Social Psych Final
The power of the situation
We are all beings "in a situation". A situation is comprised of the time, place, people, human interactions, culture, social constructs, political circumstances, economic circumstances in which a person exists. We each bring to the situation our own attitudes, values, prior knowledge, prior experiences, and world view. Each of us constructs our own social reality through our individual perspective, using all these things.
tokenism
When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
reactance
a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom
Interdependence
a mutual relationship where individuals depend/contribute to each other
locus of control
a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment
"that's not all" technique
a sales technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision
stereotype
a set of beliefs and expectations about member of a group based solely on their inclusion in that group based on traits or characteristics one believes they share- sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information
availability heuristic
a strategy for making judgments on the basis of how easily specific kinds of information can be brought to mind - This can lead us to underestimate the frequency of events that are not very impressive while overestimating events that are more spectacular or intense.
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
pure research
a type of scientific investigation that seeks to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself
ingratiating tactics
attempts to seemingly befriend you in order to influence you
aggression
behavior whose purpose is to harm another
dispositional causation
cause of behavior attributed to internal factors such as personality or character
situational causation
causes relating to external or environmental events
conformity
change in behavior or belief/attitude as a result of real or imagined pressure of others
Type A behavior pattern
characterized by high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, hostility
central route
cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument
acceptance
conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure
fear appeals
designed to change attitudes by producing apprehension and anxiety. These are more effective if they are accompanied by specific, precise recommendations for actions to take if one wants to avoid the danger.
transactional leaders
direct their groups by rewarding desired behavior and using disciplinary actions for poor performance or infractions of rules. They usually strengthen an already established group.
egoism
excessive interest in one's self; belief that one should be interested in one's self rather than in others; selfishness
Asch Experiment
experimented how people would rather conform than state their own individual answer even though they know the group's answer is wrong. presented with bar graph and asked which is longest etc.
exchange tactics
explicit or implicit promises that you will be rewarded if you comply
attitude innoculation
exposing someone to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available
disinhibition
exposure to media violence or actual violence reduces individual's normal inhibitions against behaving aggressively
hard sell
focuses on the qualities of the product itself
frustration-aggression link
frustration is a very powerful determinant of aggression
individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
transformational leaders
have a profound effect on followers because of their personal characteristics (Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King Jr. Gandhi, Margaret Thatcher)
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
common identity groups
linked by the category rather than each other - gender groups, ethnic groups...
overhelping
maliciously offering help in a way that sabotages the recipient by making him/her seem incapable, inept, and generally incompetent
common bond groups
members are bonded to each other and have frequent face-to-face interactions, like sports teams, friendship groups (like on "Friends", "How I Met Your Mother", "That 70's Show",), or work groups (creative teams, work social groups that meet after hours)
script
mental draft of a situation, which tells us what to expect and what is expected of us
schema
mental framework for a concept containing everything we know about that it. We continually add information to that framework and it helps us to organize information so we can relate to our world.
Desensitization
observing aggression diminishes the negative reaction to aggressive stimuli
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
impact bias
overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events
free riders
people who benefit from the group but give little in return
dispositional model of helping
people who help because it is their nature to do so: -empathy -belief in a just world -social responsibility -internal locus of control -low egocentrism
related fields
personality psych, sociology and anthropology
optimism bias
predisposition to expect things to turn out well
prejudice
prejudgment (usually negative) - the belief that a person or group, on the basis of assumed racial, ethnic, gender, cultural or other features, will possess particular characteristics or perform in a particular way
sexism
prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex.
superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
heuristics
simple rules which are short-cuts for making complex decisions or drawing inferences - usually accurate, but not always
emergent leader
some rises to the situation and seem to be an obvious choice for present needs
social facilitation
strengthening of dominant (likely) responses in the presence of others.Others being present causes arousal which can boost our performance at things we do well or when we enjoy the interaction or competition with others. (the mere presence of others strongly affect our behavior)However, the arousal from the presence of others can lead to anxiety and interfere with our performance if the task is difficult or if being with others makes us self-conscious. (distraction conflict) Given extreme pressure, we're vulnerable to choking up, so even when others usually facilitate our performance, if the crowd is too big for comfort, or too critical, or too personal, it can cause anxiety instead.
soft sell
strives to link a product with a pleasant image related to the product's use
belief perseverance
tendency for beliefs to remain unchanged, even in the face of contradiction
group polarization
tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group
empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
self-presentation
the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals
impression management
the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
aggregate behavior
the behavior of all households and firms together
Ethnocentricity
the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own group and culture
relative deprivation
the belief that one lacks a desired resource in comparison with another group which one perceives to have more of that resource
impression formation
the forming of the first knowledge that a person has concerning another person
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
persuasion
the process by which attitudes are changed
Social psychology
the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in social situations. It is a scientific discipline, that focuses on people, and their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
cognitive dissonance
the state of having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes, especially as relating to behavioral decisions and attitude change.
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
risky shift
the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
just world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
self-serving attribution bias
the tendency to attribute personal failures to the situation, while attributing personal successes to ourselves
planning fallacy
the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task
fundamental attribution error
the tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences (correspondence bias)
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
discrimination
unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members - actions taken toward members of a particular group because of their inclusion in that group
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
possible self
what individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming
Deindividuation
when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group's identity
mood dependent memory
when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state
compliance
yielding - conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing - giving in but internally disagreeing
attributional model of helping
your emotional response and the nature of the help you give is based on an analysis of the underlying cause for a request for help
priming
"setting the stage" to induce or influence thoughts, feelings, or actions - Recent exposure to stimuli influences the interpretation of information and readies people to respond in a particular manner
3 major focuses of social psychology
- the consequences of social influences on individuals and the way they understand the world - social interaction; study of the unique characteristics of social behavior when two or more people do things together. - group processes. Social psychologists study group properties such as roles, status, group pressure, and communication
Milgram's Obedience Experiment
The study to see if people were likely to obey an authority figure in a white lab coat claiming to be a scientist. The "teachers" gave an electric shock to "learners" when they have a wrong answer.
how to increase helpfulness
-be explicit and personal -activate norms for helping -act as a helpful model -personalize help
least threatening kinds of aid are...
-from donors with positive characteristics/motivation -that does not threaten autonomy/sense of control -from siblings and older relatives that is offered, rather than asked for -that can be reciprocated by the recipient that comes -from donors lease able to give the aid
Big Ideas in Social Psychology
-we construct our social reality -our social institutions are powerful, sometimes perilous -attitudes shape and are shaped by behavior -social influences shape behavior -dispositions shape behavior -social behavior is also biological behavior -feelings and actions toward people are sometimes positive/sometimes negative
4 factors that determine obedience
1. the victim's emotional distance 2. the authority's closeness and legitimacy 3. institutional authority (prestige of the authority) 4. the liberating effects of group influence
Internal Review Board (IRB)
A committee that is charged with protecting human rights and ensuring that all research studies are conducted in a manner consistent with community, professional, and legal standards. The American Psychological Association only accredits colleges and universities if they have an IRB in place to evaluate all studies using human subjects.
obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
social reality
An individual's subjective interpretation of other people and of relationships with them
group think
Because they are a group, a group may come to a more sound decision or less sound decision than individuals would. While a group can collectively have more information and a broader perspective than an individual, there can be pressure to achieve consensus which can lead to poor decisions.
racism
Belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.
ageism
Discrimination based on age
foot-in-the-door technique
asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment
aggressive cues
Stimuli that have been associated in the past with actual aggression or violence and that will trigger aggression again
forewarning
advance knowledge that one is about to become the target or persuasion often increases resistance to the persuasion
hostile aggression
aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself
instrumental aggression
aggression in which the goal is to obtain something of value
emotional aggression
aggression with the explicit goal of hurting a victim
great person theory of leadership
all great leaders share certain traits
emergent-norm perspective
an emerging group definition of appropriate behavior shaping a new norm, such as a violent mob
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
glass ceiling
an invisible limit on women's climb up the occupational ladder
lowball
an offer or deal is changed to make it less attractive after the person has accepted it
door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment
threat-to-self-esteem model
reactions to receiving assistance depend on whether help is perceived as supportive or threatening
displacement
redirecting anger/aggression to a target other than the source of frustration
social support
relationships with people and groups that can provide us with emotional comfort and personal and financial resources
reciprocal concessions
requesters compromise by reducing the size of the initial request, thereby inviting a concession on the part of those who initially refused the larger request
naturalistic research
research designed to study the behavior of people or animals in their everyday lives
norms
rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems