Reproductive System

21. Summarize the functions of each of the enzymes found in seminal fluid.

-Protease- help dissolve mucous secretions in vagina -Seminalplasmin- antibiotic that kills bacteria -Prostatic Enzyme- coagulates semen by converting fibrinogen to fibrin -Fibrinolysin- liquifies clotted semen after 15-30 minutes

15. What are the three functions of the epidydimus?

1. Store/protect spermatozoa 2. recycle damaged spermatozoa monitors/adjusts seminal fluid 3. produced by seminiferous tubules

17. Compare and contrast the locations of the vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct.

-The ejaculatory duct is within the prostate, and below the urinary bladder. -Vas deferens curves inferior along the urinary bladder towards the prostate and seminal vesicle.

60. List AND describe the obstacles that a sperm must overcome to reach an oocyte.

-can go the wrong direction: 2 paths only one leads to an egg -get attacked by females white blood cells -acidic environment -current

61. Outline the events that occur during fertilization.

-occurs in uterine tube within a day after ovulation -fusion of two haploid gametes, each containing 23 chromosomes -produces zygote containing 46 chromosomes -upon fusion with spermatocyte, oocyte completes meiosis II and becomes a mature ovum -enzymes in acrosome of sperm dissolve outer layer of egg -once one through and enters egg instant biochemical change in zygote so no more sperm are allowed in

Describe the roles of the structures involved in emission and ejaculation.

-peristaltic contractions of the ampulla -seminal glands contract -peristaltic contractions of prostate gland -sympathetic contraction of urinary bladder and internal urethral sphincter

11. What are the seminiferous tubules? What are the Leydig cells, spaced between the seminiferous tubules, responsible for?

-seminiferous tubules: produce sperm -Leydig cells: produce testosterone seminiferous tubules: produce sperm leydig cells: cells between the seminiferous tubules, produce androgens( dominant male sex hormones) and testosterone (most important androgen)

62. What does cleavage refer to?

-sequence of cell divisions begins immediately after fertilization -zygote becomes a pre-embryo which develops into multicellular blastocyst -ends when blastocyst contacts uterine wall

19. List, AND describe in detail, the functions of the three accessory glands of the male reproductive tract.

1. Activating Spermatozoa 2. Providing nutrients spermatozoa need for motility 3. Propelling spermatozoa and fluids along reproductive tract (peristaltic contractions) 4. Producing buffers (to counteract acidity of urethral and vaginal environments

46. Outline the synthesis of estrogen in order to explain what happens if aromatase is overly active in a male.

1. As the follicle enlarges: thecal cells in the follicle produce androstenedione 2. Androstenedione (can be converted to estrogen or testosterone) -is a steroid hormone -is an intermediate in synthesis of estrogens and androgens -is absorbed by granulosa cells and converted to estrogens by the enzyme aromatase (responsible for swaying androstenedione towards estrogen) -aromatase activity is increased by increasing age, being overweight, increased insulin production and alcohol consumption (makes more estrogens) can cause gynecomastia-man boobs Androstenedione is absorbed by granulose cells, and then converted to estrogens by the enzyme aromatase

48. What are three main types of estrogen? Which is the most predominant?

1. Estrone 2. Estriol 3. Estradiol-most abundant, has pronounced effects on target tissues, is dominant hormone prior to ovulation

38. What are the three phases of the uterine (menstrual cycle)?

1. menses-menstration 2. proliferative phase- more cells, functional zone thickens 3. secretory phase- more secretions

52. List AND describe the three functions of the vagina.

1. passageway for elimination of menstrual fluids 2. receives spermatozoa during sexual intercourse (coitus/copulation) 3. forms inferior portion of birth control

30. Summarize the three functions of the ovaries.

1. production of immature female gametes (oocytes) 2. Secretion of female sex hormones (estrogen and progestins) 3. Secretion of inhibin- negative feedback control of FSH

26. List AND describe the five functions of testosterone.

1. stimulate spermatogenesis 2. affect CNS function (sex drive) 3. stimulate metabolism (muscle growth) 4. establish male secondary sex characteristics (facial hair,body size) 5. maintains accessory glands and organs of male reproductive tract.

49. List AND describe the five functions of estrogen.

1. stimulates bone and muscle growth 2. Maintains female secondary sex characteristics (body hair and adipose deposits) 3. Affects central nervous system activity (especially in the hypothalamus where estrogens increase the sexual drive) 4. Maintains functional accessory reproductive glands and organs 5. Initiates repair and growth of endometrium

36. How long does it take for the oocyte to travel from the infundibulum to the uterine cavity? When is the optimal time (and location in the fallopian tube) for fertilization to occur?

3-4 days for fertilization to occur: -secondary oocyte must meet spermatozoa during first 12-24 hours near boundary between ampulla and isthmus

64. How many days after fertilization does the blastocyst implant into the uterine wall?

7 days, to travel from fallopian tube to uterus and implant

3. Summarize meiosis in the male and female as well as explaining the importance of a gamete being haploid.

A gamete must be a haploid cell because it binds with another cell there for half the chromosomes are necessary for the new cell to have a normal number of chromosomes -meiosis is the creation/division of sex cell

8. Relate the structure of the spermatic cord to a male inguinal hernia.

Because of the testes previously dropping through the open inguinal canal, other tissues are able to pass through because the area is weak enough to cause an inguinal hernia the spermatic cord consists of layers of fascia and muscle enclosing -ductus (vas) deferens -testicular blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels -penetrates inguinal canal (a passage through the abdominal musculature) -presence of spermatic cord creates a weakness that can lead to an inguinal hernia

51. Weigh the benefits and the costs (dangers) of estrogen replacement therapy in a post-menopausal woman.

Benefits: -normal sexual drive -more control over adipose deposits and hair growth -can increase risk of reproductive cancers f there is a history

59. Describe the physiology of female orgasm.

Blood vessel in vaginal walls fill with blood

20. What are the components of semen (ejaculate)?

Contains Spermatozoa and seminal fluid which contains: -Protease -Seminalplasmin -Prostatic Enzyme -Fibrinolysin

23. Compare and contrast the locations of the corpora cavernosum and the corpous spongiosum.

Corpora cavernosum: top of penis corpus spongiosum: bottom of penis (houses the urethra)

6. Generally, compare and contrast the male and female reproductive system functions.

Females produce 1 gamete a month while males produce 1/2 billion sperm per day.

43. What hormone is responsible for maintaining the corpus luteum? What exactly is making this hormone?

HCG-human chroionic hormone -stimulates corpus lutem to stick around and continue producing estrogen and progesterone which maintains and supports the endometrial lining No HCG then period

13. Diagram the major regions (with their associated functions) of a sperm.

Head: contains 23 chromosomes Midpiece: filled w/mitochondria for energy Tail: propels the sperm

58. Describe the effects of parasympathetic activation in regards to female sexual function.

Increased secretion of cervical mucous

50. Compare and contrast menarche and menopause.

Menarche- the first uterine cycle, begins at puberty (11-12) Menopause- the termination of uterine cycles, age 45-55, circulating concentrations of estrogens and progesterone decline, production of GnRH, FSH, and LH rises sharply (negative feedback) Ovaries cease to function

67. Does maternal and fetal blood normally mix? Explain why or why not!

NO-blood from the mother and the fetus never mixes, materials are exchanged by diffusion (can have two different types of blood)

53. Describe the anatomy and the environment of the vagina.

Network of blood vessels, smooth muscle, acidic environment

29. Diagram the anatomical relationship of the ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus, and vagina.

Ovaries produce the oocyte, travels through the uterine tube into the uterus which is then released through the vagina.

18. What gland does the ejaculatory duct pass through? What does the ejaculatory duct empty into?

Passes through the prostate gland empties into the urethra

25. Draw some sort of diagram, that is meaningful to you, outlining the hormonal feedback and regulation of male reproductive function. Don't just copy what is in your notes. Construct something that makes sense to you! Make sure to include the roles of the following: a. GnRH b. FSH c. LH d. Inhibin e. Testosterone

Release of GnRH by hypothalamus stimulates secretion of LH and FSH by anterior pituitary. LH stimulate interstitial cells and secretion of testosterone. FSH stimulates seminiferous tubules to the sustentacular cells to secrete inhibin

33. Outline ALL of the steps involved with the ovarian cycle (including the changes in the oocyte and the follicular cell). Make sure to address the following terms. Take some time and get all these straight ☺: a. Oogonia b. Primary oocyte c. Secondary oocyte d. Polar body e. Primordial follicle f. Primary follicle g. Secondary follicle h. Tertiary follicle i. Thecal cells j. Corpus luteum k. Corpus ablicans l. Ovulation

Slide 71 oogonia->primary oocyte(^ FSH triggers start of ovarian cycle)->secondary oocyte-> polar body->primordial follicle->primary follicle-> secondary follicle (ovulate)->tertiary follicle->corpus luteum if fertilized opens, degenerates if not-> corpus albicans a. Oogonia: b. Primary oocyte: made at birth, go through secondary meiosis to form a secondary oocyte and a polar body c. Secondary oocyte: what may be fertilized by sperm, developed from secondary meiosis of primary oocyte, will divide again after sperm penetration to form the fertilized egg d. Polar body: only genetic material, comes from secondary meiosis of primary oocyte e. Primordial follicle: f. Primary follicle: g. Secondary follicle: h. Tertiary follicle: i. Thecal cells: cells that surround follicle, work with granulosa to product estrogens j. Corpus luteum: makes progesterone (maintains uterus lining), "nest" sticks around if preganat, if not degenerates about 12 days after ovulation and fills with scar tissue to become corpus albicans k. Corpus ablicans: results if no pregnancy occurs, composed mainly of scar tissue l. ovulation: when secondary oocyte is in fallopian tube and has the potential to be fertilized by a sperm

4. Trace the path of sperm in the male reproductive tract from the testicle to the urethral opening.

Testes->epididymis-> vas deferens-> seminal vesicle->urethra Emission: mature spermatozoa move along duct system Semen: sperm mixed with accessory gland secretions Ejaculation: semen expelled from body through urethra

42. What happens to the corpus luteum if there is fertilization of the oocyte?

The corpus lutem gets a signal from HCG (human chroionic gonadotropin-produced by zygote) to stick around, it continues to produce elevated levels of progesterone and estrogen - the HCG is what is detected in a pregnancy test

9. Describe the anatomy of the scrotum, making sure to include the functions of the cremaster and dartos muscles.

The dartos muscle elevates the testes while the cremaster(fast acting) muscle pulls the testes closer to the body quicker. divided into 2 chambers: each testis lies in a separate scrotal chamber: 2 muscles involved: 1. dartos muscle-elevates the testis 2. cremaster muscle- tenses the scrotum to pull the testes closer to the body -cremaster reflex- stoke inner thigh will cause the scrotum to move the testes closer to the body

63. Compare the following terms: a. Blastomere b. Morula c. Blastocyst d. Trophoblast e. Inner cell mass f. Blastocoele

a. Blastocyst: hollow ball with an inner cell cavity, whole thing b. Morula: resembles mullberry, fed by trophoblasts, develops into blastocyst c. Blastomere: name given to cells that are produced very early on d. Trophoblast: outer layer of cells separate outside world from blastocoele e. Inner cell mass: clustered at tend of blastocyst, exposed to blastocoele, insulated from contact with outside environment by trophoblast, will later form embryo f. Blastocoele: cells responsible for providing nutrients

40. Use the graph in your notes to answer the following questions. This graph will be your best friend in terms of understanding the simultaneous events occurring during the ovarian cycle and the uterine (menstrual cycle). a. Menses begins on Day _?_ b. Describe the physiology of menses and menstruation. c. What is happening to the thickness of the endometrium during menstruation? d. What is the major hormone of the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle? e. Which cells of the ovarian follicle are responsible for producing all of this estrogen? f. What are the effects of estrogen on the endometrium? g. What is happening to the follicle during the proliferative phase? h. What is happening to the endometrium during the secretory phase? i. What is the major hormone of the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle? j. What hormone from the anterior pituitary "spikes," around the time of ovulation at the beginning of the secretory phase? k. What happens to a female's body temperature during the secretory phase?

a. menses begins on day zero b. follicular stages: menses-follicle begins to develop and egg moves toward exit proliferative- egg begins to move toward exit of follicle ovulation egg is released from follicle secretory- pregnancy either occurs or corpus luteum becomes corpus albicans menstration- ? -the process of endometrial sloughing c. sheds off d. estrogen e. thecal cells f. thickens the endometrium by repair and regeneration of functional zone g. the follicle matures for ovulation h. endometrial glands enlarge and increase is secretion of mucus rich glycogen, arteries of uterine wall elongate and spiral through functional zone i. progesterone made by the corpus luteum (keeps endometrium in tact) j. lutenizing hormone k. it increases and plateaus

22. What is the prepuce of the penis? What is it called when it is surgically removed?

also called the foreskin, removal of the prepuce can lead to decreased risk of infection

47. Estrogen is a steroid hormone. Is it free in the blood, or mainly bound by a protein? What protein?

are primarily bound to albumins: lesser amounts carried by gonadal steroid binding globulin (GBG) -protein bound hormones last longer

71. Compare and contrast a vertex and breech delivery.

breech is much more difficult to deliver shoulders: -breech can end in C-section

14. How are spermatozoa (sperm) transported into the epididymis?

by cilia lining the efferent ductules into the epididymis through the seminiferous tubules

68. Describe the anatomy of the umbilical cord.

carries the two umbilical arteries and the one umbilical vein

66. Diagram the relationship between the maternal blood vessels and the chorionic villi.

chorionic villi: in contact with maternal tissues -create intricate network within endometrium carrying maternal blood from ruptured maternal arteries Placental circulation: -through paired umbilical arteries (towards chorionic villi, away from fetus lots of waste), returns in single umbilical vein (toward fetus away from chorionic villi, lots of O2)

32. What is a polar body? Why is it produced?

contains only genetic material, may undergo secondary meiosis may not -is made as a bi product of secondary meiosis of a primary oocyte

27. Summarize what occurs during andropause.

decline of male reproduction function

45. Draw some sort of diagram, that is meaningful to you, outlining the hormonal feedback and regulation of female reproductive function. Don't just copy what is in your notes. Construct something that makes sense to you! Make sure to include the roles of the following: a. Hypothalamus b. Anterior pituitary c. GnRH d. FSH e. LH f. Estrgens g. Progestins h. Thecal cells

draw out on white board!! powerpoint 4 slide 29 Slide 104 1.GnRH from hypothalamus-regulates reproductive function -also pulse frequency changes over course of ovarian cycle -changes in GnRH pulse frequency is controlled by estrogens and progestins (estrogens increase pulse frequency, progestins decrease pulse frequency) 2. Endocrine cells of anterior pituitary respond to specific GnRH pulse frequencies 3 Follicular phase: increasing levels of FSH (stimulate primordial follicles to primary follicles) -developing follicle increases estrogen levels -building estrogen levels cause massive LH surge -LH surge triggers ovulation and promotes progesterone -triggers formation of corpus lutem (maintained by LH) -Once LH drops, progesterone and estrogen drop then menstruation occurs -if pregnant HCG takes over for LH GnRH->ant. pituitary-> fsh &LH->ovaries->developing follicles->secrete inhibin and estrogen ovaries->corpus luteum-> progesterone

34. What is the fate of the corpus luteum if no fertilization occurs?

fills with scar tissue and becomes corpus albicans

69. Which trimester of gestation is the most critical? Why?

first, can be before she even realizes she is pregnant

1. What is the difference between gametes and gonads?

gametes: reproductive cells-sperm or spermatozoa or oocyte (called ovum when sperm begins to fertilize) gonads: reproductive organs-testes and ovaries

10. How do the two muscles in the question above aid in the temperature regulation of the testes?

help regulate the testes temperature to allow proper conditions to produce spermatozoa, testes brought closer to the body to help increase temp.

44. Why would it be important for the corpus luteum to stick around if a woman is pregnant? In other words, what does the corpus luteum do in terms of estrogen and progesterone levels?

increase levels of estrogen and progesterone which maintain and support the endometrial lining to provide a hospitable environment for the zygote

5. Trace the path of an oocyte in the female reproductive tract from the ovary to the vaginal opening.

ovary->uterine tube->uterus->cervix->os->vagina -oocyte travels through uterine tubes (fallopian tube or oviduct) -uterine wall will adapt to hormonal changes through uterine cycle -external genitalia

41. What happens to the corpus luteum if there is no fertilization of the oocyte?

it degenerates turns into corpus albicans -no HCG made since no zygote -egg travels through oviduct to uterus -exits body with blood and tissues during menstruation

72. Compare and contrast monozygotic and dizygotic twins.

monozygotic- one zygote splits into two, completely random (not genetic) dyzygotic- 2 separate eggs get fertilized with 2 different sperm cells, completely different DNA

31. How does the term atresia relate to oogenesis?

oogenesis: monthly egg maturation (2 million primordial follicles at birth) begins at development and gets arrested at puberty atresia: degeneration of primordial follicles

70. Which hormone is responsible for uterine contractions during labor?

oxytocin made by neurohypophysis

54. Which branch of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for male arousal and erection?

parasympathetic outflow over pelvic nerves leads to an errection

24. Outline the physiology involved with an erection. Don't forget to include the role of nitric oxide.

penis stiffens when blood fills erectile tissue due to arterial dilation. Nitric oxide leaves the epithelial cells into the smooth muscles Parasympathetic activity: causes nitric oxide (vasodilator) levels to rise in the arteries and smooth muscle of the penis, arteries dilate corpora cavernosa of the penis (and to a lesser extent the corpora spongiosum) to fill with blood -veins of the corpora cavernosum restrict the exit of blood -erection subsides when parasympathetic activity reduces to baseline

28. What is oogenesis? What is an oocyte?

production of an oocyte by ovaries oocyte: female gamete how ovaries produce an oocyte (egg): - also called ovum production -begins before birth (about 2 million primordial follicles at birth each containing a primary oocyte) -by puberty the number drops to about 400,000 this is called atresia -degeneration of primordial follicles -meiosis 1 starts during fetal development and is halted until puberty -then once a month the primary oocyte divides into a secondary oocyte (genetic material, organelles and cytoplasm), polar body (only genetic material)

12. Outline ALL of the steps involved with spermatogenesis, making sure to address the following terms. Take some time and get all these straight ☺: a. Spermatogonium b. Primary Spermatocyte c. Secondary Spermatocyte d. Spermatid e. Sperm f. Nurse Cell g. Diploid h. Haploid i. Spermiogenesis j. Spermiation

spermatogonium- stem cell that initiates process primary spermatocyte- under goes meiosis 1 splits into 2 secondary spermatocyte- the two, under goes meiosis 2 and splits into 4 spermatid- the four that are made from meiosis 2 sperm- mature sperm consist of head, midpiece and tail, can be mature but not fully functionally (swim) until they undergo capacitation nurse cell- surround and enfold spermatids, provide nutrients and chemical stimuli for development, phagocytize cytoplasm shed by developing spermatids diploid- 46 chromosomes haploid- 23 chromosomes spermiogenesis- each spermatid matures into one spermatozoan (sperm) but is still attached to the nurse cell spermiation- spermatozoan loses attachment to nurse cell and enters the lumen of the seminiferous tubule

57. What is detumescence?

subsidence erectile tissue after ejactulation

Which branch of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for emission and ejaculation?

sympathetic stimulation causes -peristaltic contractions of the ampulla -seminal glands contract -peristaltic contractions of prostate gland -sympathetic contraction of urinary bladder and internal urethral sphincter

7. Describe the decent of the testes.

testes descend before birth: 1. spermatozoa are produced in the testes 2. spermatozoa are stored in the epididymis 3. spermatozoa are transported through the ductus (vas) deferens to accessory glands 4. accessory glands activate and provide aid for spermatozoa 5. semen is released

65. Describe the roles of the amniotic sac and fluid.

the "water" that the child is suspended in -buoyant cradle for baby (protection and free movement)

35. What is responsible for the movement of the oocyte along the fallopian tube?

the cilia to aid in peristaltic contractions in walls of uterine tube by nerves from hypogastric plexus

39. How do the follicular and proliferative phases of the ovarian cycle relate to the three phases of the menstrual cycle?

the follicular phase of the uterine cycle: -menses and proliferative phase happens at the same time as the ovarian follicular phase -secretory phase occurs during the ovarian luteal phase

16. What exactly is capacitation? Describe the two steps of capacitation.

the functional maturation of spermatozoa 1. spermatozoa become motile when mixed with secretions of seminal vesicles 2. spermatozoa become capable of fertilization when exposed to female reproductive tract

37. What is the fate of an unfertilized oocyte?

to be expelled through the uterine cycle

2. What is a zygote?

union of two gametes

73. What are conjoined twins?

when the monozygotic egg splits too late, place of attachment depends on where the zygotic splits