation (aka confession), Holy Communion, marriage, ordination of priests, anointing of the sick (last rites) -gay marriage: if marriage is purely contractual, can change with times; if marriage is ordained by God - "the visible form of invisible grace" (St. Augustine) - barriers are much higher

Sikhism

-religious tradition founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1538) in Punjab region of northwestern India; Sikh means "learner" or "discipline" -Sikhs refer to God as Sat Guru ("True Teacher") and respect ten gurus -men in this group practice 5 Ks, wearing five symbols of Sikh belief -emerged out of a culture steeped in both Hinduism and Islam, and early Sikhs attempted to reconcile the two, by focusing on heartfelt devotion to God rather than rites and doctrines -strict monotheists who emphasize divine sovereignty; reject view that God incarnates in human form, believing instead in formless God that can be known through singing and meditation; believe in karma and reincarnation (like Hindus)

Religious Right

-religiously inspired political movement dating from late 1970s of conservative Christian groups seeking to revive "family values" and save country from moral bankruptcy -Moral Majority (Jerry Falwell) and Christian Coalition (Pat Robertson) -formidable grassroots power derived from widespread antipathy among many evangelicals and fundamentalists to series of culture shocks in 1960s and 1970s: Supreme Court rulings banning school prayer and devotional Bible readings, Roe v Wade, 1978 IRS ruling that stripped tax-exempt status from Christian schools that discriminated on the basis of race

Revivalism

-revivals are Christian worship services that produce mass conversions and intensify the commitments of existing Christians through ecstatic sermons and emotional songs -most visible in Great Awakening of early 18th century and Second Great Awakening of a century later -most popular among evangelicals and fundamentalists

Noah

-righteous man ridiculed for building an ark on dry land but vindicated when a great flood came -Genesis 6:9, God decides to destroy the world b/c it has become so corrupt; he warns Noah, commanding him to build a great ship for himself and his family and to stock it w/ male and female of all the animals -after many days of rain, he sends out birds in search of land; a dove returns with an olive leaf, indicated waters are receding -as Noah leaves ark, God promises never to destroy the world again by water and seals covenant with a rainbow

Dispensational premillenialism

-school of Bible interpretation that divides sacred history into distinct periods (dispensations) in which different plans for salvation apply; premillennialism is view that Jesus will return before the thousand-year reign (millenium) prophesied in New Testament book of Revelation; put these together for D.P. -end of current dispensation is imminent; believers will be raptured into heaven, followed by Great Tribulation of 7 years for those left behind, which includes appearance of antichrist and battle of Armageddon; but Jesus will then come down from clouds, defeat antichrist, and establish 1000 year reign of peace and justice -informs conservation Christian support for the state of Israel

Second Vatican Council

-second great council of Roman Catholic Church (first held in 1869-70), convened in 1962 by Pope John XXIII in effort to effect an aggorniamento (updating) of the church in the modern world -results: 1. more democratic understanding of church itself, which redefined as entire "people of God" rather than hierarchy of popes, bishops, priests 2. affirmed religious freedom and separation of church/state 3. greater openness to other forms of Christianity and other religions (repudiated anti-semitism) 4. condemned nuclear arms race in name of peace and supported in the name of justice the right of workers to organize 5. affirmed "dignity of the human person" which contributed to liberation theology and preferential option for the poor in Latin America 6. Catholics dropped rote memorization of the Baltimore Catechism in CCD classes and introduced more experiential approaches to faith, including emphasis on social service 7. Lifted ban on eating meat on Fridays and allowed Mass to be celebrated in vernacular languages rather than Latin only

Great Awakening

-series of revivals that shook the colonies b/w the 1720s and 1760s led by preachers of various Protestant sects -put the experience of conversion front and center in American Protestant life and introduced a more extemporaneous and emotional style to both sermons and worship -split colonial Protestantism into two factions: prorevival "New Lights" and antirevival "Old Lights" -helped to turn revivalism into a key component of American religion and to make evangelicalism the nation's dominant religious impulse -served to knit Americans of all colonies into one people, a perspective that contributed greatly to coming Revolution

Second Great Awakening

-series of revivals that took place throughout U.S. during first few decades of 19th century -dominant figure was Charles Grandison Finney, who introduced to American revivalism many controversial "new measures" -Jonathan Edwards, leader of Great Awakening a century earlier, saw a revival as "a surprising work of God," but Finney understood it to be a human technique ("a revival is not a miracle," he wrote) -huge effects...injected ecstasy and emotion into American Protestantism, particularly in frontier camp meetings; secured victory for Arminian theology (accented human free will) over Calvinist theology (accented God's sovereignty) -solidified position of evangelicalism at the center of American religious life and motivated Protestants nationwide to work for a wide variety of social reforms in nondenominational organizations (Anti-Slavery Society, Temperance Society, etc.); inside these organizations, Protestants learned to subordinate their particular theological convictions to greater moral good of temperance, peace, abolition, etc. -contributed mightily to decline of religious literacy in U.S.

Shiite Islam

-smaller of two main divisions in Muslim tradition -after death of Muhammad in 632, Muslim community split over question of succession -Sunnis determined his successors by election, referring to them as caliphs; Shiites insisted his successors be drawn from his family and followed Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, referring to him as their imam -Shiites invest both political and spiritual authority in their imams -view as authoritative not only the Quran and the hadith but also teachings of their imams, whom they see as intercessors b/w themselves and Allah -murder at Karbala in 680 of Husayn, Muhammad's grandson and third Shiite iman; has made Shiites more receptive to tradition of martyrdom than Sunnis -most popular form of Islam in Iran and Iraq, and large populations in Pakistan, India, Azerbaijan, Lebanon, Syria, Afghanistan -15% of world's Muslims are Shiites

Judaism

-smallest in terms of adherents re: world's major religions, but one of historically most influential -religion more of practice than belief; adherents knit together less by shared worldview than shared observances -follow Torah, rest on the Sabbath, celebrate holidays like Passover (commemorates the Exodus of Israelites from bondage to freedom), Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year), and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) -recognize one God who is creator, lawgiver, and judge, whose words are recorded in the Torah ("law" or "teaching") -Judaism scripture is called Tanakh: Torah (five books of Moses), Neviim (prophetic and historical books), and Ketuvim (other writings); tells story of God's relationship w/ his "chosen people" (the Jews), a relationship marked by covenants made, broken, and remade, and by the rhythms of exile and return -story goes back millenia, but Judaism proper did not emerge until after destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE transformed what had been a tradition of priests performing sacrifice in a temple into a more portable tradition of rabbis interpreting texts in synagogues -gave birth to the two largest religions in world - Christianity and Islam (together, constituting the "Abrahamic" religions)

Dalai Lama

-spiritual leader of the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism and political leader of Tibetan people, understood by followers to be reincarnation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (person of great wisdom and compassion) -current Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959 after Chinese government occupied Tibet and now operates the Tibetan government in exile in Dharamsala, India

Good Samaritan

-story of the kindness of strangers -when asked "Who is my neighbor?" Jesus spoke of a man who had been attacked and left for dead by the roadside; various people passed by, but a person from Samaria stopped to help (Jewish listeners would be surprised than a Samaritan helped the Jew)

Christian Coalition

-successor of sorts to Moral Majority, conservative political pressure group supported by mostly white evangelicals and Catholics -established in 1989 by Pat Robertson after failed bid for Republican presidential nomination -promoter of "family values" and "defending godly heritage"

5 Ks

-symbols that identify male members of a Sikh order called the Khalsa; instituted to distinguish Sikhs from Hindus and Muslims -kes: uncut hair -kangha: comb -kirpan: ceremonial sword -kara: steel wrist bangle -kachh: short pants

Allah

-term for God in Arabic and Islam -merciful, gracious, and compassionate and is said to be the creator, sustainer, ruler, judge, and redeemer of universe -most important teaching: "tawhid" or divine oneness - "there is no God but God" -"Allahu Akbar" ("God is great.") said when going into battle to defend Islam but more commonly heard in both the traditional call to daily prayers

Ahimsa

-term in Hinduism, Buddhism, and especially Jainism, often translated as nonviolence, referring to not harming or wishing to term -informs diverse practices in India such as vegetarianism and veneration of cows -some Jains wear face masks and sweep the ground before them in order to avoid injuring even tiny insects -influenced Gandhi and nonviolent campaign for Indian independence

Mecca

-the holiest city in Islamic world, located in modern-day Saudi Arabia -holy to Muslims because Muhammed was born there, b/c he received his earliest revelations in a cave outside the city, and b/c upon his return to Mecca in 630 CE he replaced polytheistic worship around the city's Kaaba shrine with monotheistic worship of the one true God -Muslims face Mecca when they pray and mosques include a niche in the wall (mihrah) to orient them in that direction -going at least once on the hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca is a sacred obligation for all Muslims who are physically and financially able -to keep Mecca pure, no non-Muslims allowed in the city

Scopes Trial

-trial of John Scopes for violating a law forbidding the teaching of evolution in public schools, held in Dayton TN in 1925 -"Monkey Trial" featured skeptic Clarence Darrow and fundamentalist politician William Jennings Bryan -Scopes convicted, but Darrow trounced Bryan in court of public opinion, which mercilessly ridiculed fundamentalists as ignorant rubes

Presbyterianism

-two distinguishing marks, one doctrinal and the other ecclesiastical, distinguish Presbyterianism (from Greek "elder") from other mainline protestant denominations -doctrine: adhere to the reformed theology of John Calvin as expressed in the Westminster Confession -church governance: maintain a system of congregations, presbyteries (geographical units comprising many congregations), synods (composed of clergy and lay leaders), and a general assembly (composed of synods)

Wahabism

-ultraconservative Sunni Muslim revitalization movement that aims to reverse the moral decline of the Muslim world by returning to the pure Islam of the Quran and Muhammad; founder = Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) -rejects as corruptions of the pure faith virtually all medieval and modern accretions to Islam, including popular devotions to saints and Sufi mysticism -particularly zealous about strict adherence to Shariah, or Islamic law; reject separation b/w church and state and regard Muslims who do not accept their views as heretics -became dominant in modern-day Saudi Arabia dating back to 1740s, though many Wahabis criticized House of Saud when it opened the nation up to Western influences after discovery of oil in 1930s) -spread to Afghanistan under Taliban regime; Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda both influenced by Wahhabism

Hinduism

-wildly diverse Indian religion manifested in beliefs such as reincarnation, practices such as yoga, and scriptures such as the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita -no founder and no standard scripture or commentary, is often described as polytheistic and features hundreds of diviinities - from good-natured cowherd Krishna to bloodthirsty goddess of cremation grounds Kali -80% of India's population of 1 billion -after Congress liberalized immigration from Asia in 1965, Hinduism burst onto popular scene through a series of gurus who came to U.S.

Religion's Role in U.S. Schools (first colonial schools, evangelicals, first 3 colleges)

1. Education in colonies based around religion - Noah Webster's spellers and McGuffey readers (out of Miami of Ohio) invoked Bible verses and scripture to teach kids 2. Evangelicals, scared of those in the western frontier who read novels for amusement rather than Bible for morality became focused on bringing religion to the frontier 3. Harvard, William & Mary, Yale (first 3 colleges) mostly cranked out Protestant ministers and didn't focus as much on science, etc. 4. Took big step in U.S. to "religion as morality" and believing in Jesus/the Bible w/o really knowing what he said and did or Bible said (just had to believe, that was enough)

Religion in 20th Century U.S. (higher ed, effect of immigration, Jackson era, Jesus v. the Bible, Eisenhower & post-war revival, civil rights, moral majority, christian coalition)

1. Higher ed: many midwestern universities (including UW) began as non-sectarian Protestant institutions as 1862 Morrill grants encouraged ventures into science and agriculture; these places began to set up separate divinity schools, or students simply went elsewhere 2. Religion began to collapse into morality in a generic response to diversification away from Protestantism (Catholics, Jews, etc. coming into country through immigration) 3. Jackson era in U.S. led to an anti-intellectualism (disdain for central authority - i.e. "popery" - reminiscent of American Revolution) 4. Jesus eclipsed the Bible and morality eclipsed theology...charismatic preachers became more popular than actual content-filled sermons 5. Eisenhower (1952) was baptized in office, "Under God" was added to pledge (1953) and "In God We Trust" as motto (1954) was part of post-war revival, but still...disdain for religion "book learning" 6. Civil Rights (1960s) led to more experimenting and highlighting of individual, thus rebelling against "Judeo-Christian" tradition (if that's even a thing...?) 7. Moral Majority and subsequent Christian Coalition blended everything together in focus on family values over scripture

History of Religion in U.S. (Supreme Court, presidents, Puritans, R. Williams, Ghost Dance, populist preachers, abolition, manifest destiny)

1. Supreme Court rules against prayer in schools (1962) and Bible reading in schools (1963) and many thought "God is dead..."; not so... 2. Carter (1976) and Reagan (1980) both expressed religion publicly (Reagan w/ Moral Majority) and it would be tough to get elected w/o public displays of religion...it's in our history.... 3. Puritan's "Protestant work ethic" and relation to capitalism 4. Roger Williams founding of Rhode Island as a Baptist refugee from Protestant orthodoxy 5. Ghost Dance and Wounded Knee (dance was response to Americans trying to "bring religion" to N. Americans) 6. Populist preachers popularity after American Revolution (moderate enlightenment after King George III - now "free to examine for ourselves"...rebelling against central control politically and religiously) 7. Abolition and Civil War had roots in religion (biblical roots in pro and anti slavery views 8. Manifest destiny ("we have obligation to missionize "heathens") to the western U.S., Hawaii, Phillippines, Cuba

Religion's Role in U.S. History (colonies, early history, Protestantism, schools)

1. Thomas Jefferson considered an image from Israel (people of Israel being led through wilderness) as our country's seal) 2. Martin Luther (Lutherans) and John Calvin (Calvinism) in 16th Century Europe stressed importance of reading Bible on your own 3. Protestant Reformation put focus on scripture (words) not just images, so all of this led to U.S. being incredibly literate 4. First schools were designed to teach literacy (to read Bible) and morality; slaves not permitted to learn to read b/c they would read about freeing slaves in Bible 5. Protestants dominated in early U.S. (anti-Catholic sentiment) and there was a huge emphasis on reading scripture; first schools in 1600s in colonies were grounded in scripture (would be unconstitutional today)

Religious Faith vs. Religious Knowledge (Evangelicism, 2nd Great Awakening, Horace Mann, anti-Catholic, Bible Wars, Blaine Amendments)

1. Went hand in hand for a while...religious literacy taught in schools in colonial times, but that has changed 2. Evangelicalism exploded in Jacksonian America during 2nd Great Awakening in early 19th Century - religion became less about knowledge and more about entertainment 3. Revivalism and republicanism went together, Methodists and Baptists eclipsed Congregationalists and Anglicans and tried to stave off Catholic surge from immigration 4. Horace Mann created "common schools" in early 19th Century and they told to teach "common faith" (common elements taken from all religions); however, it excluded Catholics (used Protestant King James Bible..."Bible Wars") and Protestants thought it watered everything down) 5. Blaine amendments was stealth attack on Catholicism as it prevented funds from going to parochial schools

Religion in the U.S. (devotees but illiterate...)

U.S. is a nation of religious devotees while being religiously illiterate; this is dangerous...a knowledge base would have helped at Waco (Revelations = fire) and post 9/11 (Indian man was killed for wearing a turban, which is Sikh not Muslim)

U.S. as a "Religious State" (1st amendment, stats)

U.S. is neither a religious state or losing religion...it's both John Adams, w/ Treaty of Tripoli (1796) said that U.S. is in no sense a religious state but Supreme Court (1892) stated we "are a Christian nation" 1st Amendment establishment clause says the state (U.S.) cannot establish a religion, but exercise clause states we can freely exercise a religion (we have a choice!) $88 billion donated to religion organizations in U.S.; different story in Europe, which is more secular (Bible stories are considered, more often, fun fables) U.S. is 85% Christian - more than Israel is Jewish and Utah is Mormon

Character Education vs. Religious Study (not same thing...)

We shouldn't confuse character education w/ religious study, b/c that again confuses religion w/ a study in moralism and ethics, not God, truth, etc.; it reduces religion to nothing more than teaching "values"; religious literacy is much more than teaching morality in a character ed setting