Social Psychology Ch. 10 -13 & SPA

Investment model

Investment: anything you have put into a relationship that will be lost if you leave it. E.g. time, integrity, possessions, emotions of children The greater investment you have in a relationship, the less likely you will be to leave it even when satisfaction is low & alternatives look promising.

Other ideas about mate selection

-Men learn to value physical attractiveness through society -In most societies women have less power, status, & money than men so they have to rely on them -The result of situational factors/ social factors

Sexual scripts

Learned as part of gender roles in society during adolescence. In the U.S. it is the female's role to resist sexual advances & the male's role to be persistent. Explains why there is confusion, anger & joking over the word "no."

Prejudice

A hostile or negative attitude toward a group or people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group. Prejudice have a cognitive element (stereotype) & can influence behavior in the form of discrimination -Prejudice is a two-way street: from minority to majority & vice versa

Benefit of beauty

Beauty matters even when it should not; we are attracted to beauty, which can lead to inequity in everyday life. E.g. attractive babies are better cared for than less attractive babies; more attractive people make more money on average; beautiful is good stereotype

Alcohol & aggression

Because alcohol lowers social inhibition & disrupts the way we process info, drunk people miss the subtleties of situations. People who think that alcohol will lead to more aggressive tendencies will become more aggressive even when the person isn't actually drunk: the expectation determined behavior.

Kin selection

Behaviors that help a generic relative are favored by natural selection. Your genes will be passed on by having children & ensuring that your genetic relatives have children. This seeks to explain why altruistic behavior hasn't disappeared over the course of human evolution since it is not self-serving. In this case, natural selection should favor altruism toward genetic relatives.

How to increase helping

Being aware of the barriers of helping can increase overcoming them.

Noticing an event

Being in a hurry can prevent noticing E.g. Good Samaritan study

Venting vs. Self-awareness

Clear, calm, statements to discuss anger are the best way to handle them. This will make you feel better & avoid object of anger becoming defensive. If the person is unavailable, it's helpful to write your feelings down. Feeling better in both cases is a result of increased insights & self-awareness.

Blaming the victim of aggression

Committing an overt act of aggression against someone increases your negative feelings about them & increases likelihood that you'll be aggressive toward them again. → Hurting someone leads you to justify why you hurt them, you convince yourself Charlie deserved to be hurt, especially if he was innocent. (Cognitive dissonance)

Communal relationships

Concerned w/ being responsive to the other person's needs, regardless of getting paid back. Equity is still values, but on looser terms. If imbalance is persistent, relationship might end. E.g. Longer-term relationships, friendships, families.

Instrumental aggression

Hurting another person as a means to some goal other than causing pain. E.g. defensive football player inflicts pain on opponent to get to ball carrier.

Physical attractiveness & liking

People overwhelmingly go for physical attractiveness. Men are more likely to say they value physical attractiveness more than women, but it may be that both value it the same. Physical attractiveness is overall most important for sexual desire.

Altruistic personality

Qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations. Personality cannot predict behavior; the situation is a strong factor; people with high altruistic personalities are not much more likely to help.

Mood on Pro-Social behavior

"Feel good do good," when people feel good they are more likely to help. 1. When we're in a good mood, we give people the benefit of the doubt & see their good side 2. Prolongs our good mood 3. Good moods increases self-awareness so we are more likely to behave in-line w/values -Feeling guilty also increases helping, when people have done something bad that makes them feel guilty, they want to balance it out with a good deed. Sadness can also increase helping b/c people want to improve their mood.

Situational determinants of aggression

- The size, strength, & ability to retaliate of person responsible for frustration - If frustration is understandable, legitimate, & unintentional, not likely to aggress

What do we find physically attractive?

-Baby-face features: large eyes, small nose (f), small chin (f). These features evoke warmth & nurturance -Sexually mature features: prominent cheekbones (m & f), large chin (m). -Symmetry & mathematical average-ness. -Faces similar to our own (familiarity) These are all pretty much true across cultures.

4 types of behavior in troubled relationships

1. Actively harming relationship: abuse, threatening to break up, leaving (destructive) 2. Passively allowing relationship to deteriorate: not dealing w/ problems, ignoring partner, spending less time together, putting in no energy (destructive) 3. Trying to improve relationship: talking about problems, trying to change, going to therapist (constructive) 4. Passively remaining loyal: hoping relationship will improve, staying optimistic, being supportive (constructive) When one partner acts destructively & the other responds constructively, relationship is likely to continue.

3 Basic Motives Behind Pro-Social Behavior

1. Evolutionary psych argues we have an instinctive reaction to help our genetic relatives 2. Social exchange theory, helping is in our self-interest 3. When empathy is high, we will help with no benefit to our self.

5 Reactions to Violent Media that Cause Aggression

1. If they can do it, so can I: works against previously learned inhibitions against violence 2. That's how you do it: we use other s as models for behavior 3. We interpret our mild negative feelings as intense anger, making it easier to act aggressively 4. Desensitizes to violence 5. It may make us think the world is a dangerous place, so may be more likely to be hostile to a stranger

Stages of breaking up

1. Intrapersonal: individual thinks about their dissatisfaction w/ the relationship 2. Dyadic: individual discusses breakup with partner 3. Social: breakup is announced to others 4. Intrapersonal: Individual recovers from the breakup & forms an internal account how & why it happened

Main steps to helping

1. Notice event 2. Interpret the event as an emergency 3. Assume responsibility 4. Knowing how to help, deciding to help

Apologizing

A sincere apology admitting full responsibility is most effective at reducing aggression. Men apologize less than women mainly because they think differently about what constitutes and apology.

Acquaintance & date rape

Acquaintance rape involves the victims knowing the assailant & date rape involves the victim having a relationship w/the assailant. 85% of all rapes are these types. They include direct assault such as drugging the victim with roofies, sex with a victim who is drunk or otherwise incapacitated & sex with a victim who is under physical coercion & threat.

Provocation & reciprocation

Aggression frequently arises out of the need to reciprocate after being provoked by aggressive behavior. Not always the case, if we know info that justifies their behavior we'll be less likely to aggress.

Avoidant attachment style

Based on a suppression of attachment needs b/c intimacy has been rejected. Caregivers are distant. People who had this style have a hard time forming intimate relationships. Least likely to have relationships or report being in love. Low commitment.

Culture & Pro-social behavior

Although people generally favor in-group members (e.g. same race) to out-group members, people tend to help both, but for different reasons. We help in-group members b/c we feel empathy; we help out-group members if there's something in it for us. Different values of pro-social behavior in different cultures also promote or deter helping.

Hostile aggression

An act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger & aimed at inflicting pain or injury

Oxytocin

An evolutionary bonding mechanism; released during & after labor, breast-feeding, & sex in humans; also when people feel like they're being trusted & trust someone. -Oxytocin fuels generosity, curbs stress hormone, enhances emotional empathy -Dark side: increases rejection of the out-group

Secure attachment style

Based on trust, not being concerned about being abandoned, and the view of being worthy and well liked. Caregivers are responsive to their needs & show positive emotions. Higher commitment to relationships.

Aggressive stimulus

An object that's associated w/ aggressive responses, the presence of these can increase the probability of aggression. E.g. a gun

Pro-social behavior

Any act performed w/ the goal of benefitting another person

Anxious/ambivalent attachment style

Based on a concern that others will not reciprocate the desire for intimacy, leading to high levels of anxiety. Caregivers are inconsistent & overbearing in affection, infants don't know what to expect. Most short-lived relationships & more quickly enter relationships. More upset when love isn't reciprocated.

Attachment style is not destiny.

Attachment style can change with experience in new relationships. Attachment style at any given time is determined by current partner's behavior & the relationship two people have created as a couple.

Evolutionary psychology

Attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time through natural selection

Assuming responsibility

Avoiding diffusion of responsibility in which people assume someone else will help, someone must assume responsibility

Comparison level alternative

Could you replace your current relationship with a better one? High comparison level for alternatives: more likely to seek new relationship. Lots of fish in the sea mentality, or one particular fish that wants them. Low comparison level for alternatives: More likely to stay in costly relationship. Don't think they could find better

How will you people feel when breakup happens?

Depends on the role you play in the decision to end the relationship: Breaker (most responsible for end), breakee (low responsibility for end), or mutual (equal responsibility) -Breakers find end least upsetting (still unhappy but not as much stress), breakees find it most upsetting (loneliness, depression, anger, physical illness) -Women report more negative reactions then men

Altruism

Desire to help another person even if it costs the helper; purely to help others. E.g. heroes of 9/11 who helped strangers at risk of losing their own life. Altruism may be evolutionary since groups of people who aim to benefit the whole are more likely to survive than selfish individuals.

Equity theory

Essentially relationships are evaluated on how fair they are. Relationships are based on need for equal ratio of rewards & costs for each member. Not recognized in Social Exchange Theory. Equitable relationships are most stable relationships. Both the under-benefited and the over-benefited want to restore fairness. Long-term, intimate relationships have a looser notion of equity b/c partners are not keeping tabs on give & take.

Attachment styles

Expectations you develop about relationships with others based on the relationship you had with your primary caregiver as an infant.

Companionate love

Feelings of intimacy & affection that aren't accompanied by passion or physiological arousal.

Video Games: Good, neutral & ugly

Good: pro-social video games increase pro-social behavior & can make you a better surgeon Neutral: Video games are rewarding, especially so for men Ugly: Exposure to violence in video games increase aggression, reduce pro-social behavior, & desensitize to violence

Robin Dunbar on Gossip

Gossip is the core of human social relationship; it is the human form of primate grooming & a mechanism for bonding

Relational aggression

Harms another person through the manipulation of relationships, usually involving covert acts such as gossip, backbiting, spreading false rumors, or shunning & excluding.

The reciprocity norm

Helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future. Feeling of gratitude motivates us to return the favor.

Passionate love

Intense longing for another person accompanied by physiological arousal. When our love is reciprocated we feel ecstasy and if not we feel sadness & despair. -Strong, uncontrollable thoughts, intense feelings, & overt acts towards loved one

Catharsis

Idea that "blowing off steam" by performing a verbally or physically aggressive act (watching others engage in aggressive behaviors, or engaging in a fantasy of aggression) relieves built-up aggressive energy & will reduce the likelihood of aggressive behavior. (Freud) E.g. playing or watching competitive sports may reduce aggressive This is not true, it actually increases aggression; catharsis doesn't work.

Interpreting as Emergency

If people think nothing is wrong, they won't help. When there are more bystanders, people are more likely to assume event is not an emergency b/c we look to others for info.

Similarity & commitment

If we are looking for a serious relationship, we prefer similar romantic partners. If we're just looking for a "fling," we prefer dissimilar partners.

Knowing how to help

If you don't know how to help in certain emergencies, you feel incapable of doing so. If you do know how to help, you still must decide to help (have to weigh costs).

What determines if you stay in an intimate relationship?

In long-term relationships, commitment is based on: How satisfied you are with the relationship, how you view alternative options, and how great your investment in the relationship is. E.g. Women stay in abusive romantic relationships if alternatives are economically inferior or were heavily invested.

Aggression

Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person.

Degrees of separation

Measures social distance. You are one degree away from people you know and two degrees from people they know. Average length is 6 or 7 degrees.

Helping in communal vs. exchange relationships

People in communal relationships help to satisfy the needs of the other person b/c there is a concern for their welfare. E.g. parents help children with homework In exchange relationships, people are concerned w/ what they get in return. In general, people help friends more than strangers unless we don't want them to do better than we do on a particular task.

Evolutionary approach to mate selection

Men are attracted to appearance in women & women are attracted to resources in men because these qualities maximize their chances of reproductive success. These differing preferences are in part due to differing roles in producing & raising offspring. -Men pair more frequently since their reproductive success is measured by the quantity of offspring. Men look to physical appearance b/c they indicate reproductive fitness. -Females pair less frequently b/c their success lies in raising each offspring to maturity. Women look to economic & career achievements b/c they need resources for children.

Gender & aggression

Men are more physically aggressive but women are more relationally aggressive. There isn't much sex difference between gender when both feel provoked (in normal circumstances, men are more aggressive).

Evolution & aggression

Men are more physically aggressive than women, this may be to establish dominance over other males & secure the highest possible status to attract females who choose the males most likely to provide the best genes & greatest protection and resources & to ensure paternity by aggressing toward sexual jealousy. Testosterone fuels aggression, which is higher in men than women. Aggression is near universal in the animal kingdom suggesting that aggressiveness has evolved b/c of it's survival value

Violence & Intimate Relationships

Men are overwhelmingly the aggressors in cases of domestic violence & women are overwhelmingly the victims. Possibly due to the greater average strength of men. Males violence against women may be a means of asserting power or control.

Social exchange theory (pro-social behavior)

Most of our behavior stems from desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs, similar to an economic exchange. Argues that true altruism doesn't exist. Rewards of helping: increase chance that someone will help us in return, relieve distress of watching someone suffer, increased feeling of self-worth, social approval Helping decreased when costs are high: physical danger, embarrassment, time.

Frustration

Occurs when you're prevented on the way to an expected goal or gratification

Pain, heat & aggression.

Pain & heat, and other forms of physical discomfort increase aggression. E.g. more crimes occur on hot days than cool days. Global warming will most likely lead to higher rates of violence.

Residential mobility & helping

People are more likely to help in they've lived in one community for a long time than for a short time since they are more attached to that community, more concern for reputation, & more interdepence w/neighbors. People can develop a sense of community quite quickly.

Urban overload hypothesis

People living in cities are constantly bombarded w/ stimulation & they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed. This may be part of the reason people in cities are less likely to help than people in small towns.

Love & Technology

Physical distance doesn't hold the same power it once did, social distance becomes more powerful. On dating websites, people tend to match up with people of similar online popularity Familiarity works in opposite direction in online dating, after a date people realize their first online impression wasn't accurate.

Prairie voles v. Mountain voles

Prairie voles are monogamous mammals that bond for life, mountain voles are highly promiscuous, this is because prairie voles have oxytocin receptors in their brains and mountain voles don't.

Online dating pros & cons

Pros: they aggregate a lot of options, they [provide opportunity for communication, & match users based on analysis of compatibility Cons: People aren't necessarily honest, no higher success rates than old-fashioned ways like meeting through friends.

Does the criminal justice system deter crimes?

Punishment only deters if punishment is prompt & certain. Must follow quickly after violence occurred & must be unavoidable. This is usually not the case, so the criminal justice system does not really deter crime.

Exchange relationships

Relationships based on a need for equity. People keep track of costs & benefits; feel taken advantage of when one feels they're getting less than they're putting in. E.g. relationships b/w new acquaintances

Social exchange theory (love)

Relationships function on a model of costs & benefits. How you feel about a relationship depends on your idea of the rewards & costs of the relationship, the relationship you think you deserve, and your chance of having a better relationship with someone else. Applicable across cultures.

Religion & Pro-social Behavior

Religion fosters pro-social behavior in some ways but not all. Religious people are more likely to help when it makes them look good to themselves or others, but not in private situations.

Culture & love

Romantic love as a basis for marriage is less emphasized in collectivistic cultures. The concept of romantic love is culturally specific. E.g. love is very important for a relationship in individualistic cultures but less important in collectivistic cultures if the mate has all other good qualities.

Gender & Pro-social behavior

Social norms for behaviors can determine in which situation you are likely to help. E.g. men are more likely to risk their lives to physically help someone, women are more likely to provide social support & to do volunteer work.

Sexual violence against women

Some rapes are due to a desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the victim, some are the acts of narcissistic men who are unable to empathize with women, may feel contempt toward women, & feel entitled to have sex with any women they want. Rapists are more likely to have grown up in violent households & less likely to endorse love as a motive for sex

Empathy

The ability to put yourself in someone else's shoes & to experience events & emotions the way that person experiences them.

Self-expansion

The desire to overlap or blend with another person so that you have access to that person's knowledge, insights, & experiences & thus broaden your own experience of life

Bystander effect

The greater number of bystanders in an emergency, the less likely individuals are to act b/c of diffusion of responsibility.

Mere-exposure effect

The more exposure you have to a stimulus, the more likely you will like it. We associate positive feelings with things that are familiar.

Propinquity effect

The more we see & interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends & lovers. This true for both physical distance & "functional" distance (architectural features that determine how often you cross paths with people). Related to mere-exposure effect.

Relative deprivation

The perception that you or your group have less than you deserve, less than what you expect, or less than what people similar to you have. This is an important cause of aggression. E.g. race riots & suicide bombers

Actual vs. perceived similarity

There is a distinction b/w actual similarity & feeling similar to another person. Perceived similarity is most important & is a better predictor of liking & attraction.

Gossip

Unsanctioned evaluative talk about people who aren't present

Punishing aggression

Use of harsh punishments to reduce aggression usually backfires because -Angry attention in response to aggressive behavior prompts anxiety or anger instead of seeking to correct the behavior. - Extreme punishment is a risk factor for depression, low self-esteem, & violence -It doesn't show what the person should do, it is aggressive in itself (e.g. hitting child because you want them to play nice)

Violence & the media

Watching violence increases the frequency of aggressive behavior, angry emotions, & hostile thoughts. Video games that directly reward violence are more likely to increase aggression. This is because... -Seeing violence increases physiological arousal -Triggers tendency to imitate the violent characters -Primes existing aggressive ideas & expectations -Desensitizes us to violence, we are more indifferent about it Exposure to violence in the media likely has a greater effect on those already predisposed to violence.

Scripts

Ways of behaving socially that we learn implicitly from our culture

Culture & aggression

We all have the capacity for aggression but how, when, & where we aggress depends on culture & circumstances; the social situation is more important than genes. -Changing social conditions can lead to aggression. E.g. increase in competition -Collectivist, cooperative cultures see less aggression -Cultures of honor see more aggression: cultures in which even small disputes put a man's reputation for toughness on the line, meaning he can only respond w/violence to restore his status. Also higher rate of domestic violence. E.g. herding cultures

Similarity

We are attracted to people who are similar to us in... -Opinions & personality -Interests & experiences (we choose to enter into social situations where we find similar others, e.g. salsa class) -Appearance (we are drawn to those who look like us)

What do we gossip about?

We gossip about people who deviate from norms but don't know it. We use it to check in with another person about the off things about someone else.

Social learning theory

We learn social behavior largely by observing others & imitating them. This includes aggression, if aggression is endorsed by respected others, we are more likely to engage in it. Children are especially vulnerable to influence. E.g. Bobo the clown experiment

Reciprocal liking

We like to be liked; knowing that a person likes us makes us like that person more. Learning that someone else likes you can lead you to ignore other attractive faces.

Smell & attraction

We prefer the odor of potential partners with dissimilar MHC genotype, this is related to having heterozygous offspring -women prefer perfume that is similar to their own MHC, amplifies signals -women are more attuned to MHC during ovulation

Why is gossip useful?

We trade info about others to learn from their experiences. Gossip can benefit the self through influence & flattery and the group by establishing group norms & controlling free riders.

Comparison level

What you expect to be the level of rewards & punishments in a particular relationship. Past relationship determines expectations. High comparison level: Expect lots of rewards & few costs Low comparison level: Expect difficult, costly relationships

Do people want to stay friends after a breakup?

When breakup is mutual, generally yes for both genders. In other situations, generally no but women are more interested in being friends than men are.

Pluralistic ignorance

When people think that everyone else is interpreting the situation in a certain way, when they aren't. E.g. if nobody looks concerned in an emergency, people assume it's not an emergency.

Fatal attractions

When the same qualities that initially attracted you to the relationship became the reasons why you end it. E.g. "he's so unusual & different" becomes "we have nothing in common"

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

When we feel empathy for someone, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons regardless of what we have to gain. (True altruism) Without empathy, helping relies on social exchange theory.

Controlling anger

You can control anger by actively enabling it to dissipate using methods like counting to 10, taking deep breaths, distracting yourself, listening to calm music etc.

Frustration-aggression theory

Your perception that you are being preventing from a attaining a goal (frustration) will increase probability of aggression. Does not ensure aggression, but predisposes it -if you are closer to a goal, you will be more frustrated & more likely to aggress -if frustration is unexpected, more likely to aggress