Section 2 History
A brisk trade in furs with local ________and _________ peoples brought the Dutch and native peoples together in a commercial network that extended throughout the Hudson River Valley and beyond.
Algonquian and Iroquois
their mode of colonization relied on powerful corporations: the ___________________, chartered in 1602 to trade in Asia, and the______________, established in 1621 to colonize and trade in the Americas.
Dutch East India Company and Dutch West India Company
How many people survived?
5%
How many people died?
80%
Using the explorer's first name as a label for the new landmass, Waldseemuller attached _______ to his map of the New World in 1507, and the name stuck.
"America"
Columbus held erroneous views that shaped his thinking about what he would encounter as he sailed west. He believed the earth to be much smaller than its actual size and, since he did not know of the existence of the Americas, he fully expected to land in Asia. On October 12, 1492, however, he made landfall on an island in the Bahamas. He then sailed to an island he named Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti). Believing he had landed in the East Indies, Columbus called the native Taínos he found there "Indios," giving rise to the term_____" for any native people of the New World.
"Indian"
They also were victims of the arrogance of the Europeans, who viewed themselves as uncontested masters of the New World, sent by God to bring Christianity to the ______
"Indians."
Some groups, including the Iroquois, engaged in raids or ___________taking enemy prisoners in order to assuage their grief and replace the departed.
"mourning wars,"
the entire colony had vanished. The only trace the colonists left behind was the word Croatoan carved into a fence surrounding the village. Governor White never knew whether the colonists had decamped for nearby Croatoan Island (now Hatteras) or whether some disaster had befallen them all. Roanoke is still called ___________
"the lost colony."
mestizo
(person of mixed indigenous American and European descent).
Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to finance Columbus's expedition in _____ supplying him with three ships: the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria
1492
How many people were disputed?
15%
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of ____
1572,
Portugal spread its empire down the western coast of _____ to the Congo, along the western coast of India, and eventually to Brazil on the eastern coast of South America.
Africa
the Portuguese soon began exporting enslaved Africans along with ____Sugar fueled the Atlantic slave trade, and the Portuguese islands quickly became home to sugar plantations
African ivory and gold
islands became lucrative sugar plantation sites that turned a profit for French planters by relying on ________________
African slave labor.
The travels of Portuguese traders to western Africa introduced them to the ___________
African slave trade
_____________-was one of the most tragic outcomes in the emerging Atlantic World.
African slavery
From the start, the English West Indies had a commercial orientation, for these islands produced cash crops: first tobacco and then sugar. Very quickly, by the mid-1600s,_______________ had become one of the most important English colonies because of the sugar produced there. Barbados was the first English colony dependent on enslaved people, and it became a model for other English slave societies on the American mainland.
Barbados
_________ and __________ had a decidedly commercial orientation from the start
Barbados and Virginia
_________- the idea that the Spanish were bloodthirsty conquerors with no regard for human life.
Black Legend,
Portuguese mariners built an Atlantic empire by colonizing the ______ ,_________, and _______ Islands, as well as the island of Madeira.
Canary, Cape Verde, and the Azores Islands
the Protestant Reformation gained ground beginning in the 1520s, rivalries between ______________ spilled over into the Americas.
Catholic and Protestant Christians
The Spanish established the first European settlements in the Americas, beginning in the Caribbean and, by 1600, extending throughout__________
Central and South America
In 1492
Christopher Columbus lands in Hispaniola
_______________, which was basically a set of protectionist policies designed to benefit the nation, relied on several factors: colonies rich in raw materials, cheap labor, colonial loyalty to the home government, and control of the shipping trade. Under this system, the colonies sent their raw materials, harvested by enslaved laborers or native workers, back to their mother country. The mother country sent back finished materials of all sorts: textiles, tools, clothing. The colonists could purchase these goods only from their mother country; trade with other countries was forbidden.
Colonial mercantilism
As Europeans traversed the Atlantic, they brought with them plants, animals, and diseases that changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean. These two-way exchanges between the Americas and Europe/Africa are known collectively as the ____________
Columbian Exchange.
The Portuguese led the way in the evolving transport of captive enslaved people across the Atlantic; slave "factories" on the west coast of Africa, like ___________, served as holding pens for enslaved people brought from Africa's interior. In time, other European imperial powers would follow in the footsteps of the Portuguese by constructing similar outposts on the coast of West Africa.
Elmina Castle in Ghana
The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was but one part of a larger but undeclared war between Protestant______________Between 1585 and 1604, the two rivals sparred repeatedly.
England and Catholic Spain.
Europeans did not import tobacco in great quantities until the 1590s. At that time, it became the first truly global commodity;
English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese colonists all grew it for the world market.
The Spanish also brought_________ into the valley of Mexico. The disease took a heavy toll on the people in Tenochtitlán, playing a much greater role in the city's demise than did Spanish force of arms.
smallpox
In the following years, as European exploration spread, slavery spread as well. In time, much of the Atlantic World would become a gargantuan sugar-plantation complex in which Africans labored to produce the highly profitable commodity for ___________.
European consumers.
The Vatican in Rome exercised great power over the lives of __________ it controlled not only learning and scholarship but also finances, because it levied taxes on the faithful.
Europeans
Hernando de Soto had participated in Pizarro's conquest of the Inca, and from 1539 to 1542 he led expeditions to what is today the southeastern United States, looking for gold. He and his followers explored what is now ._____________________________________________Everywhere they traveled, they brought European diseases, which claimed thousands of native lives as well as the lives of the explorers
Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Texas.
Spain retained its mighty American empire, but by the early 1600s, the nation could no longer keep England and other European rivals—the ____________—from colonizing smaller islands in the Caribbean.
French and Dutch
The French also dreamed of replicating the wealth of Spain by colonizing the tropical zones. After Spanish control of the Caribbean began to weaken, the French turned their attention to small islands in the West Indies, and by 1635 they had colonized two, ____________.
Guadeloupe and Martinique
While employed by the Dutch East India Company in 1609, the English sea captain ___________ explored New York Harbor and the river that now bears his name
Henry Hudson
Catholic dominance came under attack as the Protestant Reformation, a among_________ European Christians, began.
split or schism
Since the 700s, much of Spain had been under __________, and King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I, arch-defenders of the Catholic Church against Islam, were determined to defeat the Muslims in Granada, the last Islamic stronghold in Spain. In 1492, they completed the Reconquista: the centuries-long Christian conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
Islamic rule
Navigator ________ claimed northern North America for France, naming the area New France. From 1534 to 1541, he made three voyages of discovery on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River.
Jacques Cartier
The first permanent English settlement was established by a joint stock company, the Virginia Company. Named for Elizabeth, the "virgin queen," the company gained royal approval to establish a colony on the east coast of North America, and in 1606, it sent 144 men and boys to the New World. In early 1607, this group sailed up Chesapeake Bay. Finding a river they called the James in honor of their new king, James I, they established a ramshackle settlement and named it ____________
Jamestown.
Determined to deal a death blow to Protestantism in England and Holland,____________ of Spain assembled a massive force of over thirty thousand men and 130 ships, and in 1588 he sent this navy, the Spanish Armada, north. But English sea power combined with a maritime storm destroyed the fleet.
King Philip
Under Elizabeth, the Church of England again became the _____________
state church
Like Jamestown, Plymouth occupies an iconic place in American national memory. The tale of the 102 migrants who crossed the Atlantic aboard the _____________ and their struggle for survival is a well-known narrative of the founding of the country. Their story includes the signing of the Mayflower Compact, a written agreement whereby the English voluntarily agreed to help each other. Some interpret this 1620 document as an expression of democratic spirit because of the cooperative and inclusive nature of the agreement to live and work together. In 1630, a much larger contingent of Puritans left England to escape conformity to the Church of England and founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Mayflower
Between 1540 and 1542, Coronado led a large expedition of Spaniards and native allies to the lands north of ___________, and for the next several years, they explored the area that is now the southwestern United States.
Mexico City
In August 1521, having successfully fomented civil war as well as fended off rival Spanish explorers, Cortés claimed Tenochtitlán for Spain and renamed it ____________
Mexico City.
The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha by
Miguel de Cervantes.
Calvin's ideas spread to the ____________.
Netherlands and Scotland.
Of all the commodities in the Atlantic World, _____ proved to be the most important
sugar
English Puritans also began to colonize the Americas in the 1620s and 1630s. These intensely religious migrants dreamed of creating communities of reformed Protestantism where the corruption of England would be eliminated. One of the first groups of Puritans to move to North America, known as Pilgrims and led by William Bradford, had originally left England to live in the ______________
Netherlands.
The French were primarily interested in establishing commercially viable colonial outposts, and to that end, they created extensive trading networks in ___________. These networks relied on native hunters to harvest furs, especially beaver pelts, and to exchange these items for French glass beads and other trade goods
New France
in 1492 sparked new rivalries among European powers as they scrambled to create ________, fueled by the quest for wealth and power as well as by religious passions. Almost continuous war resulted
New World colonies
Elizabeth did sanction an early attempt at colonization in 1584, when Sir Walter Raleigh, a favorite of the queen's, attempted to establish a colony at Roanoke, an island off the coast of present-day ____________
North Carolina.
Although his first efforts against the Inca Empire in the 1520s failed, Pizarro captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa in 1532 and executed him one year later. In 1533, Pizarro founded Lima, _______
Peru.
Luther's action instead triggered a movement called the __________________ that divided the Church in two
Protestant Reformation
Known as ______________ they worked to erase all vestiges of Catholicism from the Church of England
Puritans
Pilgrims
Separatists, led by William Bradford, who established the first English settlement in New England
Alhambra in Granada
Spain
Black Legend
Spain's reputation as bloodthirsty conquistadors
In 1519, he entered ________, the capital of the Aztec (Mexica) Empire. He and his men were astonished by the incredibly sophisticated causeways, gardens, and temples in the city,
Tenochtitlán
the realities of life in the Americas—violence, exploitation, and particularly the need for workers—were soon driving the practice of slavery and forced labor. Everywhere in America a stark contrast existed between freedom and slavery. _____________, in which Europeans transported plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic in both directions, also left a lasting impression on the Americas.
The Columbian Exchange
____________ in turn established colonies on Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, St. Martin, St. Eustatius, and Saba.
The Dutch West India Company
English scholar___________ to translate the Bible into English in 1526. The seismic break with the Catholic Church in England occurred in the 1530s, when Henry VIII established a new, Protestant state religion.
William Tyndale
Fort Orange—named for the royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau—in present-day Albany. (The color orange remains significant to the Dutch, having become particularly associated with ______________Protestantism, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688.)
William of Orange,
The resulting ________ in 1494 drew a north-to-south line through South America; Spain gained territory west of the line, while Portugal retained the lands east of the line, including the east coast of Brazil.
Treaty of Tordesillas
Calvinism
a branch of Protestantism started by John Calvin, emphasizing human powerlessness before an omniscient God and stressing the idea of predestination
joint stock company
a business entity in which investors provide the capital and assume the risk in order to reap significant returns
smallpox
a disease that Europeans accidentally brought to the New World, killing millions of Native Americans, who had no immunity to the disease
Separatists
a faction of Puritans who advocated complete separation from the Church of England
Puritans
a group of religious reformers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who wanted to "purify" the Church of England by ridding it of practices associated with the Catholic Church and advocating greater purity of doctrine and worship
In order to gain power, nations had to ____________________. During the age of European exploration, nations employed conquest, colonization, and trade as ways to increase their share of the bounty of the New World.
amass wealth by mining these precious raw materials from their colonial possessions
Native peoples were not the only source of cheap labor in the Americas; by the middle of the sixteenth century, Africans formed___________________________. Europeans viewed Africans as non-Christians, which they used as a justification for enslavement. Denied control over their lives, enslaved people endured horrendous conditions. At every opportunity, they resisted enslavement, and their resistance was met with violence
an important element of the labor landscape, producing the cash crops of sugar and tobacco for European markets
The Spanish believed native peoples would work for them by right of conquest, and, in return, the Spanish would bring them Catholicism. In theory the relationship consisted of reciprocal obligations, but in practice the Spaniards ruthlessly exploited it, seeing native people as little more than _____________.
beasts of burden.
Native peoples also introduced Europeans to chocolate, made from _______and used by the ________ in Mesoamerica as currency. Mesoamerican Natives consumed unsweetened chocolate in a drink with chili peppers, vanilla, and a spice called ______-. This chocolate drink—___________
cacao seeds,Aztec,achiote,xocolatl
Native peoples had no immunity to diseases from across the Atlantic, to which they had never been exposed. European explorers unwittingly brought with them ______________________- , which ravaged native peoples despite their attempts to treat the diseases, decimating some populations and wholly destroying others.
chickenpox, measles, mumps, and smallpox
Commodification thus recast native economies and spurred the process of early ______________. New World resources, from plants to animal pelts, held the promise of wealth for European imperial powers.
commercial capitalism
indulgences
documents for purchase that absolved sinners of their errant behavior
Spain granted _________—legal rights to native labor—to conquistadors who could prove their service to the crown. This system reflected the Spanish view of colonization: the king rewarded successful conquistadors who expanded the empire
encomiendas
The system of ______________ was accompanied by a great deal of violence. One Spaniard, Bartolomé de Las Casas, denounced the brutality of Spanish rule.
encomiendas
In 1515, Las Casas released his enslaved natives, gave up his encomienda, and began to advocate for humane treatment of native peoples. He lobbied for new legislation, eventually known as the New Laws, which would eliminate slavery and the encomienda system.
slavery and the encomienda system.
Enslaved people had to cut the long cane stalks by hand and then bring them to a mill, where the cane juice was extracted. They boiled the extracted cane juice down to a brown, crystalline sugar, which then had to be cured in special curing houses to have the molasses drained from it. The result was refined sugar, while the leftover molasses could be distilled into rum. Every step was ________________
labor-intensive and often dangerous.
Don Quixote
leaves reality behind and sets out to revive chivalry by doing battle with what he perceives as the enemies of Spain.
encomienda
legal rights to native labor as granted by the Spanish crown
chocolate gained a reputation as a ____________
love potion.
Henry created a new _____________________________with himself at its head. This left him free to annul his own marriage and marry Anne Boleyn.
national Protestant church, the Church of England,
This shift—from seeing the Bible as the source of all received wisdom to trusting ______________—is one of the major outcomes of the era of early globalization.
observation or empiricism
sugarcane
one of the primary crops of the Americas, which required a tremendous amount of labor to cultivate
On his second voyage, Christopher Columbus brought ________________________ . Later explorers followed suit, introducing new animals or ntroducing ones that had died out (like horses). With less vulnerability to disease, these animals often fared better than humans in their new home, thriving both in the wild and in domestication.
pigs, horses, cows, and chickens to the islands of the Caribbean
Elizabeth approved of English________________ to whom the home government had given permission to raid the enemy at will.
privateers, sea captains
probanza de mérito
proof of merit
probanza de mérito
proof of merit: a letter written by a Spanish explorer to the crown to gain royal patronage
mourning wars
raids or wars that tribes waged in eastern North America in order to replace members lost to smallpox and other diseases
privateers
sea captains to whom the British government had given permission to raid Spanish ships at will
Roanoke
the first English colony in Virginia, which mysteriously disappeared sometime between 1587 and 1590
Hispaniola
the island in the Caribbean, present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic, where Columbus landed on his first voyage to the Americas and established a Spanish colony
Columbian Exchange
the movement of plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic due to European exploration of the Americas
mercantilism
the protectionist economic principle that nations should control trade with their colonies to ensure a favorable balance of trade
Protestant Reformation
the schism in Catholicism that began with Martin Luther and John Calvin in the early sixteenth century
commodification
the transformation of something—for example, an item of ritual significance—into a commodity with monetary value
Many other Europeans followed in Columbus's footsteps, drawn by dreams of __________________. Another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for the Portuguese crown, explored the South American coastline between 1499 and 1502. Unlike Columbus, he realized that the Americas were not part of Asia but lands unknown to Europeans.
winning wealth by sailing west