research methods chapter 1-7

If the risk for the disease is the same in groups that are exposed and unexposed to the risk factor, the relative risk will be:

1.0

john henry effect

A threat to internal validity wherein research participants in the control group try harder just because they are in the control group

criterion-referenced standards

Criterion-referenced Usage: To classify individual based on a predetermined standard Nature: Absolute (independent from others' performance) Measure often used: Pass/fail Advantage: Not impacted by others' performance Disadvantage: Hard to set the cutoff scores

Which of the following does not represent one of the stages inherent to the scientific method of inquiry?

Designing effective curricular materials

process

Determining the research design The research purposes, questions, and methodologies are integrated together to create a cohesive study.

Which situation below is least representative of descriptive-type research?

Difference in the exercise performance of participants in a room at 70°F and 100°F was collected.

document analysis/visual voice/art analysis

Document analysis and visual voice/art-based inquiry are other methods of data collection in which researchers examine documents and audiovisual materials. Examples: photographs, personal letters, public documents, videos, medical records, art

epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of diseases, accidents, and disasters that occur, not by chance, but are attributable to a cause that makes people sick or dead.

Controlling Extraneous Variables

Excluding the variable Random selection of research participants Matching cases according to some criterion

Longitudal Approach

Longitudinal Group: One Time points: Many (years) Advantage: True answer for developmental questions Disadvantages: Too long and too costly

common sources of error

Many possible sources of error can cause the results of a research study to be incorrectly interpreted. The following sources of error are additional specific threats to the validity of a study beyond those described previously: Hawthorne effect Placebo effect John Henry effect Rating effect Experimenter bias effect

Which of the following is not a secondary source material used by a historian?

Original documents

sources of historical data

Primary sources Secondary sources

sampling errors

Sampling errors result from any differences between the data obtained from the sample and the data that would have been obtained from the complete population. Sampling error or margin of error is often reported with survey findings. For example, a survey reporting that 57% of Democrats support abortion with ± 3.5% margin of error really means that we can be 95% confident that the true population value lies within the range 53.5% to 60.5% (57% ± 3.5%).

experimental research

The purpose of experimental research is to investigate cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating certain variables (independent variable) to determine their effect on another measure (dependent variable).

Which of the following is a definition of exploratory sequential mixed-methods?

Where the investigator starts with qualitative data collection to discover participant views and then uses this information to develop a quantitative phase

Which of the following is a definition of the point of interface for mixed-method processes?

Where the qualitative and quantitative data are combined at data collection, data analysis, or interpretation

steps in research cont.

8. Identify intervening (extraneous) variables. 9. Create formal statement of research hypotheses. 10. Design the experiment. 11. Make a final estimate of potential success. 12. Conduct the study as planned. 13. Analyze the collected data. 14. Prepare a research report.

action research

A special type of applied research in which the focus of the project is to meet the immediate, local needs of the researcher and context Designed to improve local practice rather than producing generalizable knowledge Particularly applicable for clinicians or teachers Increased use over past decade

experimental research cont.

Attempts to establish causality Manipulation of independent variable Control of extraneous variables is vital. Often uses a control or comparison group Often uses randomization procedures Major limitation is often unnatural environment, thus limiting generalizability.

Convergent Parallel Mixed-Methods Data Collection

Collect similar or parallel forms of qualitative and quantitative data Use similar sample sizes for both measures (e.g., larger than typical qualitative sample size).

Types of Research Questions

Conceptualize that a research study can ask three types of questions: Descriptive question Relationship question Difference question

criteria for selecting a problem

Interest Most important Significance Theoretical value Practical value Timeliness External review Manageability Expertise, time, resources Free from personal bias

correlational research

Seeks to determine whether, and to what extent, a relationship exists between two or more variables No manipulation of an independent variable May be descriptive or predictive in nature Cannot establish causality

prevalence rates

The number of prevalent cases divided by the size of the population at a particular time A measure of how many people have a particular disease at a certain time

case-control

The study population consists of individuals who do and do not have the disease or health outcome. Compare past physical activity participation between those with and without the disease to determine if there is a relationship.

dependant variable

The variable that is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable; that which is measured in a study

quantitative research

Traditional or positivist paradigm Hypothesis directed Based on empirical evidence Measured with numbers Analyzed statistically Seeking generalizations

research traditions or strategies used by researchers

- Case study Exploration of a bounded system (e.g., school or clinic) or individual In-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information - Grounded theory Create and generate theory Theory emerges from ongoing analysis conducted in a systematic way. - Clinical strategies Often designed to help patients using methods such as interviews, observations, and document analysis Can help with a more thorough understanding of the patterns of a patient's perception and provide explanations for a patient's signs and symptoms (Carpenter & Suto, 2008)

interview methods

- Phone interview Common in marketing research Not used much in kinesiology - Personal interview Applicable if the sample is small and accessible Structured, semi-structured, or unstructured interview Recording of information - Focus group interview Interview groups of people Requires skilled facilitator - An interview schedule or guide contains the questions to be read to the respondent during an interview and provides a place for recording the answers.

data collection design options

1. Locating and accessing the data site Consider how observable characteristics may influence access. Use of a gatekeeper to assist with access 2. Determining the sampling technique Purposeful sample Sample size sufficient when saturation of data

steps of conducting research

7. Identify the population and sample. 8. Design the data collection plan. 9. Select or develop data collection instruments. 10. Choose the method of data analysis. 11. Implement the research plan. 12. Interpret the results.

focus group

A group interview in which a moderator or interviewer guides the interview and a small group of participants discusses the topics the interviewer raises The size of the group: 6-8 people The interviewer should be a well-trained professional. Questions or topics could be predetermined or raised based on discussion. The interview is sound- or video-recorded. The discussions are the data.

data collection interviews

A purposeful conversation used to gather information Interview guide Structured Semistructured Informational Interview questions Question types and prompts/probes Effective questions (Patton, 2014) Open-ended, neutral, clear; avoid double-barreled and complex questions

questionnaires

A questionnaire is a self-report instrument that is generally mailed or handed to the respondent to complete with no help from the researcher. Administered questionnaire Respondents are directly given the questionnaire. Distributed questionnaire Questionnaire is mailed or electronically delivered. Majority of survey research in kinesiology uses a questionnaire as data-collection technique.

Hawthorne effect

A specific type of reactive effect in which merely being a research participant in an investigation may affect behavior Suggests that, as much as possible, participants should be unaware they are in an experiment and unaware of the hypothesized outcome

Which of the following best illustrates a possible research scenario that is best suited for an experimental study?

A study to determine the effects of massage on reducing muscle soreness associated with bicycling

Concept of Variables

A variable is a characteristic, trait, or attribute of a person or thing that can be classified or measured. Attitude Gender Heart rate Hair color Variable: the condition or characteristic that in a given study may have more than one value

independent variable

A variable that is presumed to influence another variable; the variable under study or the one that the researcher manipulates Two types Active: Variable is actually manipulated. Attribute: Variable cannot be manipulated because it is a preexisting trait; sometimes called a categorical variable (e.g., race, gender).

rating effect

A variety of errors are associated with ratings of a participant or group Halo effect Overrater error Underrater error Central tendency error

purpose of the study

A very specific statement that clearly identifies the problem being studied and expresses the researcher's goals for the study Will usually identify the key variables as well as give some information about the scope of the study May be in either question or declarative form Formulation of purpose statement takes place after an initial review of related literature and the distillation process.

applied research

Action research Similar to applied research except in a local setting Very pragmatic and less controlled No interest in generalizing findings Historical research Oriented toward the past: An effort to provide a new perspective on a question by reviewing available materials

cover letter guidelines

All mailed surveys should include a cover letter explaining the following: Who is conducting the survey What is the purpose of the survey Why it is important for the respondent to answer Inducements for the respondent, if any How the confidentiality of the respondent is being protected Basic instructions for completing and returning the questionnaire

Which of the following is an advantage of a cohort study?

Allows researchers to study multiple disease outcomes

statistical techniques

Applied when physical manipulation or selective manipulation is not possible Differences among treatment groups are known to exist at beginning of study. Groups may differ on initial ability. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) Adjusts scores at the end of the study based on initial differences

assumptions

Assumptions are basic, fundamental conditions that must exist in order for the research to proceed. Basic premises required in the study; the researcher does everything possible to increase the credibility of the assumptions, but does not have absolute control. Assumptions could be made about (1) the motivation of the participants, (2) the truthfulness of responses, (3) the validity of the measuring instrument, and (4) that participants followed directions correctly.

Commonly Used Statistics in Epidemiology Studies

Attributable risk: An index of the percentage of cases in the total group that occur in the exposed group; calculated as the difference in the percentage of cases for the total group and the exposed group divided by the percentage of cases for the total group

action research cont.

Based on same basic techniques and methods of scientific inquiry as other forms of research Research conducted in a practicing environment (e.g., clinic or school) The primary focus is toward the teacher as the researcher and solving a local problem. Systematic inquiry designed to improve professional practice

true experimental designs

Best type of research design because of its ability to control threats to internal validity Utilizes random selection of participants and random assignment to groups Example: Pretest/posttest control group design

physical manipulation

Best way to control extraneous variables Researcher attempts to control all aspects of the research, except the experimental treatment. Difficult to control all variables Some variables cannot be physically controlled.

Ethical Issues in Action Research

Bound by same ethical principles and regulations as other research IRB approval required Special challenges for teacher-researchers or clinicians Parental permission Authority role of teachers over students or clinicians over patients Use of student records Maintaining confidentiality

response format

Closed-ended (structured) Standard answers provided Easy to code and score Facilitates answering sensitive questions May make for a long questionnaire Generally considered easy for respondent

phases of the mixed method process

Collecting and analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study or across a series of studies involves a process that combines components of both methods of research. Foundational idea: The combination of methods leads to a clearer understanding of phenomena than if only one approach was used.

data collecting design options

Collecting and recording the data Recruiting participants Bringing needed equipment to record the data (e.g., audio-recorder or voice memos on phone) Maintaining rapport (positive feelings and respect) Be on time. Idle chatter Remain neutral. Avoid interruption and be comfortable with silence. 4. Ethics and confidentiality Use pseudonyms and change other identifying characteristics (e.g., location). Respond ethically when "pushing" for sensitive information. Participant can decline being recorded, interviewed, or observed at any time

mixed-methods research

Combines methods from both quantitative and qualitative paradigms

questionnaire development

Composing questions: Each question should have three important attributes—focus, brevity, and simplicity. The questions should focus directly on the issue or topic relevant to the information needs of the study. They should be as brief as possible while still conveying the meaning. They should be expressed as simply and clearly as they can be.

Which of the following is not one of the characteristics of experimental research?

Conclusions based on research findings are almost always correct

Control is important in experimental research. Which of the following statements is true in regard to control in an experimental study?

Control is sometimes obtained by matching people before assigning them to groups Control is obtained by randomly assigning people to treatment groups Ideally, in an experimental research study, all groups are treated the same except for the treatment variable Control is sometimes obtained by using a control group

questionnaire distribution

Controlling costs -Bulk mail rates -Length of questionnaire (i.e., weight of mailing) High return rate -Self-addressed, stamped envelope (SASE) -Postage-paid, business reply envelopes -Good mailing list -Follow-up strategy -Cover letter -Appropriate timing of mailing

non sampling errors part 2

Controlling response errors when subjects provide incorrect or false information is particularly difficult because they depend on the behavior of the respondents, something beyond the control of the researcher. Processing and data collection errors can be largely controlled by the researcher.

Convergent Parallel Mixed-Methods

Convergent parallel mixed-methods involves the investigator merging the two types of data (quantitative and qualitative). This is done to get a more complete understanding of the phenomenon. The findings from both data sets (quantitative and qualitative) are integrated into the overall results.

Determining Cause in Epidemiological Studies

Criteria for causation: Temporal sequence, strength, consistency, dose-response, and biological plausibility Confounding: A situation in which a noncausal association between exposure and outcome is observed as the result of the influence of a third variable or group of variables called "confounders" Effect modification: A situation in which two or more risk factors modify the effect of each other with regard to the occurrence of an outcome

cross-sectional approach

Cross-sectional Group: Many (cross different ages) Time point: One Advantage: A quick and low-cost way to examine the impact of time and development Disadvantages: The finding could be biased by the group difference.

sources of knowledge

Custom or tradition (tenacity) Authority Observation or personal experience Deductive reasoning Scientific inquiry Conclusions are based on information gained from individual and direct observation.

deliminations

Delimitations define the scope of the study; that is, they set the boundaries of the study. Normally under control of the researcher Examples include: Number and kinds of research participants Treatment conditions Tests, measures, and instruments used Type of equipment Location, environmental setting Type of training (time and duration)

Major Goals of Epidemiological Research

Describe the distribution of diseases Identify risk factors that are associated with an increased probability of disease occurrence Prevent disease occurrence by modifying the identified risk factors

qualitative research

Focuses on understanding and explaining the meaning of a social phenomenon Umbrella concept Several forms of inquiry

external validity

Generalizability of results: To what populations, settings, or treatment variables can the results be generalized? Concerned with real-world applications What relevance do the findings have beyond the confines of the experiment? External validity is generally controlled by selecting subjects, treatments, experimental situations, and tests to be representative of some larger population. Random selection is the key to controlling most threats to external validity.

attributes of action research

Grounded in postmodernism theory, suggesting that truth is relative, conditional, situational, and based on previous experiences Local setting and local problem Conducted by and for the practitioner Results in an action or change implemented by the researcher practitioner Tends to be nonexperimental or quasi-experimental in design Often involves individuals with whom the research practitioner works as research participants Frequently uses local, convenient measures Little interest in generalizability

threats to internal validity

History: Events occurring during the experiment that are not part of the treatment Maturation: Biological or psychological processes within participants that may change due to the passing of time (e.g., aging, fatigue, hunger) Testing: The effects of one test upon subsequent administrations of the same test Instrumentation: Changes in testing instruments, raters, or interviewers including lack of agreement within and between observers

Key Differences in Process Compared to Traditional Research

Hypothesis testing is not routinely included. Depending on nature of research question, hypotheses could be developed and tested. Action planning is included as an additional stage in action research.

stages of action research

Identify question or problem. Develop research plan. Collect and analyze data. Interpret results and form conclusions. Develop action plan. Unique aspect of action research Reflective practice Describes actions that should be taken based on findings of study

steps of conducting research

Identify the research question. Perform initial review of literature. Distill the question to a researchable problem. Continue review of literature. Formulate hypotheses. Determine the basic research approach.

scientific method

Identifying the Question Formulating a Hypothesis Developing the Research Plan Collecting and Analyzing the Data Interpreting Results and Forming Conclusions

Interpreting Relative Risk and Odds Ratios

If the risk for disease is the same in both exposed and unexposed groups, the relative risk (RR) and odds ratio (OR) will be 1.0. Although the formula for calculating OR is different than that for calculating RR, the interpretation of the actual value is the same.

Exploratory Sequential Mixed-Methods

In exploratory sequential mixed-methods, the researcher begins with qualitative data collection/analysis to discover the views of the participants or contextual information. These findings are used to build a second quantitative phase, such as a survey instrument.

clinical trial

Individuals free from the disease are randomly assigned to either a physical activity intervention or health education group. Groups are followed for a predetermined period of time. Compare the development of disease between individuals assigned to each group.

A type of reasoning that is considered a fundamental principle of scientific inquiry in which thinking proceeds from the specific to the general is called what?

Induction

survey research errors

Information obtained from a survey depends on the questions that are asked, how the respondents react to the questions, and what respondents choose to reveal about themselves. Researchers are somewhat limited in their ability to assess the quality of the findings because there is usually no way of checking the accuracy or truthfulness of the responses. Gathering meaningful information is difficult because survey research is particularly susceptible to two types of errors: Nonsampling errors Sampling errors

selective manipulation

Intent is to increase the likelihood that treatment groups are similar at the beginning of study. Matched pairs design Participants are matched according to some key variable and then randomly assigned to treatment group. Block design: Extension of matched pairs to three or more groups. Counterbalanced design All participants receive all treatments, but in different orders

threats to external validity

Interaction effects of testing: The fact that the pretest may make the participants more aware of or sensitive to the upcoming treatment Selection bias: When participants are selected in a manner so they are not representative of any particular population Reactive effects of experimental setting: The fact that treatments in constrained laboratory settings may not be effective in less constrained, real-world settings Multiple-treatment interference: When participants receive more than one treatment, the effects of previous treatments may influence subsequent ones.

research validity

Internal validity: The validity of findings with the research study; the technical soundness of a study, particularly concerned with the control of extraneous influences that might affect the outcome External validity: The degree to which the findings can be inferred to the population of interest or to other populations or settings; the generalizability of the results

The most common form of qualitative data collection is:

Interviews

relationship questions

Investigates the degree to which two or more variables are associated with each other Does not establish "cause and effect" Only identifies extent of relationship between variables Example Is there an association between self-esteem and eating behaviors among collegiate female swimmers?

A number of things must be considered if a questionnaire is going to be used in a research study. Which of the following is not one of the things to be considered?

Is the use of a questionnaire going to appear to be good research

limitations

Limitations are very similar to delimitations, but they tend to focus on potential weaknesses of the study. Examples include: Sampling problems (representativeness of research participants) Uncontrolled factors and extraneous variables Faulty research design and techniques Reliability and validity of measuring instruments Compromises to internal/external validity

research traditions or strategies used by researchers

Narrative Descriptions of events or phenomena Create stories with a plot line Phenomenological and ethnomethodological inquiries Describe common and shared experiences Often used in ethnographic work Phenomenological (core meaning); ethnomethodological (individual's meaning) (Creswell, 2014)

qualitative data

Naturalistic paradigm Descriptive in nature Reliance on qualitative, nonnumerical Uses a variety of methodologies In-depth interviews Direct observation Constructivist perspective is often used, suggesting that meaning and reality are situationally specific; little generalizability from this method.

incident cases

New occurrences of these events in the study population during the time period of interest

non sampling errors

Nonsampling errors have several sources Any differences in the way the researcher and the respondents interpret questions The inability or unwillingness of the respondents to provide correct or honest information Mistakes made when recording or coding the responses Missing responses

norm-referenced standards

Norm-referenced Usage: Rank order individuals from best to worst Nature: Relative (depends on others' performance) Measure often used: Percentile rank Advantage: Easy to develop as long as a current, representative sample is available Disadvantages: Hard to update the norms, and the population has to be healthy

Methods of Data Collection in Action Research

Observation Questioning Direct measurement Examining Use of archival data, existing documents, student records (e.g., test scores, grade reports, student work)

Commonly Used Research Designs in Epidemiological Studies

Observational study designs: Cross-sectional Case-control Cohort Experimental study design: Clinical trial

observations

Observations allow researchers to observe what is occurring in a social situation, conversation, social interaction, event, meeting, etc. Field notes are often taken during the observation.

response format unstructured

Open-ended (unstructured) Respondent may answer as they choose. Exploratory; allows detailed response Preferable for complex questions May be difficult to code and score Requires more time and effort of respondent

questionnaire format

Organization of questionnaire Appearance and layout are important. Length (number of questions) is a major factor. In general, longer questionnaires have a poorer return rate. Place easy to answer questions first. Sensitive questions should be near the end. Items should be placed in a logical order. Demographic information Recommend placing demographic questions at end

placebo effect

Participants may believe that the experimental treatment is supposed to change them, so they respond to the treatment with a change in performance.

cover letter guidelines cont.

Personalize cover letter if possible. Mail merge Signed letter Shown to increase the return rate Corporate or institutional letterhead and printed envelopes should be used for the cover letter and mailing envelopes.

methods of control

Physical manipulation Selective manipulation Matched pairs and block designs Counterbalanced designs Statistical techniques

types of external validity

Population validity The extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized from the experimental sample to a defined population Ecological validity The extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized from the set of environmental conditions in the experiment to other environmental conditions

limitations

Possible shortcomings of the study—usually cannot be controlled by the researcher The researcher will, of course, try to eliminate extremely serious weaknesses before the study commences. May be a result of assumptions not being met No study is perfect; the researcher recognizes the weaknesses.

There are many things a researcher must consider when using a questionnaire in a research study. Which of the following things is of least importance to consider in questionnaire research?

Print the questionnaire on one side of each page

quantitative

Quantitative Objective Numeric Statistical analysis Large Ns Structured data collection Tables/graphs to display results

Classification of Variables

Quantitative: measured numerically Discrete Continuous Qualitative: categorical in nature

Which of the following is not a guideline for asking effective questions?

Questions are multifaceted and require participants to respond to more than one issue in the same question.

questionaire development cont.

Questions should be worded so they are not ambiguous, misleading, or biased. Double-barreled questions should be avoided. Use simple sentences where possible, and complex sentences only when essential. Level of wording (vocabulary) should be appropriate for the intended respondents.

experimental study design

Random assignment of physical activity levels to individuals without the disease or health outcome of interest These individuals are then followed for a period of time to compare their development of the disease or health outcome of interest.

Commonly Used Statistics in Epidemiology Studies

Relative risk (RR): The ratio of the probability of an outcome in an exposed group to the probability of an outcome in an unexposed group; also known as risk ratio. Odds ratio (OR): A common measure of association; the ratio of an outcome in an exposed group relative to the ratio in an unexposed group.

kinesiology research

Research is another way of considering/addressing problems that are common in the field of kinesiology. Research is for everyone, and everyone can and should participate in the research process.

mixed-methods research

Research that combines quantitative and qualitative methods—integrating the data often guided by philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks Core idea: The integration of both types of data leads to additional insights beyond what is possible with just one or the other.

secondary sources

Secondhand accounts of historical happenings: An "interpreter" is placed between the researcher and the historical event. Hearsay evidence: Person is not directly tied to event and is not an eyewitness. Considered less reliable source of data Examples: textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias

descriptive research

Seeks to describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of subjects being studied Answers the question: "what is?" Asking questions of the research participants Testing or measuring their performance Survey research Example What are the attitudes of rural parents toward the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum?

descriptive research

Seeks to describe specific phenomena or characteristics of a group of participants Answers the question: "what is?" No manipulation of an independent variable Wide range of methodologies Surveys Direct measurements Observations Interviews

historical research

Seeks to explore events and information from the past to provide a better understanding of the present with implications for the future Answers the question: "what was?" Limited to synthesis and interpretation of data that already exist Primary sources Secondary sources

Casual-Comparative Research

Seeks to investigate cause-and-effect relationships similar to experimental research However, researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is something the participant already possesses. Attribute or organismic variable Gender Ethnicity Medical condition Also called ex post facto research

Difference Question

Seeks to make comparisons between or within groups of interest Often associated with experimental research Is there a difference between the control group and the experimental group? Comparison of one group to another on the basis of existing characteristics Example Does participation in Special Olympics affect the self-esteem of adults with mental retardation?

types of research

Several research classifications have been proposed Basic vs. applied Quantitative vs. qualitative vs. mixed-methods Experimental vs. nonexperimental Action or historical

qualitative methods cont

Six phases of qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018) Researcher processing Selecting paradigms or theories to guide the studies Determining strategies to be employed by the researcher Outlining the data collection method Analyzing data Interpreting, evaluating, and presenting findings

primary sources

Source is directly connected to the event of interest. Original documents, physical artifacts, or people who can provide eyewitness testimony Highest credibility and preferred data source

Steps in experimental research

State the research problem. Determine if experimental methods apply. Specify the independent variable(s). Specify the dependent variable(s). State the tentative hypotheses. Determine measures to be used. Pause to consider potential success.

threats to internal validity cont.

Statistical regression: The fact that groups selected on the basis of extreme scores are not as extreme on subsequent testing Selection bias: Identification of comparison groups in other than a random manner Experimental mortality: Loss of participants from comparison groups due to nonrandom reasons Interaction among factors: Factors can operate together to influence experimental results.

mixed-methods research

Studies incorporating aspects of both qualitative and quantitative research Both methods examine different facets of an issue, so they may complement each other.

biographical research

Study of the life, career, and contributions of persons of interests; often leading medical personnel, scholars, coaches, educators, etc. Often based on extensive personal interviews of the person of interest supplemented with interviews of others who know the person and documents

qualitative

Subjective Nonnumerical Nonstatistical analysis Small Ns Open-ended data collection Narrative for results

types of descriptive research

Survey Developmental Longitudinal approach Cross-sectional approach Case study Correlational Normative Observational (aka qualitative) Action Causal-comparative (aka ex post facto)

Select the false statement below concerning survey research.

Survey research has no limitations in terms of applications and information obtained.

survey research methodology

Survey research is the most common type of descriptive research. Involves questioning techniques for data collection Survey methodology consists of asking questions of a (supposedly) representative sample of the desired population at a single point in time. The persons of whom the questions are asked are called survey respondents. The most difficult part of conducting a survey is writing the questions.

non-experimental research

Tends to observe, analyze, and describe what exists rather than manipulating the variable under study Lack of control is often cited as a limitation. Various types common in kinesiology Causal-comparative Descriptive Correlational Historical

internal validity

The basic minimum without which any study is uninterpretable Particularly important in experimental studies Did, in fact, the experimental treatment (X) produce a change in the dependent variable (Y)? To answer yes, one must be able to rule out the possibility of other factors producing the change. To gain internal validity, the researcher attempts to control everything and eliminate possible extraneous influences. Lends itself to highly controlled, laboratory settings

observational study design

The development of disease or health outcome is observed and compared among those that participate in different levels of physical activity. Levels of physical activity participation are self-selected by the individual and not under control of the investigator.

methods for collecting qualitative data

The fourth phase of qualitative research is determining appropriate methods for collecting data, commonly including one or more of the following methods: Interviews Observations Document analyses Audiovisual/art material analysis

experimenter bias effect

The intentional or unintentional influence that an experimenter (researcher) may exert on a study

A researcher defined a population and drew three samples from this population. Samples were taught by different methods for 12 weeks. Participants were then tested, and it was found that the three samples were not equal in ability. What could have caused this inequality?

The methods were not equally effective The samples started out unequal in ability All external variables were not controlled

incident rates

The number of incident cases over a defined time period divided by the population at risk over that time period A measure of the rate at which people develop disease over a specific time interval

prevalent cases

The number of persons in the population who have a particular disease or condition at some specific point in time

point of interface

The point of interface or state of integration is where the qualitative and quantitative data are combined, either At data collection (one type builds on the other) During analysis (one type is transformed into the other type to analyze combined data) In the interpretation (the results from both types of data are combined to infer findings)

distilling the research question

The process of refining the question or idea into a problem and making it sufficiently specific so that it is amenable to investigation This process should lead to the development of a purpose statement that is clear, concise, and definitive.

basic research

The purpose is to discover new or fundamental knowledge. Practical application is not a goal. Usually in highly controlled laboratory settings (e.g., an exercise bike and an EKG to test electrical activity changes in the brain)

cross-sectional

The study population consists of individuals who do and do not have the disease or health outcome of interest. Compare the occurrence of disease or health outcome with the level of physical activity participation. Provides a snapshot of the relationship between the disease or condition of interest and physical activity at one point in time

cohort study cont.

The study population includes individuals who are free from the disease or health outcome. Levels of physical activity participation are assessed for a predetermined period of time. Compare physical activity participation between those who did and did not develop the disease or health outcome.

Typical Data Collection in Mixed-Methods Designs

The type of qualitative data collected for mixed-methods designs is the same as in most qualitative studies (e.g., interviews, observations, document analysis). The type of quantitative data collected for mixed-methods designs is usually more on the descriptive end for quantitative studies (e.g., surveys, coding from observations, rubrics from skill analysis).

cohort study

The word cohort means a group of people. A cohort study looks at groups of people and can be Forward-looking (prospective) Backward-looking (retrospective) Prospective studies are planned in advance and carried out over a future period of time. Retrospective studies look at data that already exist and try to identify risk factors for particular conditions. Sometimes called longitudinal studies

quasi-experimental design

These designs lack either random selection of participants or random assignment to groups. They lack some of the control of true experimental designs, but are generally considered to be fine. Example: Nonequivalent group design

overview of experimental research

Traditional type of research Purpose is to investigate cause-and-effect relationships among variables Experimental groups vs. control groups Each group of participants receives a different treatment. Always involves manipulation of the independent variable Answers the question: "What will be?"

evaluating historical data

Two or more independent sources are needed to verify a historical fact.

The basic structure of a research study—particularly relevant to experimental research

Types of designs (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) Preexperimental True experimental Quasi-experimental

Which of the following is the proper way to maintain confidentiality in qualitative work?

Use pseudonyms for participants, and change the names of places, locations, and other identifying characteristics.

inductive reasoning

Uses logic that moves from the specific to general Fundamental principle of the scientific method Based on observations of a small group Generalizations are made to a larger population. Induction: seeking facts Imperfect (observing a small number of members of a group) vs. perfect (observing all members of a group)

deductive reasoning

Uses logic that progresses from general to specific Model for review of literature; enables the researcher to organize and synthesize available information, theorize about the problem, and deduce hypotheses to be tested by researchers Categorical syllogism Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs

appropriateness of questionnaire

Validity and reliability of the questionnaire should be determined before it is administered. Use of a pilot study Revise questionnaire as needed.

preexperimental designs

Weak experimental designs in terms of control No random sampling Threats to internal and external validity are significant problems. Many definite weaknesses Example: One-group pretest/posttest design

Two or more risk factors modifying the effect of each other with regard to the occurrence of an outcome is known as:

confounding.

The focus of an epidemiological study is to:

determine the cause that makes people sick or dead

what are the general survey data collection methods?

interviews and questionnaires

extraneous variable

§A variable that could contribute some type of error in a research study §Also referred to as §Confounding variable §Intervening variable §Modifying variable §Error-producing variable that the researcher should attempt to eliminate or control §May affect the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable if not adequately controlled