SI 430 Midterm
Which authors discuss techno-optimism?
Brewer, Prensky, Negroponte, Shirky, Inamdar, Quadir
"The Case for Technology in Developing Regions" by Eric Brewer
"The Case for Technology in Developing Regions" written by several authors first mentions the issue of how the rise of innovative technology only helps a small part of the world population. Most of the world does not benefit from "first world technology." There is a need for first world countries to conduct research to create technology that can specifically help a country and their requirements. The article outlines the several different ways that researchers have enacted change by creating need-specific technology for certain locations. Researchers have worked in franchising, shared technology, healthcare, network infrastructure, and more. There have been new methods to promote education in rural India, to provide affordable telecommunications access in villages in Bangladesh, and to prevent increased rates of child mortality in Tanzania. Overall, the authors encourage us to be mindful of the specific economies in an area that may be disrupted by first world technology. We must protect those voices that can't be heard, and research ways to help them.
Actor-Network Theory
- Human and non-human actants: both have agency, power is not inherent in either one - Explores how relations between objects, people and concepts are formed, rather than WHY they are formed - Material objects (and artifacts) mediate interpersonal interactions (or organized action) - Programs and anti-programs - Social order/stability of networks depend on alignment of the network, which occurs through translation of actors interests - Objects influence actor-structure interactions, they change with accumulating experience - In addition to physical shape, the knowledge also evolves - Objects are influenced by culture, and their "use" is an expression for the accumulation and transmission of social knowledge - Objects influence both the agents and the structure - Key questions to ask: 1. Are they strong or weak associations? 2. Is the network stable or unstable? 3. What elements of the network are changed to create new entity? 4. When, why, how does the network become stable or durable?
Socio-Technical Systems Theory
- Technical: processes, tasks, and technology needed to transform input to output - Social: attitudes, skills, values of people, their relationships, reward systems, and authority structures - Design and performance of any organizational system can only be understood and improved if both "social" and "technical" aspects are brought together and treated as interdependent parts of a complex system - Optimization of each aspect alone (socio or technical) tends to increase those relationships that are injurious to the system's performance
Technological Determinism
- Technological Innovations develop outside of society, uninfluenced by social, economic, or political factors (human and social factors merely mediate technological innovation that is inevitable otherwise) Examples: Television + US programming; Digital Cameras & Social Networking + Wedding Photography in Pakistan
Social Construction of Technology
- Technological developments should be explained through the lenses of social, political, economic, cultural, and technological developments - People have choices regarding the form and use of a particular technology - Relevant social groups (stakeholders), technological frame, interpretive flexibility and closure
Techno-skepticism or Techno-Pessimism
- Technological progress is a flawed concept - The control of technological development by powerful corporations and states is anti-democratic - The vision or belief that there will always be technological solutions to social problems (this claim nowadays transfers to environmental problems too) is a dangerous illusion
Critical Theory of Technology
- Technology is a product of its context: who made it, why it was made, and how it was intended to be used - There is a value in design - When we judge the value and acceptability of technology, we also evaluate its values - Values shape technology, and our design practices reinforce those values - Important to remember: technologies sometimes get used differently from how they were intended to be used
Techno-Optimism
- The general direction of technological development is right and positive - The benefits of technology outweigh the risks - Progress will rectify the problems caused by existing or past technologies
myths cited in Trucano's article, "A few myths and misconceptions about digital teaching and learning materials in Africa"
1. "Africa is simply not ready for digital teaching and learning materials" 2. "We will cut costs by 'going digital' with our textbooks" 3. "The content we need is already available - and free" 4. "Digital learning materials will engage and motivate our children" 5. "E-books can simply replace our textbooks" 6. "If we don't act now, we will fall behind"
"Technology is Society Made Durable" by B. Latour
A lesson that I took away from this reading is that "the force with which a speaker makes a statement is never enough" - it's actually what people take away from the statement that will make an impact. Latour describes the thought process behind having hotel guests leave their room keys with the front desk when they are out of the hotel. There are several different aspects to the success of the implementation of the design, including physical adjustments, wording, signage, etc. The point is made that context is necessary when dealing with science and technology, and that having 'naked' and 'loaded' statements is what makes up our socio-technical world. This is then explained through other examples beyond the hotel key. In general, when observing a socio-technical network and looking at it through its association and substitution, trajectories, translations, and point of view (all terms discussed in the paper), then it is not necessary to look any further explanations (unless looking at other networks involved).
Gartner Hype Cycle
A technology breakthrough is soon followed by a period of time of "inflated expectations" about what sort of changes might be possible as a result. (In Michael Trucano's reading, "A few myths and misconceptions about digital teaching and learning materials in Africa")
Which authors discuss Amplification theory?
Agre, Toyama
"Critical Theory of Technology" by A Feenberg
Andrew Feenberg discusses a critical theory on technology in this piece, which are made up of two types: instrumental theory (technology is less important than politics and culture, etc.) and substantive theory (technology overrides competing values). The critical theory Feenberg mentions is a compromise of both extremes. Getting more in depth for Instrumental theory, we learn that under this concept, technology is neutral - this means it is indifferent to the variety of ends it can achieve, indifferent to politics and religion, and indifferent to societal norms and contexts. On the other hand, substantive theory argues that technology affects every aspect of life that was mentioned in the instrumental theory. Substantive theory is the minority opinion (according to Feenberg), saying that there is no escape from technology as it takes over everything. Feenberg doesn't actually go into the critical theory that can combine both of these extremes, but we can assume it prompts us to be aware of the cultural implications technology has on society.
"Using Actor-Network Theory to Analyze E-Government Implementation Technologies and International Development" by C Stanforth
Ant-Network Theory (ANT) is defined as the "recognition that actors build networks combining technical and social elements and that the elements of these networks, including those entrepreneurs who have engineered the network, are, at the same time, both constituted and shaped within those networks" (38). This paper was written by Carolyne Stanforth to promote this theory as a way to analyze the implementation of e-government and ICT in developing countries. Since the application of e-government is a political process (continuous action is necessary), and there is great research on the changing role of government in the digital era, ANT is used here because it is an alternative of science/tech studies that can provide further explanation. ANT contrasts with technological determinism - it is believed that machines and humans equally act in a network. Using the ANT perspective in a case study about PEM information systems in Sri Lanka, where Stanforth was involved in a fiscal reform program, the general process of designing an ICT, implementing it and adjusting it is described. I thought it was interesting to learn the postmodernism criticism of ANT and consider that criticism when understanding the case study. With such an emphasis on power, it's interesting that others believe that society is stable whereas ANT writers believe it's held together by the people. Overall the resulting success of the public expenditure management information systems in Sri Lanka is significant, and analyzing its networks was interesting. The theory in general was a bit difficult to understand but the paper was thorough. Stanforth did a nice job of explaining the process, which makes sense since she is in the School of Environment and Development at University of Manchester. I couldn't find much more external information on her but her close involvement in Sri Lanka tells me that she's very knowledgeable on the subject, but also may be coming in from a subjective point of view because she went through everything personally; however, she did cite other sources which is a great sign. This piece can be contrasted to the Latour reading, where it is initially stated that Latour wants to consider that non-human actants keep society stable and running. The pieces look at different ways of analyzing networks and how society is affected by them. ANT appreciates the human aspect while Latour did not delve into that as much.
"At its best, the fascination with ICT as a solution distracts from the real issues. At its worst, ICT is suggested as substitute to solving the real problems, for example, "why bother about teachers, when ICT can be the teacher." This perspective is lethal."
Anurag Behar - Limits of ICT in Education
"The children and teachers who used them, loved them. It created excitement and interest in the classroom. There was no practically no impact in a sustained, systemic manner on learning."
Anurag Behar - Limits of ICT in Education
Which authors discuss techno-pessimism?
Arora, Behar, Cristia, Dada, Grassegger/Krogerus, Morozov
"MIS Problems and Failures: A Socio-Technical Perspective. Part I: The Causes" by Robert Bostrom
Bostrom and Heinen discuss the topic of Management Information Systems (MIS) and the issues surrounding problematic designs for these systems. To design proper MIS, creators have to look at both the social implications and the technical implications, and also understand the context at hand, including knowing who the stakeholders are and what the organization is. Designers often fail to do so which results in poor MIS. The general timeline is that system designers have their own theory about how the system should operate (Theory X or Theory Y), and the lack of perspective causes for poor design choices. This leads to bad designs, causing problems with the system, and eventual failure. Bostrom and Heinen touch upon seven separate conditions, and conclude that system users must assume responsibility for MIS designs, social and technical systems should be equally considered, there needs to be a more realistic view of the political dimensions in the design, etc.
Which authors discuss socio-technical systems theory?
Bostrom, Dawes, Avgerou
Condition 2: System Designer's Concept of Responsibility Computer related technology is essentially neutral; whether its application succeeds or fails depends entirely upon the decisions that are made on how it shall be used. Do you agree? Can you give examples with the given context?
Bostrom: MIS Problems + Failures
"Q&A with Clay Shirky on Twitter and Iran" by Clay Shirky
Clay Shirky, a professor at NYU, was interviewed in 2009 after protests against election results broke out in Iran. Through a short series of questions, Shirky gives his opinion on matters surrounding how digital media has played a role in these protests. First of all, he makes clear that the internet has allowed for uncensored participation and discussion that wouldn't be possible without a digital connection. Twitter in particular has the biggest impact during this election and these protests, Shirky believes, because it is so open and simple for people to share that no government can figure out how to shut down citizens' access. In general, he says faster mediums have become more emotionally involved, especially because users must be aware that the outside world is readings your tweets. Overall, Shirky believes that new media tools are able to build a community through this emotional connection, and although the Iran protests are complicated, it is interesting to see how it is affected through online interaction.
"The Failure of E-Government in Developing Countries: A Literature Review" by D. Dada
Danish Dada writes about the implementation of electronic governments (e-governments) in developing and developed countries. The e-government supposedly helps with the development of a country, promotes greater democracy, as well as many other benefits. Dada reviews literature that speak critically of what goes wrong in the process of switching to e-governments and the negative outcomes of the execution. Evidently, most e-governments fail, which is especially bad for developing countries because they cannot afford to waste resources and time. Not only this, but regular information systems fail as well. In the the slim cases of success, the government systems do not immediately become more transparent or efficient. The process requires a huge amount of social change in addition to the technological change occurring. Furthermore, the technological design might be completely different from the reality of the country. There's also the type of gap that occurs between the current and future government states that many can't handle. Dada goes on to explain the different types of "gaps," including hard-soft gaps, private-public gaps, and country context gaps. Overall, this article is another great example of how we must keep context, education/training, and funding in mind when making a digital change in a developing world.
"In the future, what will be, or should be, the purpose of the government?" Trends: Age distribution, Birth Rates, Migration, Globalization, Privatization, institutional change
Dawes: Research + Action Framework
"Should the government play any kind of role in advancing a particular technology?"
Dawes: Research + Action Framework
Which authors discuss techno-realism?
Elkerdi, Trucano, Warschauer, Kling, Gauld, Panth
"The Dark Side of the Digital Revolution" by E. Schmidt
Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen initially state that it is difficult to explain the internet to North Korean citizens, who are banned from using the internet. Schmidt and Cohen describe it as a form of free expression and and critical thinking, among other terms. While the internet and phone access is slowly gaining traction in North Korea, we often forget to think about the dark side of this rise in technology for citizens living under an autocratic regime. The autocrats will have to spend a great deal of money, time, and effort in order to control web access in their countries. Even so, it is possible, and can be done by wealthier countries. Once this occurs, word will spread and more governments may adopt strict surveillance. Surveillance can include biometrics, which would save and track a citizen's fingerprints and facial recognition. Governments can essentially follow their citizens' every move, and their people don't have the means to do anything about it. Dictators are benefitting from advanced technology. While ICT also allows groups of people to revolt (like in the Arab Spring), we must be conscious of the downfalls of technology. People are more easily targeted and marginalized. There is hope that citizens can overcome the technology that may be pushed against them, but we have to be prepared to fight back if so.
Which authors discuss instrumental theories?
Feenberg, Eckersly, Toyama
Which authors discuss technological determinism?
Heilbroner, Waverman, Postman
"Hope-in-the-Wall? A digital promise for free learning" by P. Arora
Hole-in-the-Wall Education Lit. (HiWEL) introduced computer kiosks into school playgrounds to promote interactive and collaborative education with other children. Mathematics, English, and Science were all subjects featured on the computer through games and videos. The experiment was not a success, as instruction was not given (in a place with little computer literacy), the playground ended up not being as free and childlike of a space as anticipated, and the teamwork-style learning was not natural in this environment. Many factors need to be acknowledged when instilling a huge technological change into a rural community, especially social factors. The author wraps up the article on a positive note, stating that there is a chance HiWEL could work with more preparation next time.
"Geek Heresy: Rescuing Social Causes from the Cult of Technology" by K Toyama
I really enjoyed this piece by Kentaro Toyama, who writes about the Law of Amplification in a very comprehensive and relatable manner. The main point of Toyama's discussion was to present this concept, which is that technology does not change people's behaviors, it fulfills our latent desires. Toyama is basically arguing against technological determinism. Overall, technologies wouldn't succeed if people didn't want them to; its effect is up to the people and the society that exists (and that is ever changing). This means that technology can be positive if positive forces are already established, but it can be negative in many situations when people aren't capable of handling it. The Law of Amplification puts all of the responsibility (whether it be failure or success) of technology on the human. Toyama helps explain this concept by demolishing four separate myths: 1. Technology saves money; 2. Big data makes business issues more clear; 3. Social media brings people together; and 4. Digital systems level playing fields. Looking at the big picture of these scenarios helps me realize as a reader that it's difficult to declare something absolutely, because something is always true or false "to an extent" in this paper. It all depends on the context. Toyama demonstrates that these four claims are indeed myths because they are sometimes true, but oftentimes they are false. Overall, the Law of Amplification allows us to make certain predictions about our future, and there is much to be said about the human's reaction with the technology before placing the blame on the technology. We just read Kentaro Toyama's piece on Monday, "There Are No Technology Shortcuts to Education." While our class discussed that he had quite a few claims that needed some evidence to support them, I don't see that as a problem in this article. The paper felt very informative and I enjoyed all of the examples to clarify the Law of Amplification because it wasn't as obvious right away. Oddly enough, this paper reminded me of the piece we read about Democracy spreading Twitter (in the social determinism week) and it was written by Kentaro Toyama as well! As for how it relates to Agre's article, both write about the amplification model/Law of Amplification but Agre goes more into the political side. Agre also brought in another point of view to help differentiate the specific concept, which was helpful. With both of these articles, I have a more well-rounded view of this idea.
"Limits of ICT in Education" by A. Behar
I thoroughly enjoyed reading this piece written by Anurag Behar. Behar is very candid in expressing his business' failure to implement a form of ICT, educational CDs, in thousands of schools over a 5-year developmental period. He mentions that we often see ICT as a cure-all to educational problems around the world, when that simply is not the case. The foundation of education is the quality of teachers and resources. Just by adding technology to the equation, especially in a rural area with limited internet connection/electricity, we cannot expect sensational change. We must think of ICT contextually, and in a delicate manner, not anticipating the ICT itself to be a miracle worker. Behar even discussed the problem with leaders in Finland and Canada, two countries with exceptional education systems, and they claim to not invest in ICT for their schools -- they focus on the teachers and buildings (although this must be different 8 years later). It's great that we learn from trial and error in this new technological age.
One Laptop Per Child TEDTalk by Nicholas Negroponte
In the Ted Talk given by Nicholas Negroponte titled "One Laptop per Child," there is a clear message about how important interactional education is for children. Negroponte founded a non-profit with the goal of providing a laptop to every student in the developing world. Outcomes of these kids having access to a laptop were positive: less discipline problems, higher attendance in parent-teacher meetings, higher engagement, and more. Children became increasingly interested in their schooling with the presence of an educational device. Negroponte explained his plan to gain sponsorship from Google and other brands, create an $100 innovative laptop and market the business to seven different countries. He acknowledged the "stupid" criticism that he has received, and overall demonstrated his passion for education very well.
"Technology only captures a certain limited measurement of reality within a standardized system that removes any of the original source's unique qualities"
Jaron Lanier (You are not a gadget) said this in Oubai Elkerdi's article, "Why technology is not always the solution for better education"
Anomie
Lack of usual social or ethical standards in an individual or a group Is ______ a disease of capitalism or of all industrial societies? from Heilbroner: Do Machines Make History?
Which authors discuss actor-network theory?
Latour, Stanforth
"Technology and Equity in Schooling: Deconstructing the Digital Divide" by M. Warschauer
Mark Warschauer et. al conducted a study that focuses on the relationship between technology and academic preparation. By analyzing two types of schools (low-SES and high-SES) and their students' computer usage, Warschauer et. al were able to uncover the differences in technology and types of education. Initially we were informed that there were comparable numbers of computers and internet-connected computers per student, which is surprising to some because even teachers underestimated how many students had computers at home. The usage is where there are differences. While some aspects of computer usage may seem the same at first glance, it's actually very unique per type of school. In low-SES schools, computers were often used for basic research. In high-SES schools, they used computers for statistics, a class that's not even offered at the lower-SES schools. Higher-SES and lower-SES schools both cared about mastering the software on the computers, but in different ways. Overall, there are so many factors that go into the technology divide based on class, that you cannot look at it at a shallow level. At first glance, the students seem to have similar experiences, but when deeply analyzing, we can see that the students have greatly unique situations. Once again, context is key when implementing technology into schools. First and foremost, we need good teachers and good resources for learning as a foundation - then, we can worry about the computer usage.
"A Few Myths and Misconceptions about Digital Teaching and Learning Materials in Africa" by M. Trucano
Michael Trucano is very experienced in the bridge between education and technology, and his article discussing the myths/misconceptions surrounding the topic was very thoughtful. He is the Senior Education & Technology Policy Specialist and Global Lead for Innovation in Education for the World Bank, a company working to make sustainable solutions to decrease poverty. I was worried at first that his paper would be biased towards technology optimism, but it ended up being a very neutral piece speaking about rumors/misconceptions out there regarding technology and its use in African education. Overall, Trucano covers most questions that people may have, including myself. Some major points were that there are major generalizations when it comes to speaking about Africa and its role with technology. Even though I am aware of how diverse Africa is as a continent, I find myself making generalizations sometimes about how more rural areas or less-developed countries are not prepared for digital technology in education. It is unfair that I, or anyone else, would assume the worst of a country due to its location. Furthermore, I completely agree with Trucano's encouragement to think about the big picture when dealing with technology. We cannot fall into the trap of focusing only on the technology itself -- we also have to remind ourselves of the context: training, repair, past experiences with the particular school, etc. Although people are wrong to assume certain countries can't handle the transition into technology, we also cannot assume that any country can. It's all about balance. I'm also glad Trucano brought up the point about other countries feeling like they're falling behind on technology compared to other developed countries. I've always hated this idea of "falling behind" -- it just encourages competition and rushes the process of technological developments. This idea needs to be put to rest; caution is hugely important in this digital age. I know it sometimes is inevitable to feel competitive, though, especially in American culture. In general, I enjoyed this piece. It was helpful that Trucano cited several different sources throughout the article so I could easily access more information if I needed further explanation. The citations also helped me to believe that the author was unbiased. It was helpful to learn about both sides of technological growth, and I always appreciate a seemingly neutral point of view.
"Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the age of show business" by N. Postman
Neil Postman overall believes that we are headed for disaster given the way people, especially Americans, interact with television. Postman believes that TV attacks literate culture, and that while American television entertainment has soared, our political and moral power has decreased. At this point in the reading I could see Postman's perspective, as I agree that many people may see the U.S. today as an entertainment hub with an embarrassing political system (and President) and poor ethics (regarding the environment, health, etc.). However, Postman's extreme bias against technology was too much for me to agree with. He claimed that the television can only entertain us, while serious topics (politics, science, education) would not come across well on TV. His solution to protecting American society from television-harm (and the Huxleyan future) is to limit violence and commercials on TV, and that TV's medium should not be for such serious topics. I disagree, and I think a great example could be the recent coverage of Brett Kavanaugh's election to the Supreme Court sparked great discussions and movements. I also remember watching Bill Nye the Science Guy on TV growing up, and I thought that was not only entertaining, but educational. While I see where Postman is coming from, I cannot fully get on board with his hesitation towards television.
"An honest appraisal of any new technology, or of progress in general, requires a sensitivity to what's lost as well as what's gained. We shouldn't allow the glories of technology to blind our inner watchdog to the possibility that we've numbed an essential part of our self."
Nicholas Carr said this in Oubai Elkerdi's article, "Why technology is not always the solution for better education"
"We ended up trying to describe the Internet to North Koreans we met in terms of its values: free expression, freedom of assembly, critical thinking, meritocracy... North Korea is at the beginning of a cat-and-mouse game that's playing out all around the world between repressive regimes and their people. In most of the world, the spread of connectivity has transformed people's expectations of their governments. North Korea is one of the last holdouts... None of this will transform the country overnight, but one thing is certain: Though it is possible to curb and monitor technology, once it is available, even the most repressive regimes are unable to put it back in the box."
Schmidt: Dark Side of the Digital Revolution
"Why Technology is Not Always the Solution for Better Education" by O. Elkerdi
Oubai Elkerdi discusses the increasing issue of technology being brought into spaces it shouldn't be. As the title suggests, technology isn't always a solution; it often actually hurts a situation. Elkerdi makes a great argument in saying that we have to be sensitive to what we lose in face of technology, not just mindful of what we gain. This is because even with the greatest technological advances, we numb a part of ourselves that may be important. It's unfortunate that there has to be some sort of loss when it comes to innovative technology, but it's impossible to include every single unique aspect of human reality into technology. An example of this is that a researcher compared scholarly articles before and after the rise of technology, and papers written before the digital age were richer with information and had more helpful citations. It's nice that we can access these articles online, but we also lose some information in the process. Another interesting concept brought up in the reading was that our work (and many other things) becomes less original and thoughtful with the introduction to technology. People who have grown up with technology are removed from the potential to practice patience, determination, and hard work -- even if it is easier to get started in many things with the growth of tech, it is consequently much harder to become an expert. To conclude, we must feel a sense of worry instead of excitement when technology spreads to so many areas of our world.
"In the urgent words of Elias Aboujaoude, 'those effects deserve to be understood, studied, and discussed.'"
Oubai Elkerdi, "Why technology is not aways the solution for better education"
"Scientific revolutions happen because brave minds search for possible explanations outside of the box, in unexplored territories. But how can algorithms that lock us in a particular mindset—usually the developer's worldview—even enable us to question our basic assumptions about nature?"
Oubai Elkerdi, "Why technology is not aways the solution for better education"
"When it comes to people, we technologists must use a completely different methodology. We don't understand the brain well enough to comprehend phenomena like education or friendship on a scientific basis. So when we deploy a computer model of something like learning or friendship in a way that has an effect on real lives, we are relying on faith. When we ask people to live their lives through our models, we are potentially reducing life itself. How can we ever know what we might be losing?"
Oubai Elkerdi, "Why technology is not aways the solution for better education"
"The new mode of activism, made possible by the use of networked digital tools, leads to benefits for citizens of established democracies, countries in transition, and authoritarian regimes alike. First, as the Kenyan example demonstrates, it is possible to harness the Internet's power to render more transparent the actions of a specific government... Second, the Internet can provide a means for ordinary citizens to participate in the way that public events are told to others, set into context, understood by people far and near, and remembered for posterity... The traditional hierarchies of control of news and information are crumbling, with new dynamics replacing the old. These new dynamics will lead to a more responsive politics."
Palfrey: Born Digital
"What the Net provides is an increasingly useful, attractive platform for those who are predisposed to be active in civic life. The data do not support the argument that Digital Natives, or anyone else, are, in large percentages, using new technologies for purposes of civic activism "
Palfrey: Born Digital
"Not a dollar will be invest in ICT, every dollar that we have will go to teacher and school leader capacity building."
Paraphrased from Education Leaders from Finland and Ontario (Canada) by Anurag Behar
Social Determinism
Social determinism is the theory that social interactions and constructs alone determine individual behavior (as opposed to biological or objective factors). Consider certain human behaviors, such as committing murder, or writing poetry. A social determinist would look only at social phenomena, such as customs and expectations, education, and interpersonal interactions, to decide whether or not a given person would exhibit any of these behaviors. They would discount biological and other non-social factors, such as genetic makeup, the physical environment, etc. Ideas about nature and biology would be considered to be socially constructed.
"Real-time Politics: The Internet and the Political Process" by P. Agre
Philip Agre discusses how the amplification model can help analyze how politics are affected by the Internet (mostly how politics are amplified through the internet). Agre dives into ten different proposals surrounding the idea of the Internet impacting the current political society including how: democracy is equated to online discussions; the Internet makes the political community more intimate and compact; Internet centralizes regions to be integrated more into the economic and political spheres; the Internet allows for open access to information, etc. The amplification model itself is explained more deeply by examples, such as how people that are already interested in politics will participate in political activities online; people who weren't interested in politics to begin with wouldn't necessarily use technology that way. Agre asks, "Does the Internet really bring anything new?" The reinforcement model is mentioned to provide a contrasting argument, which examines an existing problem and then will correct it and make significant change. It is concluded that every situation is different, and the models can be applied to different contexts. To identify how politics are affected by the Internet in specific ways is what is important, no matter how it is done.
"How television stages the world becomes the model for how the world is properly to be stages"
Postman: Television as a medium
"In the age of advanced technology, spiritual devastation is more likely to come from an enemy with a smiling face, than from one whose countenance exudes suspicion and hate."
Postman: Television as a medium
"There are two ways by which the spirit of a culture may be shriveled. In the first, the Orwelian - culture becomes a prison. In the second, the Huxleyan - culture becomes a burlesque."
Postman: Television as a medium
Which authors discuss techno-confusion?
Schmidt, Palfrey, Kolko
""The empowered citizen," Mr. Kissinger says, "knows the technique of getting people to the square, but they don't know what to do with them when they are in the square. They know even less of what to do with them when they have won." These people can get easily marginalized, he explains, because their strategies lose effectiveness over time."
Schmidt: Dark Side of the Digital Revolution
"And don't think that the data being collected by autocracies is limited to Facebook posts or Twitter comments. The most important data they will collect in the future is biometric information, which can be used to identify individuals through their unique physical and biological attributes."
Schmidt: Dark Side of the Digital Revolution
"From Tehran to Beijing, autocrats are building the technology and training the personnel to suppress democratic dissent, often with the help of Western companies."
Schmidt: Dark Side of the Digital Revolution
Amplification Theory
Technology amplifies the existing behaviors and intentions of humans
Which authors discuss social determinism?
Tee, Galgiardone, Toyama
"The second strategy was to employ the Japanese approach. This means creating a product, a service, rather than embracing a protocol, and releasing handsets that support the service as well as creating a platform that allows content providers to easily distribute (and charge) for their services."
Tee: Different Directions in Mobile Internet
"Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants" by Marc Prensky
The main point of the article, "Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants" by Marc Prensky, is that there is a miscommunication between current professors and students due to technological innovations. Digital natives (those who grew up using and enjoying technology) struggle to understand the teaching styles of digital immigrants (those who developed a fascination with technology later in life and therefore aren't as skilled in that area). Overall, Prensky explains that teachers and students speak different languages, and it is not beneficial for a teacher to instruct in a language that their students do not comprehend. Digital natives want learning materials to be fast, include random access, and to combine "legacy" and "future" content (books AND videos, for example). Prensky then goes on to explain how his company collaborated with a group of professors to create a video game to help engineering students learn computer software. It was difficult for the professors to create content in this medium, but the students loved it. The term "edutainment" is described to combine the digital natives' love for education and entertainment. Marc Prensky is an author and speaker, and has experience teaching for elementary-schoolers, high-schoolers, and college students. He also has worked in corporate strategy, product development, and for a bank on Wall Street. Prensky cares deeply about education, but has been criticized for having too simplistic of views (regarding his terminology for digital natives/immigrants). Although I see Prensky as an intelligent and experienced person fit to speak on the tension between teachers' and students' relationship with technology, the criticism that his views are too simplistic could be valid. He is currently 72 years old and therefore did not grow up with the technology we know today. This article was published 17 years ago, though, and the technology then was indeed more simple than it was today. I believe his views remain truthful even as time has passed. I found this article very interesting, specifically because it was written so many years ago yet it seemed like it could have been written today. My concern with his argument is that there is always going to be a significant age gap, and therefore a cultural gap, between most teachers and students. Every generation thinks of technology differently. I just wonder, is it possible to ever close this gap? Are teachers able to think differently? Overall, I feel that Prensky made a great argument and I appreciate his viewpoint toward digital natives and digital immigrants. This is a concept that I find to be very important and something that still needs to be focused on.
"Think Again: The Internet" by E. Morozov
The main point of this article written by Evgeny Morozov essentially challenged the positive points that people have made in support of the internet being "good" in a variety of aspects. Morozov believes that being connected online does not increase world peace by any means. In many ways, the internet actually creates more opportunities for negativity, he says. The article discusses how there are amazing occurrences sometimes thanks to the internet, but those moments "don't happen twice" -- he believes it's the exception, not the rule: the internet doesn't actually make it that much easier to organize movements, there's more evidence of your government rebellions online, etc. etc. I normally have a more positive viewpoint when discussing the internet, but I respect Morozov's points in that there are plenty of flaws. This article was written in 2010, but I believe some of his arguments would actually work even better today. He discusses that optimists claim that "the internet makes governments more accountable," but he disagrees. His statements at this point would be even better now. I agree with him in that the governments are not held more accountable due to information being released on the internet -- it actually can make governments less accountable. There is indeed more awareness of political wrongdoings thanks to the internet, but we can see that many times there is no real-life action taken. The internet also produces very selective sources for its audiences due to algorithms. There's deep bias in what we read. As for political participation on the internet, it seems to me that it's a constant topic of discussion on all platforms. However, is that creating this "slacktivism" movement? Younger people did not turn out to vote as much as they should have in the latest election. I sense this being a problem because of the internet as much as Morozov does, but this is also my first big election that I participated in and I don't have anything to compare it to. Overall, I'd love to hear Morozov's perspective on the internet currently -- he says 8 years ago that it has accomplished nothing significant for any country. Now, the internet is up for question on it's involvement in the latest election. Morozov is a Russian writer and researcher who was evidently named one of the 28 most influential Europeans by Politic in 2018. He has consistently taken a pessimistic stance in the internet, especially in the political sense, so this article absolutely is expected of him. He is well-educated and experienced in this realm, but has bias in the "dystopian" narrative.
"Surveillance Self-Defense International" by P Eckersly
This article by Eckersly gives instructions and ideas on how to express yourself on the internet under an authoritarian regime. The first step is to know what you're up against, and then to be cautious of computer viruses and any other computer spying techniques. Eckersly also states that one should choose specific communication channels for different messages, such as speaking in person or on the phone, or over text/internet. It is also suggested to use encryption to protect your web usage - there are certain websites and applications to help do this. Protecting your identity is also extremely important. Eckersly also touches upon the fact of helping others around the world with surveillance and censorship, because many people (like myself) are lucky enough to never worry about this problem. This includes more uses with Tor (the surveillance app), and running a private proxy for a friend.
"Twitter Isn't Spreading Democracy -- Democracy is spreading Twitter" by K. Toyama
This article challenges the idea that social media creates a better democracy. This author, Kentaro Toyama, prompts us to think about how digital networks actually aren't democratizing, they actually help with censorship. Instead of providing the power of a democratic voice (free speech, etc.), it just displays the power that was already there. Toyama believes we should focus on underlying politics rather than technological advances to strength democracy. Overall, the article claims that power, specifically in a democracy, lies within the person to make change in politics - the power does not lie in the technology.
"Do Machines Make History?" by R. L. Heilbroner
This article discusses technological determinism, the concept that technology determines socioeconomic order and affects cultural values. Robert Heilbroner goes into detail, mentioning the many ways he believes technological determinism to be true. For example, he states that due to the simultaneity of invention, the absence of technological leaps (there are no large gaps in progress when it comes to technology), and the predictability of technology, we should investigate more on the issue of whether technology truly does impact social order. An example he mentioned was that the progression of productive technology means we have to have a certain type of skilled person, and our society's values rearrange depending on what is necessary. Development of technology is bounded by the constraints of knowledge, and therefore can predict our historical status. Heilbroner claims that the level of technology existing in our society has a lot to do with the "structural organization of the productive side of society." Social influence is evident during advancement in technology.
"Computers and Social Power" by Rob Kling
This article written by Rob Kling, a very experienced professor known to be a key founder of social analyses of computing, discussed that automated information systems (AIS) impact how power and influence flows in a system, specifically a political system. Kling writes that balances of power change when channeled through AIS no matter the design. Not only are there negative impacts, but the issues in power due to AIS are ignored, Kling says. He mentions that no matter what, AIS will affect how a company/government/system experiences information because the AIS is not designed to understand the context of the system it's working with. For example, a special system was designed for the police force to attend to emergency situations immediately, even though there's much more to a police officer's job than to respond to robberies. An automated system doesn't know how to be well-rounded. I realized when reading Kling's piece that I never really thought twice about how we decided that information points upward to the executive team of a company, not down. This leads me to agree with Kling's ideas of human's thoughtless obedience and naivety towards AIS and power/influence in general. While Kling's points may be an exaggerated version of my opinions, I mostly agree with the concept of people having blind spots to AIS because of their work. He says that we are "trained not to see," but I think it's more that we get so caught up in our specific line of work that it is easy to fall for rules and regulations created by an automated system. I also agree with the fact that automated systems can make a process "fun" for one side, but tough on the other (specifically in the student-teacher example). Since this article was written in 1974, I'd like to think that innovative minds have come up with ways to make AIS enjoyable for both the consumers and analyzers. The main takeaway of this piece, though, was that AIS is not designed to fit into a human environment -- I can see that. However, consumers must now know that we cannot simply let technology control our companies and governments. AIS can help with efficiency, but we have to be there to catch the mishaps.
"The Bottleneck is at the Top of the Bottle" by I. Quadir
This article, published in 2002, first poses the question: Can information and communication technology (ICT) persuade governments to pay closer attention to their people's needs? The answer is yes -- technology is actually better for influencing government change, rather than just being useful for minor conveniences, as many of us may see it. Governments have a lot of power, and in some cases, ruling elites are able to unfairly control large populations because of their impactful narrow interests in the country. Furthermore, the rise of statism encourages the misuse of power in government, and the military approach to problem-solving has proven to be troublesome. It's easy for governments to misuse their power, as this has been recognized in the United Nations. The solution to this imbalance of power, and therefore economic distress, can be technology -- the silent tool to help improve governmental issues and provide checks and balances. A great part about technology is that it can be updated and transformed into various possibilities, causing economic and political power to be redistributed through citizens' innovation of existing and new technology. This article mentions that fortunately, information and communication technology is becoming more affordable and accessible to all parts of the world. The idea to "empower from below" can transfer the abuse of power at the top; spreading power through the innovation of technology, and therefore the promotion of trade, small enterprises, private communication, and more can help with this.
"Activists (in Born Digital)" by J. Palfrey
This book was published in 2008, ten years ago, but is still relevant to what is occurring in today's digital world. The example of Digital Natives in Kenya was a good example, as it is often we notice more online communication when something controversial happens in the political world. Access to the internet influences transparency, participation, context, and reach. The new way of being politically active is to get online -- or is it? The authors state that technology doesn't magically make a person more digitally aware, and I agree. I know many Digital Natives who are less politically active than their parents who learned the traditional routes of campaigning and voting. The web can only facilitate more activism online if the participant wants to be involved -- I agree with that. I believe that the internet has brought a lot of benefits politically. It gives a voice to those who aren't often heard, it makes campaigns more efficient, it provides means to fundraise -- but this chapter made me wonder if it's worth the statistically proven decline in voting over the years. I've always been told, if you don't vote, you don't count. I like that I can access news in different ways and hear it from a variety of people, but there must be a solution to get people out there to make an informed vote. John Palfrey and Urs Gasser's main point was that there's a lot of give and take when it comes to digital activism. Digital Natives are being political in unique ways, but voting is decreasing. Palfrey is a scholar and advocate for Internet freedom and speaks on digital literacy. Palfrey may hold bias in believing the internet provides more pros than cons. Gasser also works closely with technology and may also be biased towards its relationship with politics. However, the authors did a great job of offering both sides and demonstrating that it's not a simple situation. There are pros and cons to how Digital Natives utilize the internet politically, and they made clear that we have to grow with the times.
"Hole-in-the-Wall Computer Kiosks Foster Mathematics Achievement - A Comparative study" by P. Inamdar
This comparative study published in 2007 presents and analyzes the findings from an experiment done to test interactive computer usage and student intelligence. In New Delhi, India, researchers placed a computer into an informal playground where children living in the slums could interact with each other and play educational games online. Mathematics, English, and Science were the subjects covered on the computer through games and videos. There was one computer kiosk set up in a particular village which was compared to a village that did not have the computer kiosk. Looking at frequency of visit, a test for personality (leadership potential + creative potential), and a test for intelligence, researchers compared these scores with test scores from school relating to the subject. In the end, it was found that particularly scores in Math were higher for those who used the computer kiosk as opposed to those who did not. This could be partially because the Mathematical games and videos correlated better with the school content than the English and Science sections of the computer games/videos. The authors of this piece are Parimala Inamdar and Arun Kulkarni. They both appear to be researchers/students from India. I was unable to find more information on either author, but since they are residing in India, and India is the location of this study, I find that to be helpful. Biases could be present, or their residence in India could be irrelevant. This type of article didn't leave much room for opinion, so I think it is irrelevant. The overall concept of this study was very interesting to me. I have never been to India, especially the slums of India, and imagining an outdoor computer stand 11 years ago there is difficult to imagine. Although the results weren't extremely impressive, it seemed to be a nice start, and the authors had awareness of why the results were the way they were. When the authors mentioned on page 177 how the scores for intelligence depend on the exposure to the computers, I was initially hesitant in believing that, though their data does support that claim. I would like to know if there have been any updates on this research, especially since computers have transformed so drastically since 2007.
"Explaining trust in IT-mediated Elections: a case study of e-voting in Brazil" by C. Avgerou
This paper examines the concept of trust in voting electronically. Trust itself is very complex, and has subcategories including perceived trustworthiness of institutions, characteristics of trustors related to specific incidents of trust, etc. Voting electronically, or e-voting, is an object of trust because of the unique organization and the risk that it is managed competently by government officials. For Brazilians, this risk especially includes the usage of digital technology in this physical process of voting. Research was conducted to further understand how e-voting can be trusted in an election, and three social mechanisms were identified. I mainly learned that positivity surrounding technology in the Brazilian culture would have to increase to overall boost confidence and trust.
"Different Directions in the Mobile Internet: Analysing Mobile Internet Services in Japan and Europe" by R. Tee
This paper investigates the data-driven facts behind certain successes and failures in technology in specific areas. Overall, there are many (often social) factors that explain why technological devices or services can be a flop in one country but a huge success in another. Market structure heavily influences the prosperity of technology, and the authors of this book (Lynne Hamill and Amparo Lasen) dive deeper into why i-Mode was so successful in Japan rather than Europe, and why SMS was a success and WAP was a failure. i-Mode skyrocketed in Japan, and it is assumed to have done so well due to the culture behind Japanese citizens and their love for new technology. When I envision Japan, I absolutely think of the smartest, most high-tech innovators. This is in contrast to Europe, which is typically considered more old-fashioned. Obviously there are exceptions, but I agree with the authors' point (which is backed by experts) in saying that the culture in Japan is very tech-oriented. They also have longer commutes, the availability of a pack-switched data network, and less penetrative internet (prompting curiosity for i-Mode). The article goes on to explain similarly why WAP was a failure (lack of content, bad interface, ineffective billing models, etc.), opposing the success of SMS. The article wraps up by emphasizing the importance of underlying cultural effects in determining the implementation of technology in a certain area. Hamill has been involved in several other works, covering many different areas of expertise. Lasen is a professor focusing on ICT and its relationship with affectivity, intimacy, and more. Lasen was a Vodafone Surrey Scholar - this is an interesting perspective because the reading was all about mobile implementation. I could see biases being possible, but also Lasen likely just has more experience in the subject. This article relates to "A Country in Order" because they both study the intersection of technology and people, and specifically how social factors affect the implementation of technology. Neither articles dissect other possible factors as much as they mention social influences. Gagliardone ("A Country in Order") comes from a political standpoint, saying that people have promoted their political ideals with the support of technology. Hamill and Lasen state that the social factors cause the ICT to react in the way it does, or at the very least, there is strong correlation.
"Changing Norms is Key to Fighting Everyday Corruption" by S. Panth
This piece by Sabina Pinth discussed ways that people in a variety of countries can fight the new "normal" of corruption in government. Pinth listed the several ways corruption exists -- citizens may justify it (citizens may think elites are in charge or bribes make up for low income) and there are factors that provoke bottom-up government interventions (such as having whistleblowers or involving public figures). Then we are taught how people can change the norm of corruption by listing a plethora of methods. These include, pressuring government with the law, networking, communicating, strategizing, using a mix of traditional and ICT-related tools, having social media like Facebook to organize, and using the curriculum in school to learn about anti-corruption. These actions have sometimes resulted in complete legislative reform, but mostly the citizens' perception of corruption changed into feeling empowered by their community and increased responsibility in understanding the system. The case studies discuss how bribes are prevalent in Indian public services and how citizens fear their revolt will backlash. The paper provides strategies for action: communicating on online forums and nonviolently shaming officials and spreading awareness. Lessons learned included: partnering with an experienced organization is useful as long as you are willing to collaborate, online technology is powerful, and being confident is key to standing up to government officials.
"The Impact of Telecons on economic growth in Developing Countries" by L. Waverman
This piece from Vodafone summarizes how crucial telecommunication access is for a society's economy. Researchers often measure the growth dividend of investment in mobile telephony infrastructure in developed countries - the research that is missing, though, includes developing countries and how their economy is impacted. It is difficult to implement fixed-line telephony in more rural villages due to the higher costs and less opportunities to gather information, however the studies demonstrate that mobile telephony development works much better in developing countries. Evidence suggested that growth rates differed between countries with contrasting mobile telephony distribution (if you have more access to mobile telephone usage, your country's growth rate is likely to be higher). Vodafone also claims that developing countries with less mobile usage will struggle to catch up to wealthier countries, causing further economic problems. Overall, the advancement of mobile phones in developing countries has positive impacts on their economy.
"The Data that Turned the World Upside Down" by H. Grassegger
This piece written by Grassegger and Krogerus begins with the morning of Donald Trump winning the presidential election, and how Cambridge Analytica (a British political consulting firm) responded to it by saying they were "thrilled" to have played a huge role in the victory. Big Data is a term discussed in the article: it stores all of our information through likes, card usage, payments, movements, etc. The authors then go on to mention Michal Kosinski, an expert on psychometrics and the way it can be used with Big Data. Psychometrics measures psychological traits, specifically the Big 5 (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism). By intertwining these, data can identify a person's race, sexuality, political opinions and more. Aleksandr Kogan, now Dr. Spectre, wanted to use this technology created by Kosinski for his company, one that influences elections. Kosinski refused, but the company found a way to imitate his strategies. Cambridge Analytica ended up influencing Brexit AND Trump's campaign through buying personal data and manipulating it. All of Trump's campaign was data-driven. Users of social media were targeted and driven away by messages that would influence their election choices in different ways. Through these events, it's clear that data really does have the ability to turn the world upside down.
"Technology & Child development: Evidence from the One Laptop per Child Program" by Cristia
This reading about the results One Laptop per Child Program (OLPC) was very fascinating, especially since we recently listened to the Ted Talk given by the founder of this organization, Nicholas Negroponte. I sensed that the execution of OLPC, although it had great intentions, would not be successful due to the naivety regarding the funds and the harsh attitude towards valid criticism. The main point of this research paper is that an organization cannot just expect to give kids a laptop with little instruction or context and expect their academic skills to dramatically increase. An organization especially cannot expect to give children laptops in an area with limited to no internet access. A digital device, especially a laptop, is almost useless without internet. Although there were pieces of evidence to show some positive effects of OLPC, none were significant enough to call the operation a success. In fact, the laptops may have caused an equal amount of negative effects: access to games causes a distraction from schoolwork, younger children might not have been able to correctly navigate the device, and not enough people were taking the laptop home due to increased pressure of theft or damage. Overall, the article did a good job giving OLPC a chance, but concluding that serious changes to the execution of the organization would have to change for better outcomes. The authors of this piece are Julián P. Cristia et. al. The group includes a variety of research economists at three different institutions. All authors seem very qualified to be examining this kind of data. They are also from Spanish-speaking countries, including Colombia and Peru. Since this data comes from Peru, I expect that these researchers were able to translate any confusion, and may understand from a cultural perspective how much of the process worked for these children from Peru. This could cause for some bias against OLPC, as they are not affiliated with the program (as far as I can tell), but it appears to be neutral to me. Overall, I enjoyed reading this piece on OLPC and agreed with the authors' stance on the subject. The point is very clear: there were determined efforts, but many of it fell short, as proved by in-depth data analysis. Again, Negroponte and his team had great intentions, but it came across as naive. I do have to remember that this all occurred almost 10 years ago, and technology has advanced greatly since then, so I have tried not to be too judgmental.
"A Country in Order" by I. Gagliardone
This research article discusses "technopolitics," which is a concept that allows governments and people to promote and persuade political goals with the help of technology. The theme of politics and technology is explored, and it is explained that developing countries have followed two paths when interacting with politics and technology: the first challenging the neutrality of ICT and how it favors rich countries. The second examines the influence of ICTs and politics in authoritarian situations. It is emphasized that technology adapts to the power it is immersed in, and also takes shape through political tensions. As for the study, two technologies in schools in Ethiopia, Woredanet and Schoolnet, were observed in fieldwork for a total of fifteen months. These two technologies demonstrated that ICTs can take a role in the fight to resist certain ideas in Ethiopian government because they allowed support for a governmental project by EDRPF but did not provide any tools to challenge governmental power. The paper prompts readers to question ICT in developing countries, and how the adaptation can be misconstrued to marginalize certain technologies.
"How Responsive is E-Government? Evidence from Australia and New Zealand" by Robin Gauld
This study begins by praising e-government: a way to handle government service delivery online. Hopes include improving efficiency, collaboration, and participation. Above all, though, e-government is expected to improve the responsiveness to citizens. Gauld et. al look at the responsiveness of Australia's e-government compared to New Zealand's (two countries that have fully embraced e-government), and conclude that Australia is significantly less responsive than New Zealand. This was determined by slow responses, errors in contacting representatives over email, and answering questions incorrectly. The researchers found that phone calls may be better for answering personalized questions, where e-government can simply act as a source of information. When e-government offers to help online, it is clear that they should be as responsive as possible. However, the many world studies' standards of e-government include several other features other than responsiveness as important, so Australia still excels in that sense. Now that government acts as customer service to a new level, countries have to be committed to replying quickly and accurately, as well as offer a variety of services to their citizens.
"There are No Technology Shortcuts to Good Education" K Toyama
Toyama argues in this article that funds/efforts in education should go towards teachers and administration rather than towards advancement in technology. He supports this argument by delving into four separate points: there is a vast history of failed technology in schools; technology makes good schools better but bad schools worse; there is a huge opportunity cost; and there is evidence of several successful schools that do not rely on technology. This is all tied together with the general theory that people need support and motivation to excel in school, and technology cannot replace that priceless human guidance. Reading the past stories of promising technologies for schools, I remembered the SMART Board, which was a fancy, expensive screen that a teacher could write on and also project their computer onto. I was in middle school when I first saw them, and they never took off to my knowledge. I attended a very wealthy high school and am at a wealthy college and have yet to see a SMART Board in use. They are just unnecessary, even though I thought (and many others likely thought) they would improve our education because they were so advanced and high-end. Toyama provides many examples of technologies that were thought to take off in school instructions, but never did (for example, the radio). However, I believe the computer is different from a SMART Board, radio, or television. These technologies also play on inequality - my high school required the most expensive, fanciest, high-tech calculator with graphing techniques. Other schools didn't have these (I found this out when I came to college), which likely makes school work much different. Kentaro Toyama does a great job of rebutting popular myths that are pro-technology. I wish there could be more evidence of failed technology in schools because we have already read about Anurag Behar's experience. Toyama is a computer scientist from Japan who currently works on the relationship of technology and global development. He has an outstanding educational background and seems very qualified for this argument. This relates to other readings we've done regarding the immersion of ICT into education systems (we read about Anurag Behar in the first few weeks), but it can be compared to Feenberg's piece on substantive and instrumental theories of technology. Toyama is aware of the negative effects technology has on a person, which is why he argues to leave it out of schooling as much as possible. However, he doesn't insinuate that it overtakes everything to the point of no escape. For the reason of Toyama not being too extreme on either end, I'd assume he would fall in the in-between critical theory that Feenberg mentions. Between the two, he'd fall more on the substantive side because of the power technology holds - it's not completely neutral (if it were, then it wouldn't affect education).
"Computer Games in the Developing World: The Value of non-Instrumental Engagement with ICTs, or taking play seriously" by B.E. Kolko
While many people may believe that video games have neutral or adverse affects on a person's development, Beth E. Kolko and Cynthia Putnam argue that playing video games lead to applicable computer skills and that it's important to study these non-traditional uses of ICT. This is further explained with research, surveying four countries in Central Asia. The study delves into the common stereotypes of "gamers" and how there is actually a much more diverse array of people that enjoy video games than one may think. The study observed Internet cafés, which are prevalent in Central Asia and are enjoyed by people of any gender or age. Kolko and Putnam discuss some of the skills influenced by video gaming, including: ability to transfer information quickly and over large distances, how video games can be a pathway to other ICTs, and the motivation to be an expert at technology. In general, the authors want to remove the stereotype that video games are bad, as they actually are connected with ICT development and are vibrant sources of learned skills. While ICT also allows groups of people to revolt (like in the Arab Spring), we must be conscious of the downfalls of technology. People are more easily targeted and marginalized. There is hope that citizens can overcome the technology that may be pushed against them, but we have to be prepared to fight back if so.
"Governance in the Digital Age: a research and action framework for an uncertain future" by Sharon Dawes
With the advancement of technology, we are now in the information age, prompting research to see how technology has impacted government organization. Author Sharon Dawes views this research as incomplete, given the fact that few scholars have focused on the behavior of government technology in the information age (they look more at the efficiency and practicality rather than state-wide effects). This paper discusses the main components of digital governance and how it its impact can be addressed through research. The research conducted in this paper produced a set of scenarios that offer a variety of alternative visions of the future in regards to society, government, and ICTs. A gap analysis was then done to compare these scenarios to the current state of digital governments; in general, it was decided that trust, privacy, and identity are to be focused on for future improvement. It's important to note that these improvements differ depending on the geographical region. Four dimensions to drive future research include relevance, confidence, interoperability, and innovation. Overall, e-governance and has impacts on the role of government, societal trends, behavioral effects and more. The research is crucial to understanding our future in several different dimensions. Sharon Dawes has a PhD in Public Administration, and currently works as a Senior Fellow at the University of Albany. She works in the Center for Technology in Government, which demonstrates her expertise in this topic. She might know more about governance and policy as opposed to ICTs, but her concentration is in technology so I do not predict any bias here. This reading reminds me of the reading we did a few weeks ago regarding e-governance in Australia and New Zealand, and how the systems excelled and failed in different ways. The research there was very eye-opening in understanding what the digital aspects assist with, but that was specific to their regions (though this article addresses how important a region's priorities are). Compared to the article on MIS by Bostrom and Heinen, both observe the behavioral impacts of a system. However, Dawes' article does not focus on the designers as much as Bostrom and Heinen do.
Ethos
an appeal to the authority or credibility of the presenter. It is how well the presenter convinces the audience that the presenter is qualified to speak on the subject. This can be done by: •Being a notable figure in the field in question, such as a college professor or an executive of a company whose business is related to the presenter's topic
Pathos
is an appeal to the audience's emotions. The terms sympathy, pathetic, and empathy are derived from it. •It can be in the form of metaphor, simile, a passionate delivery, or even a simple claim that a matter is unjust.
Logos
is logical appeal or the simulation of it, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's claims or thesis.