RM Midterm Exam

response format

the manner in which respondents indicate their answers to questions

mean

the mathematical average of a set of scores; the sum of a set of scores divided by the number of scores

interbeahvior latency

the time that elapses between the occurrence of two behaviors

variance

(n.) - a difference between what is expected and what actually occurs

grouped frequency distribution

A frequency distribution where scores are grouped into intervals rather than listed as individual values.

normal distribution

A function that represents the distribution of variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.

bar graph

A graph that uses horizontal or vertical bars to display data

Why may we not interpret or discuss a correlation coefficient that is not statistically significant?

It is important not to discuss a correlation coefficient that is not statistically significant because the results of the study were inconclusive so the research had too many errors and not enough people in the studies.

Is it true that valid conclusions cannot be drawn from studies that are conducted on convenience samples?

It is untrue that valid conclusions cannot be drawn from studies that are conducted from convenience samples. The majority of experimental research can use convenience samples because it is simple trying to see how two variables relate to one another. For some questions, it is not possible to use a convenience sample but for most experimental studies - it is applicable. Plus - these studies can be conducted over and over again in order to generalize the results.

In what ways does pseudoscience differ from true science?

Pseudoscience is not based on reliable evidence while true science is based on observation which is systematic.

How does the longitudinal (or panel) survey design help researchers to draw clearer conclusions about changes over time?

The longitudinal survey design helps researchers draw clearer conclusions about changes over time because changes in each individual responses can be identified.

Pearson correlation coefficient

The most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables

raw data

The original data as it was collected.

fixed-alternative response format

a response format in which participants answer a questionnaire or interview item by choosing one response from a set of possible alternatives; also called a multiple choice response format

free response format

a response format in which the participant provides an unstructured answer to a question; also called an open-ended question

stratified random sample

a sampling design in which the population is divided into several subpopulations, and random samples are then drawn from each stratum

nonprobability sampling

a sampling technique in which there is no way to calculate the likelihood that a specific element of the population being studied will be chosen

multi-item scale

a set of questionnaire or interview items that are intended to be used and analyzed as a set

statistical notation

a system of symbols that represents particular mathematical operations, variables, and statistics

Reliability

consistency of measurement

sampling frame

list of individuals from which a sample is actually selected

inferential statistics

mathematical analyses that allows researchers to draw conclusions regarding the reliability and generalizability of their data; t-tests and F-tests are inferential statistics

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

median

middle of scores

descriptive statistics

numbers that summarize and describe the behavior of participants in a study; the mean and standard deviation are descriptive statistics

naturalistic observation

observation of ongoing behavior as it occurs naturally

undisguised observation

observing participants with their knowledge of being observed

disguised observation

observing participants' behavior without their knowledge

perfect correlation

one in which two variables are exactly related, such that low, medium, and high scores on both variables are always exactly related

measures of variability

range, variance, standard deviation

experimental research

research designed to test whether certain variables cause changes in behavior, thoughts, or feelings; in an experiment, the researcher assigns participants to conditions and manipulates at least one independent variable

descriptive research

research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically

interitem reliability

the consistency of respondents' responses on a set of conceptually related items; the degree to which a set of items that ostensibly measure the same construct are in intercorrelated

test-retest reliability

the consistency of respondents' scores on a measure across time

item-total correlation

the correlation between respondents' scores on one item on a scale and the sum of their responses on the remaining items; an index of interitem reliability

split-half reliability

the correlation between respondents' scores on two halves of a single instrument; an index of interitem reliability

partial correlation

the correlation between two variables with the influence of a third variable statistically controlled for

phi coefficient

the correlation coefficient used when both measured variables are dichotomous and nominal

construct validity

the degree to which a measure of a particular construct correlates as expected with measures of other constructs

How does cluster sampling solve the practical problems involved in simple random sampling?

Cluster sampling has two advantages over simple random sampling. (1) A random sample of the population is unnecessary to begin sampling the population - only lists of the chosen "clusters" are necessary. (2) The cluster groupings are usually closer together and when people are closer together - this saves time and money for the researchers conducting the study.

Distinguish between construct and criterion-related validity.

Construct validity is when a certain measurement actually relates to other measures it is supposed to while criterion-related validity examines how far a measure allows researchers to figure out how well participant's will do on something because of a certain behavior.

What are the pros and cons of using contrived observation?

Contrived observation is when behavior is observed in an environment that has been set up specifically to observe that certain behavior and the participants know they are being observed. This can sometimes be a problem because when people know they are being watched they may act differently than they normally would.

What type of sample is used most frequently in behavioral research?

Convenience sampling is the most frequently used in behavioral research. A convenience sample is a sample in which the participants are readily available for the researchers to use for their study. This is most often used because it is the easiest sample of people to get. For example, a researcher can stand on the corner of a busy street and try to sample anyone who will stop and talk to them. This is an effective and easy way to sample people.

Distinguish between convergent and discriminant validity.

Convergent validity is when there is a high correlation between a measure and the other measures it should relate to, while discriminant validity is when the correlation is week between measures that are unrelated. An example of convergent validity is the correlation between test scores and the amount a student studied. An example of discriminant validity is the correlation between test scores and hair color.

Define converging operations and say why researchers use them.

Converging operations is when the same results come from multiple different measures which can allow researchers to be more accurate with their assessments.

Why can't we infer causality from correlation?

Correlation doesn't suggest causality; just because two variables are correlated, it does not mean that these two things are related. The two variables may be correlated because of an outside cause.

Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics is used in a study to describe the behavior of the participants while inferential statistics focuses on generalizability and how reliable results of a study are.

What is the effect size?

Effect size is the relationship between variables and the strength of their relationship, which is important in showing how influential certain variables are in producing a specific response or behavior.

What are some factors that contribute to error variance in a set of data and why do researchers want the error variance to be small?

Error variance could be due to mistakes when it comes to writing down the data or some variables can be overlooked in a study which can contribute to error variance. Researchers want the error variance to be small because the primary variables that they are focused on can be covered up, which make it more challenging to determine in the primary variables are related to the participants behavior.

Distinguish among face validity, construct validity, and criterion-related validity.

Face validity is when a measure seems to measure what it is intended to. Construct validity is when a certain measure actually relates to other measures it is supposed to. Criterion-related validity examines how far a measure allows researchers to figure out how well participant's will do on something because of a certain behavior. The kind of validity that is least important is face validity because on its own it is not enough evidence.

Do researchers want systematic variance to be large or small?

In order to make sure the effect is real and not related to random factors, researchers want the systematic variance to be large.

why it is sometimes difficult to draw clear conclusions about the changes in attitudes or behavior that are observed?

It is difficult to draw conclusions about the changes in attitudes or behavior that are observed because unless the exact same group of individuals is being interviewed each time the survey is being conducted, it is hard to tell if the two groups of individuals are comparable.

Why must measures be reliable? Also, what is validity?

Measures must be reliable in order for meaningful data to be provided. If the measures are not reliable it cannot be trusted that meaningful data will be provided. Validity is when the measurement measures what it is supposed to be measured instead of something else (accuracy)

Why do researchers use meta-analysis?

Meta-analysis is used by researchers to examine and analyze results across multiple studies. Meta analysis are more informative than the results of a particular study because when combining results from many individual studies the relationships between the particular variables tend to be more accurate.

What are the pros and cons of naturalistic observation?

Naturalistic observation is when researchers observe behavior as it naturally occurs which can be beneficial because participants are not aware, they are being observed so they will not act differently. When the researcher participates in the same activities as the participants, which is called participant observation, this can sometimes cause problems because researchers may lose focus on observing by becoming too involved in the activity.

Distinguish among observational, physiological, and self-report measures.

Observational measures is when behavior is observed while physiological measures are bodily processes such as brain activity that cannot be observed. Self-report measures are when people complete surveys or questionnaires about behavior or emotion.

Why are operational definitions important in research?

Operational definitions are in research because they explain how something is used in a certain study which allows other researchers to replicate someone else's study. For example an operational definition for aggression is a survey that measures aggression.

what is the central difficulty involved in obtaining simple random samples from large populations?

A central difficulty involved in obtaining a simple random sample from a really large population is choosing the random sample. With a large population, you need your sample size to accurately represent the population and then you need to randomly choose that many people from the population. A traditional random sample may use the "pulling names out of a hat" trick - if the population size is 5,000 and the sample size is 200 - there is going to be 5,000 names in a hat and a person would have to sit there and choose the 200. It is very time consuming to have a simple random sample.

random digit dialing

A common method of randomizing poll sample to maximize accuracy.

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negatively skewed distribution

A distribution in which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.

positively skewed distribution

A distribution where the scores pile up on the left side and taper off to the right.

Pseudoscience

A fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence.

negative correlation

A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases.

scatter plot

A graph with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data.

Class Interval

A group of values that is used to analyze the distribution of data.

Can a measurement procedure be valid but not reliable? Reliable but not valid?

A measurement procedure can be reliable but not valid. A procedure may end up with the same results each time, but if it is not measuring what it is supposed to then it is not valid. If a procedure is not reliable then it probably will not be valid because if it is not getting consistent results, then what is being measured is probably not what is intended.

graphical method

A method in which equations are graphed and the point of intersection is found.

restricted range

A narrow range of performance scores that makes it difficult to obtain a significant validity coefficient.

cluster sampling

A probability sampling technique in which clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random, followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster.

systematic sampling

A procedure in which the selected sampling units are spaced regularly throughout the population; that is, every n'th unit is selected.

quota sample

A sample deliberately constructed to reflect several of the major characteristics of a given population

Distinguish between a structured and unstructured observation method.

A structured observation method is when the researcher plans ahead of time specific behaviors they are going to observe while and unstructured observation method the researcher does not necessarily plan before observing.

Outlier

A value much greater or much less than the others in a data set

What special opportunities and problems does participant observation create for researchers?

Participant observation can create special opportunities by allowing the researcher to actually experience what they are observing. It can also cause problems because sometimes researchers can become so involved in the activity that they are not completely focused on observing the behavior of the other participants.

convenience sample

a form of nonprobability sample using respondents who are convenient or readily accessible to the researcher—for example, employees, friends, or relatives

empirical generalization

a hypothesis that is based on the results of previous studies

stratum

a level or layer

physiological measure

a measure of bodily activity; in behavioral research, physiological measures generally are used to assess processes within the nervous system

z-score

a measure of how many standard deviations you are away from the norm (average or mean)

coefficient of determination

a measure of the amount of variation in the dependent variable about its mean that is explained by the regression equation

duration

a measure of the total extent of time in which a behavior occurs

range

a measure of variation computed as the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

interval scale

a measure on which equal distances between scores represent equal differences in the property being measured

self-report measure

a measure on which participants provide information about themselves, on a questionnaire or in an interview, for example

ratio scale

a measure on which scores possess all of the characteristics of real numbers, including a true zero point

nominal scale

a measure on which the numbers assigned to participants' characteristics are merely labels

ordinal scale

a measure on which the numbers assigned to participants' responses reflect the rank order of participants from highest to lowest

psychophysiological measure

a measure that assesses processes occurring in the brain or other parts of the nervous system

neuroscientific measure

a measure that assesses processes occurring in the brain or other parts of the nervous system; also called a psychophysiological measure

Checklist

a measuring instrument on which a rater indicates whether particular behaviors have been observed

experience sampling methods

a method of collecting data in which participants record information about their thoughts, emotions, or behaviors as they occur in everyday life

diary methodology

a method of data collection in which participants keep a daily record of their behavior, thoughts, or feelings

participant observation

a method of data collection in which researchers engage in the same activities as the participants they are observing

questionnaire

a method of data collection in which respondents provide written answers to written questions

Interview

a method of data collection in which respondents respond verbally to researcher's questions

observational measure

a method of measuring behavior by directly observing participants

observational method

a method of measuring behavior by directly observing participants

purposive sample

a nonrandom sample that is chosen for some characteristic that it possesses

correlational coefficient

a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables

variance

a numerical index of the variability in a set of data

a priori prediction

a prediction made about the outcome of a study before data are collected

hypothesis

a proposition that follows logically from a theory; also, a prediction regarding the outcome of a study

single item measure

a questionnaire or interview item that is intended to be analyzed and used by itself

field notes

a researcher's narrative record of a participant's behavior

multiple choice response format

a response format in which participants answer a questionnaire or interview item by choosing one response from a set of possible alternatives

rating scale response format

a response format on which participants rate the intensity or frequency of their behaviors, thoughts, or feelings

probability sample

a sample in which every element in the population has a known statistical likelihood of being selected

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

economic sample

a sample that provides a reasonably accurate estimate of the population at reasonable effort and cost

Longitudinal or panel survey design

a single sample of respondents is questioned more than once

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure used to analyze and integrate the results of many individual studies on a single topic

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

point-biserial correlation

a statistical test used for evaluating the association between one categorical variable and one quantitative variable

internet surveys

a survey in which respondents access and respond to research materials on the World Wide Web

table of random numbers

a table containing numbers that occur in a random order that is often used to select random samples or to assign participants to experimental conditions in a random fashion

simple frequency distribution

a table that indicates the number of participants who obtained each score

multistage cluster sampling

a variation of cluster sampling in which large clusters of participants are sampled, followed by smaller clusters from within the larger clusters, followed by still smaller clusters, until participants are sampled from the small clusters

proportionate sampling method

a variation of stratified random sampling in which cases are selected from each stratum in proportion to their prevalence in the population

Describe each of the three basic types of response formats.

a. Free response- Instead of choosing an item, participants write their own response to the question being asked. b. True-false- Participants are asked a question to which they answer either true or false. c. Rating scale- Participants are asked a question about a certain behavior or feelings and they rate how they feel.

mean

average of scores

simple random sample

every member of the population has a known and equal chance of selection

null finding

failing to obtain a statistically significant effect in a study

Misgeneralization

generalizing results from a study to a population that differs in important ways from the one from which the sample was drawn

frequency polygon

graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines

reactivity

phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being observed

content analysis

procedures used to convert written or spoken information into data that can be analyzed and interpreted

scales of measurement

properties of a measure that reflect the degree to which scores obtained on that measure reflect the characteristics of real numbers; typically, four scales of measurement are distinguished -- nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio

representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects

descriptive research

research designed to describe in an accurate and systematic fashion the behavior, thoughts, or feelings of a group of participants

correlational research

research designed to examine the nature of the relationship between two or more naturally occurring variables

applied research

research designed to investigate real world problems or improve the quality of life

basic research

research designed to understand psychological processes without regard for whether that understanding will be immediately applicable in solving real world problems

archival research

research in which data are analyzed from existing records, such as census reports, court records, or personal letters

quasi-experimental research

research in which the researcher cannot assign participants to conditions or manipulate the independent variable

cross sectional survey design

sample consists of a "cross section" of the population

theory

set of propositions that attempts to explain the relationships among a set of concepts+

knowledgeable informant

someone who knows a participant well enough to report on his or her behavior

Neuroimaging

techniques that allow studying brain activity by obtaining visual images in awake humans

error variance

that portion of the total variance in a set of data that remains unaccounted for after systematic variance is removed; variance that is unrelated to the variables under investigation in a study

task completion time

the amount of time it takes a research participant to complete a test, problem, or other task

latency

the amount of time that elapses between a particular event and a behavior

test bias

the characteristic of a test that is not equally valid for different groups of people

error of estimation (margin of error)

the degree to which data obtained from a sample are expected to deviate from the population as a whole

variability

the degree to which scores in a set of data differ or vary from one another

interrater reliability

the degree to which the observations of two independent raters or observers agree; also called interjudge or interobserver reliability

measurement error

the deviation of a participant's observed score from his or her true score

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

criterion-related validity

the extent to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among respondents on the basis of some behavioral criterion

Validity

the extent to which a measurement procedure actually measures what it is intended to measure

face validity

the extent to which a measurement procedure appears to measure what it is supposed to measure

Psychometrics

the field devoted to the study of psychological measurement

relative frequency

the fraction or percent of the time that an event occurs in an experiment

true score

the hypothetical score that a participant would obtain if the attribute being measured could be measured without error

contrived observation

the observation of behavior in settings that have been arranged specifically for observing and recording behavior

systematic variance

the portion of the total variance in a set of scores that is related in an orderly, predictable fashion to the variables the researcher is investigating

file-drawer problem

the possibility that studies that failed to support a particular hypothesis have not been published, leading researchers to overestimate the amount of support for an effect based on only the published evidence

public verification

the practice of conducting research in such a way that it can be observed, verified, and replicated by others

empiricism

the practice of relying on observation to draw conclusions about the world

methodological pluralism

the practice of using many different research approaches to address a particular question

power

the probability that a test will correctly reject a false null hypothesis

deduction

the process of reasoning from a general proposition to a specific implication of that proposition; for example, hypothesis are often deducted from theories

induction

the process of reasoning from specific instances to a general proposition about those instances; for example, hypothesis are sometimes induced from observed facts

confidence interval

the range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie

falsification

the requirement that a hypothesis must be capable of being falsified

neuroscience

the scientific study of the nervous system

mode

the score that occurred the most throughout the scores

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two or more variables, usually expressed as the proportion of variance in one variable that can be accounted for by another variable

correlational research

the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables

social desirability response bias

the tendency for people to distort their responses in a manner that portrays them in a positive light

nay-saying

the tendency for some participants to disagree with statements on questionnaires or in interviews regardless of the content

acquiescience

the tendency for some people to agree with statements regardless of their content

reaction time

the time that elapses between a stimulus and the response to it

total variance

the total sum of squares divided by the number of scores minus 1

total sum of squares

the total variability in a set of data; calculated by subtracting the mean from each score, squaring the differences, and summing them

evaluation research

the use of behavioral research methods to assess the effects of programs on behavior; also called program evaluation

computerized experience sampling methods

the use of small, portable computers, personal digital assistants, or smartphones to allow participants to record information about experiences in their daily lives soon after they happen

converging operations

using several measurement approaches to measure a particular variable

narrative record

a full description of a participant's behavior as it occurs

model

an explanation of how a particular process occurs

what effect does it have on correlation coefficients? also, how would you detect and correct a restricted range?

- A restricted range can affect the correlation coefficient because if the range is restricted to a small amount of people, a strong relationship may only be found if the range of people is larger and vice versa. - You would see if the range of numbers is reasonable and if they were not, you would simply look for data that showed all of the numbers.

What three criteria characterize good descriptions of data?

- Accuracy - Conciseness - Understandability

What is the drawback of obtaining random samples by telephone?

- How the numbers are obtained - either a phone book or random digit dialing. both of these have their drawbacks - Cell phones have changed the game for telephone samples - People who have cell phones vs. people who have landlines usually have two completely different viewpoints - If you reach someone on their cell phone they may not be home or in a private setting - The area code on a cell phone may not correlate with where the person is actually living because people move and change numbers

Why do so few studies in the behavioral sciences use random samples?

- It is apparently a very common misconception that research in psychology uses random samples - this is untrue. Random samples in psychology research are sort of counterproductive; the majority of the questions that behavioral science research asks cannot be answered with a random sample of individuals. - Behavioral sciences use a probability sample.

Do outliers increase or decrease the magnitude of correlation coefficients?

- On-line outliers (numbers that are smaller or larger than the rest) - these numbers tend to inflate the correlation coefficient. - Off-line outliers (numbers that are completely different than the rest) - these numbers tend to deflate the correlation coefficient.

What are some pros and cons of conducting descriptive research using the Internet?

- Pros of internet surveys: --They are inexpensive. --They do not require a team of people to actually go out and conduct the survey, which saves time. --The computer software will collect and record the data automatically which also saves time and eliminates human error from directly inputting numbers. --They can reach people who are hard to reach and therefore more people can participate. - Cons of internet surveys: --People who do not have internet access are unable to participate in the survey. --Only certain types of people are willing to answer internet surveys therefore there are some types of people who are completely absent in the research. --It is hard to actually verify who completed the survey. --One person can respond more than once.

Why do researchers calculate the coefficient of determination? Also, what does a coefficient of determination of .40 indicate?

- Researchers calculate the coefficient of determination because the r (correlation coefficient) is hard to interpret unless you square it. Once they square it, they can easily interpret it and it tells us the total amount of variance that the variable has. - A coefficient of determination of .40 would be (.40x.40) which equals .16. This would mean that 16% of the scores are related to the other scores.

What is the nonresponse problem, and what difficulties does it create for interpreting findings obtained on probability samples?

- The nonresponse problem is exactly what it sounds like - the random sample of people that has been selected by the researchers is noncompliant with the research study. - This creates many difficulties for the researchers. The original random sample people either - aren't home or don't answer the door, don't answer the calls, changed addresses and didn't leave a forwarding address, etc.

How does descriptive research differ from other kinds of research strategies, such as correlational, experimental, and quasi-experimental research?

- This type of research is not based on hypotheses. - It is used to provide information about specific characteristics of certain groups of people. - Groups can be extremely large or small. - Can be used to find basic or specific information.

what problems are associated with the widespread use of convenience samples of college students?

- college students usually are, white, middle-upper class, (sometimes male) and more intelligent than the general population - college students tend to be more liberal - college students differ a good amount from the general population

What steps do researchers take to minimize nonresponse?

- contacting the person at different points in the day - leaving messages for the person to contact the researcher if they are interested in the study - researchers will send out a mail interview and then follow up with the person with a phone call - incentives are used in order to get a large group of people to get involved in the study (gifts, pizes, etc) - making participating in the study as easy as possible and not time consuming for the individual - telling the individuals in advance that someone will be contacting them to participate in their study

demographic research

- this type of research describes and tries to understand basic life events that people are experiencing (ie. having a child, marriage, employment/unemployment, moving). - example: why are people moving from one place to another? - psychologists are interested in demographic research because they would want to know what type of psychological processes are happening to these people during these major life events (ie. having a baby, getting a new job). This type of research can be used to predict different social changes that may require governmental action.

epidemiological research

- this type of research is used to see the pattern of disease and death in various groups of people. - example: A person's chance of getting lung cancer and its relation to tobacco usage. - psychologists are interested in epidemiological research for two different reasons. (1) Some diseases and injuries are contacted through individuals behavior and lifestyle. If a researcher can pinpoint which types of individuals are setting themselves at high risk for certain things, they can provide information and help for these people. (2) Some of this research can show how often and how much of people are affected by psychological disorders. Psychologists are interested in how certain disorders are prevalent and who they are happening to.

successive independent survey design

- used to examine changes in attitudes or behaviors over time, but results from such designs are often difficult to interpret. - researchers use two or more samples of people, they ask them all the same questions at different periods of time to record their data

Distinguish between an independent variable and a dependent variable.

An independent variable is manipulated in an experiment while the dependent variable is observed.

How does behavior variability relate to the analysis of behavioral data?

Analysis of data is important in understanding behavioral variability. Researchers analyze the data to determine why behavior varies.

Distinguish among the four types of temporal measures—reaction tie, task completion time, inter-behavior latency, and duration

Reaction time is the amount of time that goes by between a stimulus and the participants reaction. Task completion time is the amount it takes participants to complete a particular task. Inter-behavior latency is the amount of time that goes by between two particular behaviors. Duration is the length a particular behavior lasted.

How does behavior variability relate to the design of research studies?

Research studies are designed to allow questions about behavioral to be answered. If a study is poorly designed the researcher will not be able to figure out the reasons the participants behaved the way they did.

How can researchers minimize the effects of social desirability response bias on participants' self-reports?

Researchers can minimize the effects of social desirability by making sure the questions are worded as neutral as they can be, also by assuring the participants that their responses are anonymous and when researchers are observing they should allow space between them and the participant so they are not too concerned that someone is watching them.

How does behavior variability relate to the measurement of behavior?

Researchers use measurements to assess behavioral variability. They want the measurements to correspond to the behavior that was also measured. If they do not correspond than the measurements are useless.

What is the range and why is it not an ideal index of variability?

The range is the difference in scores between the largest and smallest number. It is not an ideal index of variability because it does not look at the other scores, it only shows the vary between the largest and smallest score.

How does behavior variability relate to the research questions that interest behavioral researchers?

The research questions that interest behavioral researchers are about behavioral variability. They want to know how and why certain situations cause people to behave in a certain way.

For the following research question, "Does sleep deprivation cause forgetfulness?" what specifically is the systematic variance due to, what is the error variance due to, and what is the total variance?

The systematic variance is due to sleep deprivation, the error variance is due to other variables not being observed or identified in the study and the total variance is made up of both of these.

How might you find information about measures that have been developed by other researchers?

There are a four sources where information about measures can be found. Many times, they are published in journal articles where you can search to find specific existing measures. Information about measures can also be found in books that examine and describe measures. Another way to find information about existing measures is on the internet using data bases and the last source is purchasing questionnaires from commercial publishers.

How can partial correlation help researchers explore possible causal relationships among correlated variables?

This can help researchers explore relationships between two specific variables within the whole study. For example, if the variables a, b, and c were being measured and we think there is a possibility that there is a relationship between a and c, then we can statistically remove b from the situation and then there would be a partial correlation.

What are the two components of the total variance in a set of scores?

Total variance in partitioned into systematic variance and error variance. Systematic variance is when the participants behavior is related to the variables in a systematic way. Error variance is other factors that are involved in research that are not the primary factors being observed that unaccounted for.

What are two primary considerations when determining how large one's sample should be?

Two primary considerations when determining how large one's sample should be is the margin of error and power. The margin of error is how much mistakes should be accounted for within the research. Power tests how much correct the researcher was of their decision to accept or reject the null hypothesis. These are important for the sample size because the sample size can affect the margin of error and power of the statistics behind the research.

What does the variance tell us about a set of data?

Variance is used to find out the amount of observed variability in the behavior of the participants.

What problem arises when respondents drop out of a longitudinal study?

When respondents drop out of a longitudinal study a unique problem arises. Participants may not want to/be able to continue to participate in the research process and this therefore changes the original sample size.

How do researchers use the process of induction versus deduction to generate research hypothesis?

When using deduction, researchers use reasoning and look at the theory and come up with what would occur if the theory is true. When using induction researchers base their hypothesis from facts.

When would you calculate Cronbach's alpha coefficient?

You would calculate Cronbach's alpha coefficient when using split-half reliability. Since there are different ways to split the items the Cronbach's alpha coefficient tells you the average of all the ways of split-half reliability. The minimum reliability coefficient that researches consider acceptable is .70.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Spearman rank-order correlation

a correlation coefficient calculated on variables that are measured on an ordinal scale

unobtrusive measure

a dependent variable that can be measured without affecting participants' responses

predictive validity

a form of criterion-related validity that reflects the extent to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish between respondents at some time in the future

concurrent validity

a form of criterion-related validity that reflects the extent to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish between respondents at the time the measure is taken

What does it mean if a behavior is reactive? Also, please give 3 ways in which researchers minimize reactivity.

a. If a behavior is reactive this means that when being observed participants react to the observation because they are aware, they are being watched. b. One-way researchers try to minimize reactivity is by disguising an observation by not letting the participants know they are being watched. c. Another way researchers minimize reactivity is by letting participants know they are being observed but they do not tell them in particular what behavior they are watching for. d. Instead of directly observing participants, researchers will sometimes ask a person close to the participant to watch and observe their behavior and then report them back.

For what kind of measure is it appropriate to examine test-retest reliability?

a. It is appropriate to examine test-retest reliability for interitem reliability because it has to do with consistency. It would not be appropriate for interrater reliability because what is being measured, changes as time passes.

List at least 5 considerations that researchers should keep in mind when writing items to be used on a questionnaire or in an interview.

a. Researchers should keep in mind the way they ask or format certain items. b. Researchers should avoid challenging words and keep wording simple. c. Researchers should not assume anything about the participant. d. Researchers should be aware of where they place the main ideas in a question. e. Researchers should make sure each item only allows one response and not multiple.

What are three ways in which researchers assess the reliability of their measures?

a. Test-retest reliability is the consistency over time of the responses of the participants. In order for a measure to be reliable the scores should be about the same each time. b. Interitem reliability looks at the amount of consistency between items on a scale. c. Interrater reliability is the consistency when more than one researcher observes and records the participants behavior.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaire versus interviews to obtain self-report data?

a. The advantages of using questionnaires is that they are often times less expensive and they do not take as much times as interviews usually do. There is a chance participants may be more truthful on questionnaires because they know their responses are anonymous. The disadvantages of questionnaires is that participants are chosen from the general population and someone who is illiterate will not be able to complete them. b. Advantages of interviews are they allow researchers to gather information from people who would not be able to complete a questionnaire on their own. Interviews also allow researchers to know if the participant fully understands what they are being asked and to make sure they understand. Disadvantages of interviews are that they can often times be time consuming, they may cost more money, and the participant cannot be anonymous and therefore may not be one hundred percent truthful.

conceptual definition

an abstract, dictionary-type definition (as contrasted with an operational definition)

spurious correlation

an apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables that is caused by some other variable

frequency distribution

an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs

hypothetical construct

an entity that cannot be directly observed but that is inferred on the basis of observable evidence; intelligence, status, and anxiety are examples of hypothetical constructs

sampling error

an error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population

post hoc explanation

an explanation offered for a set of findings after the data are collected and analyzed

Cronbach's alpha coefficient

an index of interitem reliability

correlation coefficient

an index of the direction and magnitude of the relationship between two variables; the value of a correlation coefficient ranges from 21.00 to 11.00

operational definition

defining a construct by specifying precisely how it is measured or manipulated in a particular study

strategy of strong inference

designing a study in such a way that it tests competing predictions from two or more theories

convergent validity

documenting the validity of a measure by showing that it correlates appropriately with measures of related constructs

discriminant validity

documenting the validity of a measure by showing that it does not correlate with measures of conceptually unrelated constructs