SOC Chapter 2
network analysis
a research technique that focuses on identifying the connections between individuals, groups, or organizations
mechanical solidarity
according to Emile Durkheim, mechanical solidarity refers to the factors that primitive societies together, mostly through family and kinship ties, and a collective consciousness shared by all members of the community
social forces
all of the forms of social structure (hierarchies and institutions) that any individual must operate within. social forces are related to what Emile Durkheim called "social facts"
analytical sociology
an approach to social theory and research that centers on "middle-range" questions and seeks to uncover the processes, or mechanisms, through which individuals are influenced by social forces
neo-Marxism
an updated form of Marxism, neo-Marxism contends that the capitalist state could, and indeed often had, forced powerful economic classes to make "concessions" to the working class (thereby improving the living standards of all citizens)
Emile Durkheim emphasized ____, while Max Weber emphasized ____ in his theory of society
social facts; social action
socialization
the process by which individuals come to understand the expectations and norms of their groups as well as the various roles they transition into over the life course and how to behave in society or in particular social settings
social constructions
the social processes that create and sustain racial or gender differences and gender inequalities
____ solidarity, unlike __ solidarity, is associated with an extensive division of labor in society
organic; mechanical
social theory
overarching framework that suggests certain assumptions and assertions about the way the world works. these frameworks are used for posing research questions and evaluating evidence related to those questions
Which theoretical perspective focuses on how social and economic inequalities persist because powerful individuals and groups work to protect their advantages?
Conflict theory
Imagine you are a sociologist interested in designing a research study to investigate whether there are differences in college students academic outcomes depending on whom they have in their social networks to help them through college. Which of the following social theorists might be most useful in helping you with this research?
Georg Simmel
which pair of social theorists are similar in that they both emphasized how social class matters in social life?
Marx and Bourdieu
Social theorists working in the tradition of _____ theorized that social change happened much like the theory of ____
Structural functionalism ; evolution
Which of the following best characterizes the focus of symbolic interactionism?
Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people interact and create shared meaning
social distance
a concept first introduced by Georg Simmel to describe how close or intimate, or apart, any two individuals or groups are with each other
capitalist world system
a concept invented by Immanuel Wallstein to describe the ways in which capitalist economies are linked in a global system, in which rich, developed countries are able to exploit undeveloped countries through a global division of labor in which poor countries provide raw materials and lower-skill labor
partriarchy
a gender system in which men have substantially more power than women in politics, the economy, and the family
drawing on the theory developed by Karl Marx, Rupert Murdoch, owner of one of the worlds largest media conglomerates, is best characterized as
a member of the bourgeoisie
socialist
a society in which the productive forces of society are collectively owned (not by individual business owners)
self-fulfilling prophecy
a term coined by Robert Merton to mean the process by which someone is defined in a particular way and then comes to fulfill the expectations of that definition
conflict theory
a type of social theory that emerged out of dissatisfaction with structural functionalism and held that all societies are characterized by conflicts that arise from the uneven distribution of power and wealth between groups
intersectionality
forms of inequality that overlap and potentially reinforce one another. one's class, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexuality, or other characteristics may create multiple forms of disadvantage that inequality researchers should consider
which of the following is the best example of cultural capital?
knowing a lot about fine wine
social capital
resources based on who you know and can call upon for help when you need it
feminist social theory
social theories which place gender relations and male domination at the center of their conceptualization of societies
human behavior is not natural; it is learned. people learn how to behave in society through a process of ___
socialization
social solidarity
the social forces that hold any society together
psychoanalysis
the study of the conscious and unconscious aspects of the mind and its influence of individual behavior
interpretive sociology
the study of the meanings individuals ascribe to their actions
sex
whether a person is classified as a male or female based on anatomical or chromosomal criteria
symbolic capital
your reputation
symbolic interactionism
a theory of the social world that focuses on the meanings that individuals give to objects and social practices, and how they use symbolic meanings in their interactions with one another
Which of the following concepts refers to W. E. B. Du Bois's idea that unlike white Americans, black Americans must live multiple lives, one as a black person and one as an American?
double consciousness
mechanism
the specific factor or factors that cause something to happen or produce some outcome
Which of the following concepts would symbolic interactionists most likely use in their research?
Impression management
Which social theorist was more interested in understanding how people interpret and give meaning to the world around them?
Max Weber
a sociologist wants to do research about how elementary school children learn to monitor and discipline themselves. which theorist's work might be useful for informing this research topic?
Michel Foucault
Which social theorist is primarily associated with the development of structural functionalism?
Talcott Parsons
capital
a resource that can be used to make investments. economic capital refers to the possession of financial assets that can be invested in a business. other types of capital have also been suggested, for example, human capital (the skills, education, or knowledge an individual possesses, which can be used to earn higher income); and cultural capital (the cultural knowledge possessed by an individual which impacts an individual's capacity to speak and interact with others in a sophisticated way)
status group
a term invented by Max Weber to describe any group that forms a common identity and develops ways of distinguishing insiders from outsides
structural functionalism
a theory of society in which individuals, groups, and the institutions of any society are guided by an overarching social system and can be explained by the needs of society to reproduce itself
middle-range theory
a theory that makes specific, researchable propositions about particular aspects of society that consciously connect social structure with individual action
structural individualism
a theory that starts from the idea that societies rest on the choices and action that individuals make, individually and together, even though these choices and the actions that follow from them are always constrained by society as a whole
organic solidarity
according to Emile Durkheim, as societies become more advanced, they are held together through mutual dependence and interdependence individuals have with one another
social facts
according to Emile Durkheim, those regularities and rules of everyday life that exist independently and outside the control of individuals
Which of the following terms describes the idea that the capitalists are driven to push down the wages of workers, which is in direct conflict with the goals of workers, who seek to secure higher wages?
class struggle
charisma
derived from a Greek work meaning "gift of grace'" Weber introduced the idea of charisma into the sociological study of social change to refer to unique individuals who claim special powers or gifts that their followers believe to be true
sex differences
differences that are assumed to exist because of anatomical or chromosomal criteria
different theoretical traditions offer _______ answers to the question, "what are the circumstances or conditions under which societies change?"
different
______ refers to the increasing flows of goods and services across national borders
globalization
sacred
holy; worthy of special reverence
______ is one of the common themes that nearly all social theories have sought to address
how does the individual act within the context of society?
natural selection
in evolutionary biology, a theory of how species evolve that emphasis the process through which biological traits become more or less common depending on whether they enhance the survival of the species
modes of production
in marxist theory, a mode of production is a concept for characterizing the dominant economic system in a society. a mode of production has two parts the forces of production and the social relations of production
proletariat
individuals in capitalist economies who work in exchange for pay. the term is usually reserved for people performing manual jobs and is synonymous with "working class"
Karl Marx's social theory primarily focuses on
inequality in economic systems
which of the following concepts refers to the interlocking nature of inequality, or how gender inequalities are formed in relation to inequalities based on race, class, and sexuality?
intersectionality
contrary to dominant theories at the time, W.E.B. Du Bois argues that racial inequality was ___
manufactured by American society
according to Karl Marx, capitalism, feudalism, and slavery are all examples of __
modes of production
habitus
not something we are born with, the habitus is a set of habits that are deeply rooted in the experience we have growing up
social relations of production
one part of the modes of production; the relationships and inequalities between different kinds of people within the economy
forces of production
one part of the modes of production; the technological and productive capacity of any society at a given point in time
within a symbolic interactionist framework, Herbert Blumer distinguished between three types of objects that can be the subject of interpretation. which of the following describes these three types of objects?
physical objects, social objects, and abstract objects
power
power has three distinct dimensions in the sociological sense: 1) the power of an individual or group to get another individual or group to do something it wants, which sometimes may involve force 2) the power to control the agenda of issues that are to be decided; and finally 3) the power to persuade others that their interests are the same as those of a powerholder. power can be possessed by individuals or groups
when feminist social theorist Simone de Beauvoir wrote, "One is not born but becomes a woman," she was pointing to a difference between an individual's ____ and _____.
sex; gender
Jonas belongs to a political club, but he notices that he does not always get invited to hang out with some of the more popular members of the club after their club meetings. after reading about the work of Georg Simmel in his sociology class, Jonas realizes that what he is experiencing is an example of ____
social distance
imagine you are entering an elevator full of people. when you step in, you most likely turn around to face the door like everyone else. drawing on the work of Emile Durkheim, your behavior has been impacted by a ___
social fact
Which of the following themes can be readily found in Emile Durkheim's theoretical work?
social solidarity
jennifer is a new student in sociology. she is having trouble in her theory class because none of the theories she is learning about seen to say the same things about society. what might a more experienced student say to jennifer to help her understand why this is the case?
sociology has multiple and competing theories and most sociologists draw on more than one at a time to make sense of their research
which of the following describes how sociology is different economics?
sociology makes use of a number of different theoretical traditions
your friend Mary Jo tells you that the purpose of religion is to ensure that the individuals of a given society all hold a common set of values. which theoretical perspective offers a view of religion that is similar to the one shared by Mary Jo?
structural functionalism
which of the following terms describes theories that consciously connect social structure with individual action?
structural individualism
social theories are
systematic ideas that help explain the relationship between individuals and society
authority
the ability to compel others to do things without needing to resort to threats. for Max Weber, authority requires legitimacy, that is, individuals grant authority to those they believe have a legitimate right to rule
legitimacy
the acceptance of the authority of a ruler and/or system of government. legitimacy exists when virtually all members of society accept the right of their rulers to govern their society
racism
the assumption that members of a racial group are inherently inferior to other races
cultural capital
the cultural knowledge possessed by an individual which impacts an individual's capacity to speak and interact with others in a sophisticated way
stratification system
the full range of social hierarchies found in any society, which create inequalities between individuals and groups
capitalist state
the governing institutions and legal system in a capitalist society
bourgeoisie
the group in a capitalist economy who owns businesses and employs people to work for them. this term is used in the Marxist tradition to refer to the most powerful class in a capitalist society
globalization
the growing permeability of national borders and the increase in flows of goods, services, and people across national borders
class struggle
the idea that classes of people who are treated so differently by the economic system are inevitably going to be in conflict with one another
unanticipated consequences of social action
the idea that the outcomes of any action we undertake may well be unanticipated, as for example when we get a dog for companionship but soon make new human friends who take their dogs for exercise at the same park we do
social closure
the process by which organized groups seek to establish or maintain privileged access to rewards or opportunity
class
the sociological concept that refers to a group of people who share a similar social and economic position in society
division of labor
the specialization of individuals in any organization or group, or in society as a whole, particularly in relation to work. there is thus a division of labor in all of society (with different people working in different occupations), a division of labor in individual organizations (where different people perform different tasks) and a division of labor in individual families and communities
social networks
the ties or connections between people, groups, and organizations
gender
the ways that social forces create difference between men's and women's behavior, preferences, treatment, and opportunities, and the characteristics of men and women that reflect these forces
theories that are very grand or "macro" in nature typically seek to explain
universal features of societies
which of the following describes the central questions all sociological theories face?
what is the nature of the individual? what is the basis for social order? what are the circumstances under which societies change?