SOC 2335 MODULE 3 EXAM INFO

Explaining School Massacres slide #16

• "Exploring school rampage shootings: Research, theory, and policy" • http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp- content/uploads/2012/12/Rocque_2012_SSJ.pdf

A Note on Workplace Violence slide #11

• "Workplace violence" is violence or attempted violence in a place of business or service. • The most common type of workplace violence is armed robbery such as a holdup at a convenience store and tend to be single or double homicides • The media give more exposure to - Intimate partner violence at the workplace (which tends to be single or double homicides) - Combinations of Mass & Spree which are usually done as revenge toward co-workers for loss of a job, promotion, respect, etc.

Hate Homicide slide #9

• 1990: Hate Crime Statistics Act mandated data collection. Review the hate crime statistics on the FBI webpage and make sure you know which groups are targeted more than others: - https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate- crime/2014/resource-pages/tablesbytitle_final • Hate-motivated violence has a much higher likelihood of severity than non-hate violence: - One-half of all hate crimes reported to the police are at least brutal enough attacks to hospitalize the victims.

Race/Ethnicity, Hate Crime, and Murder slide #12

• 9/11 Hate Crime: A study in California found that in 2000 (the year before the attack on the Twin Towers, there were 99 hate crimes against Middle Easterners. In 2001 there were 501, more than a five-fold increase with most occurring in the last four months of the year. • Hate crime offenders who seek out ethnic minorities to victimize because they believe them to be immigrants who are taking away opportunities from Americans are called "nativists". - Most nativists have hate against Latinos.

Mass Murder slide #6

• <1% of all homicides committed annually in the U.S. are mass murders. • From the 1980s through the mid-1990s, the U. S. averaged one mass murder a year. This time has been extensively studied due to this "peak" in mass murders. • Mass murder cases are not easily identified from the UCR so researchers have to locate cases themselves; possibly by looking at UCR data on number of victims in a homicide event. • A multiple-victims trend study in1996 found that there had been 109 incidents with a total of 357 victims in one year.

Trends (slide #2)

• Approximately 10% of all homicides are of children age 15 and under • The homicide rate for age 5 and under is approximately 3 per 100,000 persons. - On average, 6 children under age 5 are murdered daily • A study by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in1997 compared 26 economically comparable countries. The rate for the US was five times higher than for any of the other 25 countries. • Brazil has a dramatic child homicide rate that is 47 times higher than the U. S. - Brazil is not an economically or developmentally comparable country to the U. S.

The expectations of parenting have become unclear and confusing slide #23

• Berger (1966): Potential actors of institutionalized actions must be educated to the meanings. ―Experts‖ provide the knowledge. - We teach secondary socialization as a specialized role and the experts have the stock of knowledge. • Hays (1998) and Shorter (1978): Expectations of parenting have changed rapidly; numerous child- rearing experts have emerged. - We now have a child-rearing industry (Books, TV shows, magazines, websites, classes, etc.)

Explanations of Mass & Spree Murder: Macrosocial Dimensions slide #12

• Beyond explanations that focus on the individual, macrosociological explanations focus on socio- historical changes: - Age of diminished individual responsibility: Some theorists argue that social change has been toward less personal responsibility (others argue this is not valid). - Lack of community: We do not interact with members of our community or neighborhood resulting in lack of integration or involvement with others. - Technology and mobility make weapons more available.

Blaming Parents is not a Solution slide #19

• Blaming Parents: - Such blame assumes that bad kids are products of bad homes. This is more often not the case than is the case. - Parental responsibility laws have increased stress and pressure on parents. - Peer and media influence overpower positive parenting and, in the cases of school shooters, bullied and rejected students tend to hang out with other bullied and rejected students. • This breeds a collective hate toward the bullies and rejecters.

Consequences of the "Solution" slide #21

• By focusing on the student as the problem, the school (and thus society) is alleviated of any responsibility for changethe blame can be located out of the school setting. - The student must change or be removed from the school setting • This serves the interest of the image and reputation of the school, but not the youth.

Neonaticide slide #4

• Can also be older women who are pregnant by someone other than IP - Fear of losing family - Concealed pregnancy - Acts alone: suffocation or drowning • ―Virginity‖ norms apply except here the sexual proscription is monogamy, not abstinence. • Safe Haven Laws:

Explanations of Mass & Spree Murder: Macrosocial Dimensions slide #13

• Changes in the workplace: - Work has become transient and more scarce: work is the only meaning, stability, and companionship some people have in their lives. - The emphasis in the workplace increasingly is on profit and less on the well-being of workers • workers are overworked • lack of human resources - this is especially important when jobs are cut or workers are fired

Times of the Day & Seasons of the Year slide #11

• Daytime and weekdays are the most likely times and days for the occurrence of infanticide. • Winter is the likely season for victims under 2 • Summer is the likely season for school- age children

Mass Murderers slide #2

• Definition of mass murder: the killing of three of more victims as part of a single ongoing event. • The most common context of a mass murder tends to be domestic situation (e.g. a home) or in the course of a felony (e.g. armed robbery at a convenience store or bank) - The domestic or felony-accompanied mass murders do not get the level of publicity as mass murders in other contexts such schools, movie theaters, restaurants, etc. - Wide-spread publicity is due usually to the number of victims or possible victims. Also, mass murders of families ("familicide") tend to be viewed as not as threatening to the general public. We like to believe that something "was wrong" with that family and that familicide could happen to us.

Typologies of Mass/Spree Murders slide #15

• Disgruntled employee: someone who is unhappy about something at work (gets most media attention) • Disgruntled citizen: someone who tends to be angry at the world rather than a specific group or workplace events • Psychotic: a person who has had a break with reality and hears voices commanding the deaths of others • The school shooter: has a variety of motives many of which fit the other types.

Explanations of Mass & Spree Murder slide #10

• Entitlement: This theory explains middle-to-upper class Anglo male rage. - A frequent finding is that mass/spree murderers have experienced an acute loss of privilege. Due to the experience of social privilege common to middle-to-upper class males, the loss is felt more deeply and revenge or seeking "justice" for the loss is more likely. Loss of intimate partnerships and access to children and economic loss are found to be common in these murders. - This fits Moral Justification Theory where the offender views himself as the victim and his actions are intended to "right a wrong".

Explanations of Mass & Spree Murder slide #9

• External Blamers: Some mass and spree murderers have been characterized as having the personality effect of an "external blamer". This means that he has a long pattern of not taking responsibility for his own failures and actions but rather blames others for his repeated failures.

Extremism slide #4

• Extremists can also be "centrists" - persons who fall in the middle of political or religious continuums of belief but who are dogmatic, uncompromising, intolerant, and prejudiced. • The extremist style is intended to hamper or confuse other persons‟ understanding of the issues. This impairs the ability of non-extremists to make intelligent, well-informed decisions. - This a goal of extremists is to tell us how to think and to confuse us so that we question our own morality or actions.

Characteristics of Extremists slide #6

• Extremists have doomsday mentality that everything is bad and getting worse. - This is exacerbated by groupthink and conspiracy theories • They advocate use of double-standards which means they view themselves in terms of their intentions (which are viewed as generous and moral) and they view their opponents in terms of actions (which are viewed critically). • They advocate censorship of opponents and freedom of speech for themselves. - This is an attempt at information control so others do not hear counter-arguments or data.

Characteristics of Extremists slide #7

• Extremists often have motives they themselves do not recognize. • Feel no guilt or sense that they have done anything wrong and that "the end justifies the means" including the need to hurt innocent bystanders. • One positive aspect of extremists is that they do fulfill a "watchdog" function for society by keeping controversial issues at the forefront - This can lead to needed discussion about social problems and issues and can lead to social change (although not usually the change the extremists want).

Typologies of Mass/Spree Murders slide #14

• Family annihilator: a murderer who kills entire family and usually himself or herself in one incident, within the home. • Pseudo-commanders: is obsessed with weapons and takes an ample supply of ammunition to the mass murder (e.g. The UT Tower shooter). • Set-and-run killers: uses bombs or poison and avoids any type of injury to himself (e.g. Timothy McVeigh). • The disciple: kills to gain acceptance or recognition by a charismatic leader (e.g. The Charles Manson followers).

Fatal Child Abuse slide #13

• Family violence research views child homicide as ―accidental death‖ that occurs in the course of abusing the child. - The focus is on intent: the parent did not intend to kill, just to abuse to the child often as the result of becoming emotionally frustrated and ―loosing it‖. This is referred to as ―impulse homicide‖. • Protective services are involved in less than half of the cases than end in death. • In a study done by Dr. Smithey using autopsy reports, she found that about 1/3 to 1⁄2 of child homicides had evidence of prior physical abuse.

Gender slide #14

• Female gender-motivated hate homicide is usually an assault that includes sexual assault. It comes from a strong disdain of women. This type of hate murderer usually believe that: - "Women are good for only two things" (sex and having babies) - "Women need to be kept „in their place" • There is wide-spread belief that crimes against women are not the same as hate crime against other minority groups. • There is an assumption that "gender" means "women". The legislation is applicable to men, women, transgender, gender fluid, etc.

Criminology: Spree v. Mass Murder slide #4

• For the purposes of understanding and theorizing about the social conditions under which spree or mass murder occurs, there is little benefit in distinguishing between the two types. • The primary utility of a distinction is that spree murders may be more focus on specific persons as targets which is why they "travel" to get to the next victim. However, mass murderers tend to choose certain types of victims but may not have a "list of names" of persons they want to murder.

Characteristics of Extremists slide #5

• Generalizations - These are usually character assassinations and include name calling or casting opponents as "evil" which personalizes the hostility • Generalizations are used to keep others from hearing the debate. • Extremists make unproven assertions of "facts". - They argue, use slogans and buzz words, and give emotional responses. - They are hypersensitive, use supernatural rationales for beliefs and use ambiguity to avoid hearing data that are contrary to their beliefs.

Con't slide #24

• Hays (1998): The expectations of mothering have intensified over the past two and a half decades. - Mothers now have to ―sort the mail‖ meaning they have to manage a constant barrage of ―how to parent‖ media and idealistic images of families. All these changes have lead to women struggling with an unrealistic amount of expectations of mothering that are untested, unclear, and confusing. • Many mothers are never clear how to do a ―good job‖ and when they are meeting the expectations. - This is particularly true for lower- and poverty-class mothers because the expectations are middle-class standards.

Trends slide #6

• Infant homicide has nearly doubled from 4.3 per 100,000 in 1970 to 9.2 in 2000. It has dropped since to 7.2 in 2013. http://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=infant- homicide - The increase is most likely an artifact in the data due to changes in death certification and post-mortem techniques rather than an actual increase in the number of infanticides. Improved techniques in forensic pathology have allowed more identification of homicides of infants. • Infanticide offenders tend to be nonstrangers and are most likely a person who is caring for the baby such as a parent, relative, or babysitter.

Criminal Justice slide #14

• Infanticide cases are harder to detect than adult homicide. - Medical examiner investigations are contingent on recognizing infant homicide during the initial decision- making stage of crime scene investigation (Smithey & Ramirez 2002). • Infanticide cases are harder to prosecute than adult cases because - They occur in private places and rarely have witnesses - The forensic evidence often has competing interpretations of what happened that cannot be refuted - societal belief in maternal attachment is held by death investigators, law enforcement officers, prosecutors, judges, and juries. People have a hard believing a mother is capable of killing her child.

Infanticide slide #5

• Infanticide is the 15th leading cause of death of children during their first year of life. • The first day or 24 hours of life carries the greatest risk (neonaticide) • Infants are most likely killed by parents (including stepparents) with the biological mother as the most likely perpetrator until 1 week old.

Characteristics of Spree Murders slide #7

• Less common than mass murder • Often begins with a romantic break up or other event that angers the offender • Frequently kills family members first and then continues on to kill individuals who cross his/her path. • Typically ends when the killer is arrested or when he/she commits suicide.

Characteristics of Mass Murders slide #5

• Mass murderers - Slaughter their victims in one event - Tend to target people they know or with whom they are familiar - Are usually motivated by revenge - Use efficient weapons of mass destruction (such as high- powered firearms). But note that this characteristic is determined by the definition of mass murder. It would be much harder to kill three or more persons if the murder were usually a low-powered, inefficient weapon such as a shot-gun or a knife. If a person intended to kill several people but only took a knife, chances are he would be stopped before he fulfilled the definitional criterion of "three or more people" - Unlike single/double victim homicide, there is no empirical evidence of a regional effect.

Extremism slide #3

• Most people have strongly held beliefs and ideas but they act in a reasonable, rational, and non-dogmatic manner. • Extremists hate and agitate against other extremists. In this sense there is a symbiotic relationship between opposing extremists - they justify each other‟s existence. • More important than content of beliefs is "style" is which is to adopt positions at the margins of society - "fringe positions" (meaning they are at the edge or beyond reasonable behavior). - It is not the position they take but how they take it.

Types of Child Homicide (slide #3)

• Neonaticide is the murder of a newborn (≤24 hours of age) - Suffocation or drowning followed by exposure (abandonment) are the leading causes of death for neonaticide. - The profile of this offender is typically a young, single girl who fears ostracization and rejection. Often she conceals the pregnancy and may be in denial that she is pregnant. Typical traits include • The baby's father is no longer a part of her life • She gives birth alone and commits the neonaticide alone - The cause: Normative Expectations of Virginity and ―good girls‖ cannot easily be transcended once a young girl discovers she is pregnant.

Sexual Orientation slide #13

• Opponents of including the phrase "sexual orientation" in hate crime legislation argue that it gives gay men and lesbians special rights and that it will legitimize homosexual behavior, which they believe is wrong. • Hate crime murderers of gay victims use greater levels of brutality than hate crime murderers of heterosexual victims ("overkill"). - Multiple offenders "gang-up" on the victim who is outnumbered (Australian study). - The offenders use personal weapons (hands & feet) and blunt objects and the assault is an "exercise" of the pent- up emotion of hate.

Infanticide Victim-Offender Relationship slide #8

• Research by Dr. M. Smithey on the likelihood of a parental caretaker being the offender found the following trend by infant age. The most likely offender is the - Mother until age 4 months - Father/boyfriend age 4-10 months - Boyfriend/Mother age 10 - 13 months - Boyfriend age 13 - 24 months - Mother age 25 - 26 months - Dr. Smithey also found that as the age of the victim increases, the level of violence used to fatally injure the infant increases. This is true for all categories of victim/offender relationship.

Explanations of Hate Violence slide #15

• Social Learning Theory - Hate murderers have been socialization into hate and techniques of crime: hate is the motivation, and rationalization; techniques of how to kill, assault, and bomb targets are actively taught. - There is a "martyrdom aspect" that goes with not caring about the costs because the reward of being a "moral" person is worth the cost.

Filicide (Killing One's Children) & Familicide (Killing One's Family): Trends slide #9

• Stepchildren tend to be killed by stepfathers because most children of blended families live with their biological mother. • Filicide-suicide: fathers tend to commit familicide (kills children, intimate partner, and self) whereas mothers tend to commit filicide-suicide (kills children and self ).

Child Homicide Victims: Age, Sex, and Race slide #12

• Teens are at greatest risk followed by ages newborn to 4 years. • School-age girls are more likely than boys to be victims of sexually motivated abduction homicide; teenage boys are more likely to be victims of homicide in general. • Teenage homicide is disproportionately high (%) for African American children but in actual numbers there are more white child victims (larger population).

Bullying: A Theory of Mass & Spree Murders on School Campuses slide #17

• The U.S. Secret Service conducted a study on school shootings ("Safe School Initiative" 2000) and found that in over two- thirds of school mass shootings the offender had been bullied, ostracized, and socially rejected. - There was an ongoing pattern of bullying and a specific incidence of rejection experienced by the shooter or shooters.

The "solution" to school shootings is not a solution slide #20

• The implemented solution has been increased security via law enforcement or technology - This can lead to a false sense of security • Zero tolerance of weapons, rumors or threats • Identification of potential offenders via "risk factors" produces too many false positives and can lead to marginalization & alienation due to stigma - which actually increases the potential for school violence • This "solution" is not effective because it does not reduce bullying and ostracization.

Spree Murderers slide #3

• The main difference between a spree murder and a mass murder is that the victim(s) location varies. The spree starts in one location and ends in another. For example, a shooting at a university library can end at an apartment complex. • There is a relatively short period of time between murders -- usually the time necessary to travel to location of the next victim(s). There is not a "cooling off" period or a resumption of everyday activity between the killings.

Mass & Spree Murderers: Traits slide #8

• The most common type is familicide. • The offenders tend to - Be Anglo males - Be unemployed or underemployed - Be significantly older than single/double victim murderers with an average age of 29 years • This has been explained as an "age effect" due to older people being more likely to experience loss negatively and "permanently" - Have experienced repeated failure • The victims tend to be - 40% family members - 36% acquaintances - 24% strangers

Infant Homicide: Victim/Offender Relationship and Causes of Death slide #7

• Victim's Age (VAge): Newborns are at highest risk. Risk is high until ~7 months - Physiological vulnerability - Death certification • Victim's Age by Cause of Death (VCOD): - Head Trauma: >1day - 19 months - Body Trauma (general battering): >19 months

Weapons slide #10

• Victims younger than 5 are very likely to be killed with personal weapons (for example the hands or feet of the offender) • As children age, their risk for homicide by non-guardians increases. This increases the likelihood they will be killed by firearms.

Hate Crime: Definition slide #8

• When the motivation to commit a crime is hatred, bias, or prejudice based on the race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation of another individual or group of individuals, the crime is a hate crime (FBI Uniform Crime Reports & U. S. Congress). - It is the hatred of the group, not the individual that makes it a hate crime. It is very likely the offender does not know the victim personally.

Motives slide #15

• ―Reductionism refers to how different disciplines approach crime differently. - Sociology focuses on social structural v. cultural factors; individuals (―microsociology‖) and social institutions (―macrosociology‖). - Psychology on mental illness, post-partum psychosis, Munchhausen's Syndrome by Proxy (~600 cases a year but most do not end in death) • Author of your text offers a simplistic theory - it is much more complicated than age, education, marital status, etc. - There has to be an interactive effect of these conditions and often these are predispositional factors, not precipitating factors

Hate Homicide slide #11

•<1% of homicides are hate-motivated. Note that statistic is based on the number of cases where an offender is known and the number of cases in which a prosecutor was able to apply a legislative definition. In other words, there are probably more hate homicides than are recorded in the data. 49 states have an anti-hate crime statutes but many are vague and therefore never or rarely used. They lack the definitional detail that is needed for prosecution.

Explanations of Hate Violence slide #16

•Moral Justification Theory - The offender believes they are "righting a wrong", that they are morally justified in their actions - This belief is usually and erroneously founded in religious beliefs and/or patriotism • Referred to as "Righteous Slaughter" (Katz 1988)

Hate Homicide slide #10

•Offenders justify/rationalize their violence by focusing only on the people they hate - They often overlook or ignore collateral damage. Hate attacks are intended to send a message to all members of the victim‟s group. Most hate crime are not murders - they are intimidations and threats that escalate into violence.

Discussion & Implications slide #28

Continued noncompliance by the infant resulted in an escalation of violence: --Had the baby's initial action not been perceived as threatening, there would not have been initial violence to escalate. --Had the mother been able to escape, the violence would have dissipated. Hays (1998): The normative expectations of mothering have intensified over the past few decades. - This intensification contributes to the stress of child- rearing resulting in even more unrealistic normative expectations held by society and internalized by mothers.

Conclusions slide #29

Infants who are being raised by mothers who have negative life experiences and who do not perceive themselves as realistically meeting the normative expectations of motherhood are infants who are at risk of serious injury. As modern and post-modern motherhood becomes more intense, rigid, and demanding, more infants will be at risk for lethal injury at the hand of their mothers.

Predispositional Factors Identified slide #18

The offenders had negative socialization experiences - They had abusive, disapproving parents - They had experienced sexual abuse or trauma - Their father abused substances with alcohol being the most common - They had abusive, unsupportive, or antagonistic boyfriend or husband The offenders had a significant lack of economic resources - Frequent absences by boyfriend or husband - Adverse living conditions where she was very often asking others for help These factors resulted in emotional stress with subjects often using/abusing substances to cope. This stress, mitigated by substance abuse, set the background for an intense interaction that lead to fatal injury of the infant.

Stages II & IV: The interpretation of the infant's actions as non-compliance and as a challenge to the mother's self-perception slide #25

Adler & Baker (1997): The non-compliance renders the mother ―powerless‖, she is unable to get the infant to comply with or to fulfill the expectations of parenthood. Giddens (1984): Action follows societal expectations—to act otherwise means the individual is capable of making a difference in a pre-existing state of affairs. Those who cannot effect this difference are powerless and view themselves as having no other option. The lack of an option produces frustration perceptions of failure. This becomes a predisposing factor in the escalation of violence.

Con't slide #26

Berger (1966): To the one being socialized, the institution appears inherent in nature, it appears unalterable and self-evident. This means we believe mothering is natural and automatic. In the case of infanticide, the unmet normative expectations of motherhood result in a negative interpretation of the infant's actions by the mother resulting in a state of "powerlessness" to fulfill her internalized, expected role.

Infanticide as a Situated Transaction (Luckenbill 1977) slide #19

I applied my findings to Luckenbill's theory: Stage I. Initial Action by Victim: Incessant crying; prolonged illness; difficulty in training to eat, sleep, and potty-training. Stage II. Interpretation by Offender as Non-compliance: The character contest is the non-compliance challenging the mother's self- perception as a ―good mother‖.

Maternal Infanticide & Modern Motherhood slide #16

Martha Smithey, PhD Texas Tech University Funded by National Institute on Drug Abuse, Award #5-F31-DA05463 STUDY

Research Method slide #17

Method of data collection: I conducted intensive interviews with 14 biological mothers held legally responsible by the courts for the death of their biological infant. Case sample selection - I selected the cases for my study from medical examiner files in Texas. I located cases by victim age (36 months or younger) and manner of death (homicide). - I then cross-referenced with criminal justice files to locate offender. - I located 380 cases, 61 of which were biological mothers. Of these, I located 31 and 15 agreed to an interview (1 case is a neonaticide is not included in the theory and data presented here).

Why do the mothers escalate the violence? slide #27

Part II. Inability to Escape The powerlessness and perceived lack of options creates a socially constructed duality for parents, especially for mothers. Not only are parents expected to fulfill the normative expectations of parenthood, mothers are not allowed to escape the stress of unsuccessful attempts at fulfillment. Mothers, due to societal belief in ―maternal attachment‖, are allowed only to have and express positive feelings toward their children. - Negative feelings and expressions are considered an egregious violation of motherhood norms.

Infanticide as a Situated Transaction, cont'd slide #20

Stage III. Offender Becomes More Forceful in an Attempt to Restore Order: The mother uses more force to gain compliance from the infant. This is typically shaking, hitting, and yelling at the infant. Sometimes the mothers would temporarily withdraw. All of these had the effect of increasing the crying of the infant.

Infanticide as a Situated Transaction, cont'd slide #21

Stage IV. Continued Non-compliance by Victim: Escalation of activity and heightened emotion due to intensification of the challenge to mother's self- perception. Stage V. Fatal Injury: Typically head trauma due to a single-blow to the head.

The School Setting slide #18

The school setting can present certain issues and risks: • Children congregate in large numbers • Conflicts between students and with teachers emerge. • There is high potential for students to feel inadequate, anxious, fearful, hostile, rejected, and bored • Vengeance may be a possible outcome

What is Extremism? slide #2

What is Extremism? Extremism is taking a belief (usually a political idea) to its limits or way beyond reasonable behavior. It is characterized by: - Intolerance - A belief that the ends justify the means - A lifestyle of discontent (meaning never satisfied or happy about anything) - Dogmatism: having rigid, unyielding beliefs that are narrow in scope and having an unwillingness to hear others.

Sociological Argument: The interpretation of non-compliance by the mother is pivotal for an escalation of violence. slide #22

Why did the mother interpret the infant's action negatively? As a challenge to her "self"? Part I. Parenting as a Social Institution: According to LaRossa (1986): Parenting is a social institution in which ―certain goals, values, beliefs, and norms are associated with having children...people who become parents are perceived and treated differently based on the expectations individuals and society hold for parents‖. More importantly, parents internalize the expectations: Parents come to evaluate their ability to care for and control their children based on their own perceptions of how well they fulfill the expectations.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX