resistance training notes test 2

After age ___ there is a decrease in the cross-sectional areas of individual muscles, along with a decrease in muscle density and an increase in intramuscular fat.

30

arousal

A blend of physiological and psychological activation in an individual; refers to the intensity of motivation at any given moment

osteoporosis

A bone mineral density below −2.5 SD of the young adult mean.

osteopenia

A bone mineral density between −1 and −2.5 standard deviations (SD) of the young adult mean.

anxiety

A subcategory of arousal that is a negatively perceived emotional state. -Cognitive anxiety: The cognitive component of anxiety -Somatic anxiety: The physical reaction component of anxiety

Chronic adaptations of the acute cardiovascular response to anaerobic exercise:

Chronic resistance training reduces the cardio-vascular response to an acute bout of resistance exercise of a given absolute intensity or workload.

Chronic changes in the acute hormonal response

Consistent resistance training may improve the acute hormonal response to an anaerobic workout.

fiber type transitions

Continuum of fiber types: I, Ic, IIc, IIac, IIa, IIax, IIx

youth resistance training potential benefits

Participation in a youth resistance training program can influence many health- and fitness-related measures.

Which group would have the smallest gains in mean muscular strength as a result of anaerobic exercise

elite

The amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle during each beat is known as what?

stroke volume

Local muscular endurance is enhanced as a result of anaerobic training from mechanisms such as fiber type transitions, resistance to fatigue, and buffering capacity.

true

Neural adaptations (increased motor unit function) typically occur prior to muscular adaptations such as fiber type transitions

true

Which fiber type see the greatest in hypertrophy as a result of resistance training

type ii

chronic changes in resting hormal concentrations

consistent chronic changes in resting hormonal concentrations are less likely

which of the following is NOT part of the ideal performance state

constant analysis of performance

functional hypertrophy

contractile elements of the muscle cells are bigger

pitch smart

- 7-8: 50 daily -9- 10: 75 daily -11-12: 85 daily -12-14: 95 daily -15-16: 95 daily -17-18: 105 daily

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance: self efficacy

-A situationally specific form of self-confidence -The perception of one's ability to perform a given task in a specific situation

stress

-A substantial imbalance between demands and response capabilities, under conditions in which failure has important consequences -Can be positive (eustress) or negative (distress) -Stressor: an environmental or cognitive event that precipitates stress

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance: self talk

-A technique used to enhance self-efficacy, aid in directing proper focus, assist in regulating arousal levels, and reinforce motivation. -These are the things we say to ourselves, either out loud or in our heads; they can be positive, negative, or instructional.

influence of arousal and anxiety on performance: drive theory

-A theory that as an individual's arousal or state anxiety increases, so too does performance -Skill level: This can increase the latitude of optimal arousal; more skill will correspond to better performance at levels other than optimal arousal. -Task complexity: Simple or well-learned skills can tolerate higher degrees of arousal due to lower task-relevant cues for an athlete to monitor.

ideal performance state

-Absence of fear -No thinking about or analysis of performance -A narrow focus of attention on the activity itself -A sense of effortlessness -A sense of personal control -A distortion of time and space

endocrine chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise

-Aerobic exercise leads to increases in hormonal circulation and changes at the receptor level. -High-intensity aerobic endurance training augments the absolute secretion rates of many hormones in response to maximal exercise. -Trained athletes have blunted responses to submaximal exercise.

instrinsic and extrinsic motivation

-Intrinsic motivation is a desire to be competent and self-determining. -The athlete is a self-starter because of his or her love of the game. -Extrinsic motivation comes from external sources such as awards, social approval, or fear of punishment

respiratory acute responses to aerobic exercise

-Aerobic exercise provides for the greatest impact on both oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production, as compared to other types of exercise. -Significant increases in oxygen delivered to the tissue, carbon dioxide returned to the lungs, and minute ventilation provide for appropriate levels of alveolar gas concentrations during aerobic exercise.

older adults: What are the safety recommendations for resistance training for seniors?

-All participants should be prescreened. -Warm up for 5 to 10 minutes before each exercise session. -Perform static stretching exercises before or after,or both before and after, each resistance training session. -Use a resistance that does not overtax the musculoskeletal system. -Avoid performing the Valsalva maneuver. -Allow 48 to 72 hours of recovery between exercise sessions. -Perform all exercises within a range of motion thatis pain free. -Receive exercise instruction from qualified instructors

Anaerobic training and electromyography studies

-An increase in EMG indicates greater neural activation. -Studies have shown strength and power increases of up to 73%. -Advancement in training contributes to further gains in strength and power. -Dramatic increases in neural adaptations take place early in the training program. -Cross-education -Bilateral deficit in untrained individuals -Changes in muscle activity of the antagonists during agonist movements

Specific tendinous changes that contribute to size and strength increases:

-An increase in collagen fibril diameter -A greater number of covalent cross-links within the hypertrophied fiber -An increase in the number of collagen fibrils -An increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Motor performance

-Anaerobic training enhances motor performance; the magnitude of change is based on the specificity of the exercises or modalities performed. -Resistance training has been shown to increase -Running economy -Vertical jump -Sprint speed -Tennis serve velocity -Swinging and throwing velocity -Kicking performance

Chronic cardiovascular adaptations at rest

-Anaerobic training leads to decreases or no change in resting HR and BP. -Resistance training alters cardiac dimensions.

Neuromuscular reflex potentiation

-Anaerobic training may enhance the reflex response, thereby enhancing the magnitude and rate of force development.

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Flexibility

-Anaerobic training potentially can have a positive impact on flexibility, primarily if the individual has poor flexibility to begin with. -The combination of resistance training and stretching appears to be the most effective method to improve flexibility with increasing muscle mass.

normal knee alignment

-Angle formed by intersection of: -ASIS & Mid-Patella -Tibial Tuberosity & Mid-Patella -larger in females -bowstring effect

children muscle and bone growth

-As children grow, muscle mass steadily increases throughout developmental years. -25% of weight is muscle mass at birth reaches up to 40% by adulthood -Peak muscle mass occurs between 16 - 20 and females and 18 - 25 in males

Sites where connective tissues can increase strength and load-bearing capacity:

-At the junctions between the tendon (and ligament) and bone surface -Within the body of the tendon or ligament -In the network of fascia within skeletal muscle

sex differences: body size and composition

-Before puberty there are essentially no differences in height, weight, and body size between boys and girls. -Adult women tend to have more body fat and less muscle and bone than adult males. -Women tend to be lighter in total body weight than men.

Acute anaerobic exercise results in increased

-Cardiac output -Stroke volume -Heart rate -Oxygen uptake -Systolic blood pressure -Blood flow to active muscles

altitude

-Changes begin to occur at elevations greater than 3,900 feet (1,200 m): -Increased pulmonary ventilation (hyperventilation) -Increased cardiac output at rest and during submaximal exercise due to increases in heart rate -Values begin to return to normal within 2 weeks. -Several chronic physiological and metabolic adjustments occur during prolonged altitude exposure

Mistakes that can lead to anaerobic overtraining

-Chronic use of high intensity or high volume or a combination of the two -Too rapid a rate of progression

Youth Resistance Training

-Clinicians, coaches, and exercise scientists now agree that resistance exercise can be a safe and effective method of conditioning for children. -Before sport participation, young athletes should be evaluated by a sports medicine physician. -Parents should be educated about the benefits and risks of competitive sports. -Parents should understand the importance of preparatory conditioning. -Children and adolescents should be encouraged to participate in year-round physical activity. -Youth coaches should implement well-planned recovery strategies. -The nutritional status of young athletes should be monitored. -Youth sport coaches should participate in educational programs. -Boys and girls should be encouraged to participate in a variety of sports and activities.

motivation

-Coaches should generally subscribe to a reinforcement strategy to assist athletes in focusing on what they do correctly. -Punishment should be used sparingly because it increases the likelihood that the athlete will focus on what he or she is doing incorrectly.

Compatibility of Aerobic and Anaerobic Modes of Training

-Combining resistance and aerobic endurance training may interfere with strength and power gains primarily if the aerobic endurance training is high in intensity, volume, and frequency. -No adverse effects on aerobic power result from heavy resistance exercise.

youth resistance training program design considerations for children

-Consider quality of instruction and rate of progression. -Focus on skill improvement, personal successes, and having fun.

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Local muscular endurance

-Cross-sectional data in anaerobic athletes have shown enhanced muscular endurance and subsequent muscular adaptations consistent with improved oxidative and buffering capacity. -Skeletal muscle adaptations to anaerobic muscular endurance training include increased mitochondrial and capillary number, fiber type transitions, buffering capacity, resistance to fatigue, and metabolic enzyme activity.

What are the markers of aerobic overtraining?

-Decreased performance -Decreased percentage of body fat -Decreased maximal oxygen uptake -Altered blood pressure -Increased muscle soreness -Decreased muscle glycogen -Altered resting heart rate

self efficacy

-Derives from a number of sources: -Performance accomplishments -Vicarious experiences -Verbal persuasion -Imaginal experience -Physiological states -Emotional states

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance: Relaxation techniques to control elevated arousal and anxiety

-Diaphragmatic breathing: Focuses thought on breathing and clears the mind and therefore increases concentration. -Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR):By going through a series of alternate muscular tensing and relaxing phases, the athlete learns to become aware of somatic tension and thereby to control it. -Autogenic training:The PMR cycle for each muscle group is replaced with an attentional state that focuses on the sense of warmth and heaviness for a particular limb or muscle group. -Systematic desensitization:Combines mental and physical techniques that allow the athlete to replace a fear response with a relaxation response.

respiratory acute response to aerobic exercise- gas response

-During high-intensity aerobic exercise, the pressure gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide cause the movement of gases across cell membranes. -The diffusing capacities of oxygen and carbon dioxide increase dramatically with exercise, which facilitates their exchange

How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations?Tendons, ligaments, fascia

-Exercise of low to moderate intensity does not markedly change the collagen content of connective tissue. -High-intensity loading results in a net growth of the involved connective tissues. -Forces should be exerted throughout the full range of motion of a joint.

Program design considerations for women: ACL

-Female athletes are up to six times more likely to incur an ACL injury than male players. -Joint laxity, ligament size, and neuromuscular deficiency leading to abnormal biomechanics may all be contributing factors. -Strength and conditioning professionals should ensure that females learn, and can repeatedly demonstrate, correct movement mechanics within a variety of environments.

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Aerobic capacity

-Heavy resistance training does not significantly affect aerobic capacity unless the individual is initially deconditioned. -The exception is in relatively untrained people, who can experience increases in VO2max ranging from 5% to 8% as a result of resistance training. -Circuit training and programs using high volume and short rest periods (i.e., 30 seconds or less) have been shown to improve VO2max...

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Power

-Heavy resistance training with slow velocities of movement leads primarily to improvements in maximal strength. -Power training increases force output at higher velocities and rate of force development. -Peak power output is maximized during the jump squat with loads corresponding to 30% to 60% of squat 1RM. -For the upper body, peak power output can be maximized during the ballistic bench press throw using loads corresponding to 46% to 62% of 1RM bench press.

overtraining biochemical response

-High training volume results in increased levels of creatine kinase, indicating muscle damage. -Muscle glycogen decreases with prolonged periods of overtraining.

children: Developmental changes in muscular strength

-In boys, peak gains in strength typically occur about 1.2 years after peak height velocity and 0.8 years after peak weight velocity. -In girls, peak gains in strength also typically occur after peak height velocity, although there is more individual variation in the relationship of strength to height and body weight. -On average, peak strength is usually attained by age 20 in untrained women and between the ages of 20 and 30 in untrained men.

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Muscular strength

-In studies, mean strength increased approximately -40% in "untrained" participants -20% in "moderately trained" participants -16% in "trained" participants -10% in "advanced" participants -2% in "elite" participants -Heavier loads are most effective for fiber recruitment. -The effects of training are related to the type of exercise used, its intensity, and its volume.

sex difference strength and power output

-In terms of absolute strength, women generally have about two-thirds the strength of men. -If comparisons are made relative to fat-free mass or muscle cross-sectional area, differences in strength between men and women tend to disappear

Youth Resistance Training Guidelines

-Increase the resistance gradually (e.g., 5% to 10%) as strength improves. -Depending on needs and goals, one to three sets of 6 to 15 repetitions on a variety of exercises can be performed. -Advanced multijoint exercises may be incorporated into the program if appropriate loads are used and the focus remains on proper form. -Two or three nonconsecutive training sessions per week are recommended. -Adult spotters should be nearby to actively assist the child.The resistance training program should be systematically varied throughout the year.

Acute aerobic exercise results in

-Increased cardiac output -Increased stroke volume -Increased heart rate -Increased oxygen uptake -Increased systolic blood pressure -Increased blood flow to active muscles -Decreased diastolic blood pressure

cardiovascular chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise

-Increases in maximal cardiac output, stroke volume, and fiber capillary density -Increased parasympathetic tone leads to decreases in resting and submaximal exercise heart rates

myocardial metabolism- endurance exercise training

-Increases the ability to use fatty acids for fuel -Almost 70% -Decrease reliance on CHO

Motivational aspects of skill learning (self-controlled practice)

-Involves the athlete in decisions related to practice structure, including when to receive feedback and which skills to practice, as well as asking how athletes feel they are doing -Promotes a more active involvement in the practice session and can enhance feelings of competence and autonomy

older adults: Age-related changes in musculoskeletal health

-Loss of bone and muscle with age increases the risk for falls, hip fractures, and long-term disability. -Bones become fragile with age because of a decrease in bone mineral content that causes an increase in bone porosity. -After age 30 there is a decrease in the cross-sectional areas of individual muscles, along with a decrease in muscle density and an increase in intramuscular fat.

Cartilage adaptations to anaerobic training

-Main functions of cartilage -Provide a smooth joint articulating surface -Act as a shock absorber for forces directed through the joint -Aid in the attachment of connective tissue to the skeleton -Cartilage lacks its own blood supply and must depend on diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from synovial fluid. -Therefore, joint mobility is linked with joint health. -Movement about a joint creates changes in pressure in the joint capsule that drive nutrients from the synovial fluid toward the articular cartilage of the joint.

children: Chronological vs Biological Age vs Training Age

-Maturity assessment can be used to evaluate growth and development patterns in children. -Gold standard for determining biological maturation is skeletal age assessment. -Somatic assessment involving degree of growth in overall stature or limb length -Longitudinal growth curve analysis, predications of final adult height, peak height velocity

age and sex

-Maximal aerobic power decreases with age in adults. -Aerobic power values of women range from 73% to 85% of the values of men. -The general physiological response to training is similar in men and women

3 major goals of sport psychology

-Measuring psychological phenomena -Investigating the relationships between psychological variables and performance -Applying theoretical knowledge to improve athletic performance

respiratory acute responses to aerobic exercise- Blood transport of gases and metabolic by-products

-Most oxygen in blood is carried by hemoglobin. -Most carbon dioxide removal is from its combination with water and delivery to the lungs in the form of bicarbonate. -During low- to moderate-intensity exercise, enough oxygen is available that lactic acid does not accumulate because the removal rate is greater than or equal to the production rate. -The aerobic exercise level at which lactic acid (converted to blood lactate at this point) begins to show an increase is termed the onset of blood lactate accumulation, or OBLA.

Central adaptations

-Motor cortex activity increases when the level of force developed increases and when new exercises or movements are being learned. -Many neural changes with anaerobic training take place along the descending corticospinal tracts.

Muscular growth

-Muscle hypertrophy refers to muscular enlargement from an increase in the cross-sectional area of the existing fibers. -Hyperplasia results in an increase in the number of muscle fibers via longitudinal fiber splitting.

Myocardial Metabolism

-Myocardium has a significantly higher mitochondrial density (3x) compared with skeletal muscle - relies almost exclusively on energy released in aerobic reactions -this allows the heart to utilize: -glucose (provides most energy after a meal) -Fatty acids (provides most energy at rest) lactate

muscular chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise

-One of the fundamental adaptive responses to aerobic endurance training is an increase in the aerobic capacity of the trained musculature. -This adaptation allows the athlete to perform a given absolute intensity of exercise with greater ease after aerobic endurance training. -Less glycogen use during exercise and increased fat utilization -LT and OBLA occur at a higher percentage of the trained athlete's aerobic capacity -More rapid rate of lactate removal -Selective hypertrophy of Type 1 muscle fibers due to their increased recruitment, although the resultingCSA is not as great as that seen in Type II fibers -Type IIx fibers make a gradual shift to Type IIA -Increase in the size and number of mitochondria

Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training

-One of the most commonly measured adaptations to aerobic endurance training is an increase in maximal oxygen uptake associated with an increase in maximal cardiac output. -The intensity of training is one of the most important factors in improving and main-taining aerobic power.

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance: Goal setting

-Process goalsGoals over whose achievement the athlete has control -Outcome goalsGoals over which the athlete has little control, such as winning -Short-term goalsIncrease the likelihood of success because they are relatively close to the athlete's present ability level -Long-term goalsProvide relevance to short-term goals

BP Response to Upper-Body Exercise

-Produces much higher SBP & DBP than leg exercises -Resistance to flow is increased with upper-body exercise -Smaller vessels in upper body compress more easily -Care is required for individuals with CV diseases

cardiac output

-Product of heart rate and stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 minute - Q = HR x SV -Average adult male (regardless of training status): total volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle at rest is approximately 5 liters -Endurance athletes: heart rate is usually much lower at rest -Due to greater vagal tone reduced sympathetic drive and/or morphological adaptions of the heart.

What are the markers of anaerobic overtraining?

-Psychological effects: decreased desire to train, decreased joy from training -Acute epinephrine and norepinephrine increases beyond normal exercise-induced levels (sympathetic overtraining syndrome) -Performance decrements, although these occur too late to be a good predictor

Aerobic endurance training results in

-Reduced body fat -Increased maximal oxygen uptake -Increased running economy -Increased respiratory capacity -Lower blood lactate concentrations at submaximal exercise -Increased mitochondrial and capillary densities -Improved enzyme activity

Other muscular adaptations

-Reduced mitochondrial density -Decreased capillary density -Increased buffering capacity (acid-base balance) -Changes in muscle substrate content and enzyme activity

What Are the Performance Improvements From Anaerobic Exercise? Body composition

-Resistance training can increase fat-free mass and reduce body fat by 1% to 9%. -Increases in lean tissue mass, daily metabolic rate, and energy expenditure during exercise are outcomes of resistance training.

Structural and architectural changes muscle adaptaions

-Resistance training increases myofibrillar volume, cytoplasmic density, sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubule density, and sodium-potassium ATPase activity. -Sprint training enhances calcium release. -Resistance training increases angle of pennation.

Fiber size changes

-Resistance training results in increases in both type I and Type II muscle fiber area. -Type II fibers have greater increases in size than Type I fibers

older adults: Age-related changes in neuromotor function

-Seniors are at increased risk of falling. Factors include decreased muscle strength and power, decreased reaction time, and impaired balance and postural stability. -Research shows that physical activity interventions can be effective in improving neuromotor function and preventing falls.

older adults: Responsiveness to resistance training in older adults

-Seniors who participate in progressive resistance training programs show significant improvements in -Muscular strength and power -Muscle mass -Bone mineral density -Functional capabilities

Blood pressure response to resistance exercise

-Straining compresses vessels -Peripheral resistance increases -Blood pressure increases in an attempt to perfuse tissues -Muscle blood flow decrease

youth response to resistance training

-Strength gains of roughly 30% to 40% are typically observed in untrained preadolescent children following short-term (8-20 week) resistance training programs. -Data suggest that training-induced strength gains in children are impermanent and tend to return to untrained control group values during the detraining period. -Preadolescent boys and girls can significantly improve their strength above and beyond growth and maturation with resistance training. -Neurological factors, as opposed to hypertrophic factors, are primarily responsible for these gains.

Acute anabolic hormonal responses (endocrine response and adaptations)

-The acute anabolic hormonal response to anaerobic exercise is critical for exercise performance and subsequent training adaptations. -Upregulation of anabolic hormone receptors is important for mediating the hormonal effects.

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance: imagery

-The cognitive psychological skill in which the athlete uses all the senses to create a mental experience of an athletic performance -Allows athletes to get used to uncertain environments over longer periods of time despite minimal real-world competitive opportunity.

Influence of Arousal and Anxiety on Performance: reversal theory

-The effect of arousal and anxiety on performance depends on how they are interpreted. -One athlete may interpret high levels of arousal as excitement and feel ready for performance, while another experiencing the same level of arousal may interpret the feelings as unpleasant and reflective of a lack of confidence.

connective tissue adaptations: Adaptations of tendons, ligaments, and fascia to anaerobic training

-The primary stimulus for growth of tendons, ligaments, and fascia is the insult from mechanical forces created during exercise. -The degree of tissue adaptation is proportional to the intensity of exercise. -Consistent anaerobic exercise that exceeds the threshold of strain stimulates connective tissue changes.

q-angle

-The shaft of the femur angles slightly medially as is descends toward the knee. -Natural 1250angle of inclination of the proximal femur -Because tibialfemoral joint is relative horizontal the knee forms an angle on it lateral side -170-175 degrees

Connective Tissue Adaptations: General bone physiology

-Trabecular bone responds more rapidly to stimuli than does cortical bone. -Minimal essential strain (MES) is the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation. -The MES is approximately 1/10 of the force required to fracture bone. -Forces that reach or exceed a threshold stimulus initiate new bone formation in the area experiencing the mechanical strain.

How can athletes stimulate bone formation?

-Use exercises that directly load particular regions of the skeleton. -Use structural exercises to direct force vectors through the spine and hip and allow the use of greater absolute loads in training. -Overload the musculoskeletal system and progressively increase the load as the tissues become accustomed to the stimulus. -Vary exercise selection to change the distribution of the force vectors to continually present a unique stimulus.

stepping strategy

-Used to prevent a fall -Used when perturbations are fast or large amplitude -or- when other strategies fail -BOS moves to "catch up with" BOS

ankle strategy

-Used when perturbation is -Slow -Low amplitude -Contact surface firm, wide and longer than foot -Muscles recruited distal-to-proximal -Head movements in-phase with hip

Hip/Knee Strategy

-Used when perturbation is fast or large amplitude -Surface is unstable or shorter than feet -Muscles recruited proximal-to-distal -Head movement out-of-phase with hips

respiratory chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise

-Ventilatory adaptations are highly specific to activities that involve the type of exercise used in training. -Training adaptations include increased tidal volume and breathing frequency with maximal exercise.

How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations? Cartilage

-Weight-bearing forces and complete movement throughout the range of motion seem to be essential to maintaining tissue viability. -Moderate aerobic exercise seems adequate for increasing cartilage thickness. -Strenuous exercise does not appear to cause degenerative joint disease.

Resistance training for female athletes

-Women can increase their strength at the same rate as men or faster. -Female athlete triad -Interrelationships between energy availability, menstrual function, and bone mineral density -Caused by high training volumes or intensities with inadequate dietary intake -Increases the risk for osteoporosis and amenorrhea (the absence of a menstrual cycle for more than three months)

Program design considerations for women: upper body

-Women tend to have less upper body strength than men, and adding one or two upper body exercises or additional sets may be beneficial for women. -The high caloric cost of performing large muscle mass, multijoint, upper body lifts may aid in maintaining a healthy body composition.

age related differences

-Youth / Young athlete - both children and adolescence -Older / Senior - over the age of 65

hyperoxic breathing

-breathing oxygen enriched gas mixtures during rest periods or following exercise may positively affect exercise performance. -The procedure remains controversial.

cardiovascular acute response to aerobic exercise-Cardiac output

-cardiac output (or Q): The amount of blood pumped by the heart in liters per minute (SV × HR). -From rest to steady-state aerobic exercise, cardiac output initially increases rapidly, then more gradually, and subsequently reaches a plateau. -With maximal exercise, cardiac output may increase to four times the resting level.

detraining

-decrement in performance and loss of accumulated physiological adaptations following the cessation of anaerobic training. -Can also occur when there is a substantial decrease in training frequency, volume, or intensity.

cardiovascular acute response to aerobic exercise- control of local circulation

-during aerobic exercise, blood flow to active muscles is considerably increased by dilation of local arterioles -At the same time, blood flow to other organ systems is reduced by constriction of the arterioles.

overtraining

-excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training that results in extreme fatigue, illness, or injury (which is often due to a lack of sufficient rest, recovery, and perhaps nutrient intake). -Excessive training on a short-term basis is called overreaching.

muscle adaptions to resistance training

-fiber size changes - fiber type transitions

Blood pressure in Recovery following endurance exercise

-hypotensive response -blood pressure falls below normal resting values - happens bc unexplained peripheral vasodilation (venous pooling) -regular moderate intensity exercise may help control moderate hypertension

what is the range in which females reach peak muscle mass

16-20

What is the age range in which males typically reach peak levels of muscle mass?

18-25

what age ranges does peak strength occur in males

20-30

smoking

Acute effects of tobacco smoking could impair exercise performance.

adults muscle change key point

Advancing age is associated with a loss of muscle mass, which is largely attributable to physical inactivity. A direct result of the reduction in muscle mass is a loss of muscular strength and power.

Neural Adaptations

Anaerobic training may elicit adaptations along the neuromuscular chain, beginning in the higher brain centers and continuing down to the level of individual muscle fibers. -brain= motor cortex

youth resistance training potential risk and concerns

Appropriately prescribed youth resistance training programs are relatively safe.

influence of arousal and anxiety on performance: inverted U theory

Arousal facilitates performance up to an optimal level, beyond which further increases in arousal are associated with reduced performance.

overtraining cardiovascular response

Greater volumes of training affect heart rate.

role of sport psychology

Defined as a multifaceted discipline, drawing on the constructs of exercise science and psychological principles, that seeks to understand the influence of behavioral processes and cognitions on movement

key point- aerobic exercise

During aerobic exercise, large amounts of oxygen diffuse from the capillaries into the tissues; increased levels of carbon dioxide move from the blood into the alveoli; and minute ventilation increases to maintain appropriate alveolar concentrations of these gases

neural chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise

Efficiency is increased and fatigue of the contractile mechanisms is delayed.

Atypical Q Angles

Genu Valgum: -A lateral angle less then 165 -Knock Knee Genu Varum: -A lateral angle in excess of 180 -Bow Leg

Anaerobic training:

High-intensity, intermittent bouts of exercise such as weight training; plyometric drills; and speed, agility, and interval training. - explosive training then take a break

bone and connective tissue chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise

In mature adults, the extent to which tendons, ligaments, and cartilage grow and become stronger is proportional to the intensity of the exercise stimulus, especially from weight-bearing activities.

key point sex differences

In terms of absolute strength, women are generally weaker than men because of their lower quantity of muscle. Relative to muscle cross-sectional area, differences in strength are reduced between the sexes, which indicates that muscle quality is not sex specific.

overtraining endocrine response

Overtraining may result in a decreased testosterone-to-cortisol ratio, decreased secretion of GH, and changes in catecholamine levels.

Adaptations of motor units

Maximal strength and power increases of agonist muscles result from an increase in recruitment, rate of firing, synchronization of firing, or a combination of these factors.

Connective tissue adaptations: anaerobic training and bone growth

Muscle strength and hypertrophy gains increase the force exerted on the bones, which may result in a corresponding increase in bone mineral density (BMD) or the quantity of mineral deposited in a given area of bone.

Neuromuscular junction

Possible changes with anaerobic training include the following: -Increased total area of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) -More dispersed, irregularly shaped synapses and a greater total length of nerve terminal branching -Increased end-plate perimeter length and area, as well as greater dispersion of acetylcholine receptors within the end-plate region

psychology factors in overtraining

Psychological alterations are often observed before actual decrements in performance occur.

relaxation key point

Relaxation techniques are designed to reduce physiological arousal and increase task-relevant focus. These techniques are of extreme importance when one is executing complex or novel tasks or performing in high-pressure situations

hormone receptor changes

Resistance training has been shown to upregulate androgen receptor content within 48 to 72 hours after the workout.

Muscular Adaptations

Skeletal muscle adapts to anaerobic training primarily by increasing its size, facilitating fiber type transitions, and enhancing its biochemical and ultra-structural components. These changes result in enhanced muscular strength, power, and muscular endurance.

anxiety key point

State anxiety is the actual experience of apprehension and uncontrolled arousal. Trait anxiety is a personality characteristic, which represents a latent disposition to perceive situations as threatening.

cardiovascular acute response to aerobic exercise- stroke volume

Stroke volume -End-diastolic volume is significantly increased. -At onset of exercise, sympathetic stimulation increases stroke volume. heart rate increases linearly with increases in intensity oxygen uptake - increases during acute bout of aerobic exercise - is directly related to the mass of exercising muscle, metabolic efficiency, and exercise intensity

BP Response to Exercise

Systolic pressure increases with increases in workload -There is a linear relationship between workload and systolic BP If workload remains steady -BP may decline -Arterioles in active muscle continue to dilate diastolic pressure -remains fairly constant

blood pressure

Systolic: -approximately 120 mm Hg at rest -Represents the strain against the arterial walls during ventricular contraction Diastolic: -80 mm Hg at rest -An indication of the peripheral resistance, or ease at which blood flows into the capillaries

balance

Technically defined as the ability to maintain the center-of-gravity (COG) of an object within its base-of-support (BOS)

Arteriovenous O2 difference

The a-vo2difference: shows the amount of O2 extracted by tissues - difference in O2 content of arterial blood & mixed-venous blood during exercise: -a- vo2difference increases up to 3 times the resting value if PO2 falls to 2-3 mmHg -Blood perfusing tissues give up virtually all its O2

Positive reinforcement

The act of increasing the probability of occurrence of a given behavior by following it with or presenting an action, object, or event such as praise, decals on the helmet, or prizes and awards.

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance: Self confidence

The belief that one can successfully perform a desired behavior

motive to achieve success (MAS)

The capacity to experience pride in one's accomplishments, characterized by a desire to challenge oneself.

positive punishment

The presentation of an act, object, or event following a behavior that could decrease the behavior's occurrence

muscle key point

The process of hypertrophy involves an increase in the synthesis of the contractile proteins actin and myosin within the myofibril, as well as an increase in the number of myofibrils within a muscle fiber. The new myofilaments are added to the myofibril, resulting in an increase in its diameter.

negative punishment

The removal of something valued, such as privileges or playing time

resistance training adults key point

Though aging is associated with a number of undesirable changes in body composition, older men and women maintain their ability to make significant improvements in strength and functional ability. Aerobic, resistance, and balance exercise are beneficial for older adults, but only resistance training can increase muscular strength, muscular power, and muscle mass.

Ventilatory response to anaerobic exercise:

Ventilation generally does not limit resistance exercise and is either unaffected or only moderately improved by anaerobic training.

Acute cardiovascular responses to anaerobic exercise

an acute bout of anaerobic exercise significantly increases the cardiovascular responses, especially if the individual uses the Valsalva maneuver

goals over which the athletes has little control, such as winning are known as

outcome goals

energy management

arousal, anxiety, stress

Influence of Arousal and Anxiety on Performance: catastrophe theory

When increases in physiological arousal occur in the presence of cognitive anxiety, a sudden drop (rather than a gradual decline) in performance occurs.

anaerobic training key point

With heavy resistance training, all muscle fibers get larger because motor units are recruited in a sequential order by their size to produce high levels of force. In advanced lifters, the central nervous system may adapt by allowing recruitment in non-consecutive order, by recruiting larger ones first to promote great power or speed in a movement -lift heavy because size principle

External and Individual Factors

altitude hyperoxic breathing smoking age & sex

what age range does peak strength occur in females

by age 20

Influence of Arousal and Anxiety on Performance: individual zones of optimal functioning theory

different people perform best with very different levels of arousal

At the end of exercise there is a hypertensive response caused by an increase in venous pooling?

false

long term goals should be set as a ____ goal that provides a framework for short term goals

general

children growth

increase in body size or particular body part

negative reinforcement

increases the probability of occurrence of a given operant by removing an act, object, or event that is typically aversive.

What is the name of the threshold needed to initiate new bone formation?

minimal essential strain (MES)

children development

natural progression from prenatal life to adulthood

children maturation

process of becoming mature and fully functional

Cardiac Output at Rest in Sedentary and Endurance Trained Males

sedentary: cardiac output=5 heart rate= 70 stroke volume= 71 trained: cardiac output= 5 heart rate= 50 stroke volume= 100

what are the two influences that can impact drive theory

skill level and task complexity

non-functional hypertrophy

the cell is bigger but the contractile elements remain at the same size

motive to avoid failure (MAF)

the desire to protect one's ego and self-esteem; more about avoiding the perception of shame than about avoiding failure.

Increases in minute ventilation is to maintain constant levels of O2 and CO2 within the body.

true