Social Psychology Exam 2

Outgroup homogeneity

"They are all alike, we are all different."

SELF-ESTEEM

Attitude we have about ourselves

MINIMAL GROUPS

Groups that are arbitrary and have no meaning

SCHMITT, SILVIA, & BRANSCOMBE (2000)

2 conditions - Compared to other person - participant liked poor performing person more than high performing person Compared to other gender - participant liked high performing same-gender person more than poor performing same-gender person

Discrepancy

A mismatch between our actual self and a self-guide

SELF-HANDICAPPING

Actions people take to handicap their own performance in order to build an excuse for anticipated failure (it's a conscious action)

3 dimensions of attitudes (ABC's of attitudes)

Affect (feelings) Behavior Cognition (thoughts)

Affect misattribution procedure

Another measure of implicit attitudes Participants are primed with pictures

SELF-SERVING BIAS

Any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem

EFFECTIVE MESSAGES...

Are spread by word of mouth, Are subtle, Aren't based on fear

Ingratiation

Attempting to convey to others that we like them by flattering or praising them (flattering, similar to other-enhancement)

Self-promotion

Attempting to present our positive characteristics to other people (talking yourself up)

The Three Factors Of Intention

Attitudes toward behavior, Subjective norms, Perceived behavioral control

EXPLICIT ATTITUDES

Attitudes you are aware of Controllable (we can share with other people) Self-reported "Slow" thinking - deliberative

Glass ceiling

Barrier that prevents women from reaching high level positions in the workplaces

When do we self-present?

Basically all the time...

superordinate goals

Had to work together to solve problems

REDUCING DISSONANCE

Changing future behavior to be consistent with attitude

Glass cliff effect

Choosing women for leadership positions after some sort of crisis that makes the position risky or likely to result in failure (gives them a chance to blame woman or other minorities)

The Three Factors Of Persuasion Effectiveness

Communicator (person doing the persuading), Message (what's used to persuade), Audience (people being persuaded)

Intergroup comparison

Compare our group to other groups (Emphasis on what we share with our in-group members)

Intragroup comparison

Compare ourselves to other people who are members of our group(s)

Social Comparison

Compare yourself to other person as an individual - feel negatively Compare yourself to another person as social group member- feel positively

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SELF-ESTEEM

Countries with gender disparities - women have lower self-esteem than men Countries with gender equality - women and men have equal self-esteem. Gender differences decline and eventually disappear starting at 65 years old

Cross-race identification

Difficulty identifying faces of people who are a different race than us

Ego depletion

Diminished ability to exert self-control after we have previously done so

The Two Pathways of Classical Conditioning

Direct route -Positive stimuli paired with target, transfer affect to target Indirect route -Create "memory link" by pairing target with specific stimuli (celebrities endorsing product)

Only female in a room, your gender becomes more salient

Distinctiveness in a certain context example

PERSUASION

Efforts to change attitudes by using various kinds of messages

ATTITUDES

Evaluations of the world Forms: Favorable or unfavorable Stable or unstable Certain or uncertain

Procrastination

Example of situational attribution, relating to self-handicapping

Emotional Responses of Prejudice

Fear (response to groups that threaten our safety) Anger (response to threats of resources) Guilt (response to threatening of a group's morality) Envy (a desire of resources that you do not have) Disgust (response to health and value threats. Leads to avoidance. Ex homosexuals being associated to disease) Pity (response to a threat of social coordination)

Stereotyping

Generalized beliefs about social groups and the traits or characteristics they are believed to share -Cognition

Peripheral route of persuasion

Heuristic processing Use mental shortcuts, believe experts, trust what makes you feel good Less effortful, automatic

ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL

Heuristic processing/peripheral route and Systematic processing/central route

DEPLETION STUDY: RADISHES VS. CHOCOLATES

IV: assigned to eat radishes or chocolate DV: persistence on unsolvable puzzles Participants who ate radishes gave up sooner than those who ate chocolate

Self-construal

Independent Think of selves as individuals (and our unique traits and characteristics) Interdependent Think of selves in relation to other people

SOME WAYS WE LEARN ABOUT OURSELVES

Look at our own feelings, thoughts, and behaviors and at other people.

We're biased in our self-perceptions

Knowing intentions can sometimes mislead us (ex. If we meant to help someone but then forget. We believe we are good for intending to do it while the other person does not)

Conditioning

Learning by association (Pavlov people ring a bell before eating making the dog salivate at the sound of the bell.)

OBJECTIVE VS. SUBJECTIVE RATINGS

Might rate people from different groups equally on a subjective scale, but differently on an objective scale Subjective depends on comparison to other group members Objective is the same regardless of comparison

IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST (IAT)

Most common measure of implicit attitudes Categorization of words and faces Response times determine bias (and mistakes) Preference for one category over another

SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY

Motivated to view our social groups positively Other members of our social group can make us feel positive when they perform well

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

One stimulus evokes a response (unconditioned stimulus) (food). A neutral stimulus precedes it (conditioned stimulus) (bell). Response occurs in response to just the neutral (conditioned) stimulus (salivation to the bell) .

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

People rate statements on how much they apply to them "I feel that I have a number of good qualities." "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself."

TO WHOM DO WE COMPARE OURSELVES?

People who are similar to ourselves (mainly because they share the same skillset, domain or group)

Self-Discrepancy Theory

People's specific emotional reaction to a discrepancy depends which self-guide they do not meet

SELF-CONTROL

Refraining from actions we like and engaging in actions we don't enjoy to attain a goal

MOST SALIENT SELF

Relevance Distinctiveness Traits important to the self Other people and the way they refer to us serve as cues

Considering yourself as a student in a classroom but an athlete on the field

Relevance in a certain context example

Identity fusion

See the self strongly as part of a group When this happens, more willing to go to extreme lengths to protect ingroup

SOCIOMETER THEORY

Self-esteem is an internal cue that monitors our social standing. Informs us whether we are included or excluded by others

ATTITUDE TO BEHAVIOR PROCESS MODEL

Something activates our attitude >That attitude influences our perception >Knowledge about what's appropriate is also activated > Attitude and what's appropriate shape definition of event >Definition influences our behavior

ASPECTS OF ATTITUDES

Strength, Extremity, Certainty (Clarity (feeling clear about what your attitude is) Correctness (believing that your attitude is the right one to hold)), Personal experience

INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

Strengthening of responses that lead to positive outcomes or avoidance of negative outcomes

Subtype

Subset of stereotype-inconsistent group members (Ex. Obama, Oprah)

Central route of Persuasion

Systematic processing Carefully consider message content and ideas Effortful, deliberate

Actual Self

The person you are right now (for the most parts we present this self in social media because people know what we are actually like)

Ought Self

The self it is your duty to be (ex. Responsible person) (anxiousness is felt when not met)

Ideal Self

The self it is your goal to be (ex. Successful person) (sadness is felt when not met)

Feared Self

The self you fear becoming (ex. Lonely/hated/ unsuccessful person) (relief is felt when not met)

Introspection

Thinking about what makes us who we are.

Affective forecasting

Thinking we know how we'll feel/react to future events (often not accurate)

Discrimination

Treating others differently (usually negatively) based on group membership -Behavior

BETTER THAN AVERAGE EFFECT

View ourselves as above average on almost all traits But by definition we can't all be "above average"

PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE

We believe others have different attitudes than we do, even when they don't

Tokenism

When a few members of a marginalized group are admitted to some role

Study at Princeton

alcohol attitudes (people reported that due to the popular attitude of everyone to the drinking habits that even though they were personally against it they accepted it due to believing that everyone else had that attitude)

POST-DECISION DISSONANCE

experience a lot of dissonance after making difficult decisions

Zero-sum outcomes

if one group gets them, another group can't (leads to competition)

Negative stereotypes

intention to discriminate Can be about a number of factors Traits Physical appearance Abilities/skills Behaviors

Lapierre study

prejudice against Chinese people were strong. Lapierre brought a Chinese couple to multiple restaurants after asking whether they would refuse service to Chinese people. The majority said they would reject them in reality only one restaurant refused to serve them

Two types of attitudes

Implicit and Explicit

Social learning

Learning by interacting with or observing other people

THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR

Rationally make a decision to engage in a behavior. Consider multiple behavioral options and the consequences/outcomes of each. Make a decision about whether or not to act. Make behavioral intentions

HOW WE RESIST BEING PERSUADED.

Reactance -Negative reactions to others telling us what to do Forewarning -Resist persuasion when we know in advance that we're going to be targeted Selective avoidance -Don't pay attention to information that challenges our attitudes Counterarguments -Come up with arguments that undermine attitudes different from our own

SHERIF- ROBBER'S CAVE STUDY

Brought boys to a summer camp and randomly assigned them to two groups Bonded with their own group (made group names, symbols and flags) Then brought together for competitions with other groups Derogated other group, praised own group Eliminating competition didn't reduce prejudice - only superordinate goals

Heuristic processing/peripheral route

Don't have time or capacity to think carefully about message Don't have motivation to process message Lack knowledge on issue Issue isn't important to us (Easier to change thinking)

SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY

We compare ourselves to others in many domains and for many attributes. There is no objective way we can measure our success or failure. Because of this, other people are very informative in helping us evaluate ourselves.

Self-verification Perspective

We want others to agree with our views of ourselves (we surround ourselves with people who do this)

Downward social comparison

Comparing yourself with someone less capable

Upward social comparison

Comparing yourself with someone more capable

Realistic conflict theory

Competition between groups >view other group negatively View outgroup as enemies, view ingroup as morally superior, think in terms of "us" and "them", dehumanize

Subliminal Conditioning

Conditioning that occurs outside of conscious awareness (by mere exposure usually)

Systematic processing/central route

Highly motivated and have the capacity to process information Have a lot of knowledge about topic Have time to think carefully Issue is important to us Believe we need to form an accurate opinion

Self-deprecation

Implying that we're not as good as other people by building others up or bringing ourselves down (typically to make ourselves feel better and seem humble)

Prejudice

Negative emotional responses to or dislike of others based on group membership-Affect

Baumeister et al. (1988) Depletion study

Participants were told that they were doing a taste test and not to eat 3 hours before the lab. Nearby chocolate chips were being baked and put in a bowl next to radishes. The participants were told they had to taste at least one of the food. They were watched and then asked to complete an impossible puzzle (anagrams) the amnt of time spent was recorded. Participants who ate radishes gave up sooner than those who ate chocolate

Personal-versus-social identity continuum

Perceive ourselves as unique individuals at the personal level and as social group members at the social level

*NOEL, WANN, & BRANSCOMBE (1995)

Pledges changed their attitudes about other sororities/fraternities Public - Derogated other sororities/fraternities Private - Didn't derogate other sororities/fraternities

IMPLICIT ATTITUDES

Positive and negative evaluations that occur outside of our conscious awareness and/or control Often the result of past experiences, "Fast" thinking - intuitive

Self-Guides

Possible selves (i.e. Ideal self, ought self, feared self)

HOW ATTITUDES GUIDE BEHAVIOR

Reasoned thought (Theory of planned behavior) and Spontaneous behavioral responses (Attitude-to-behavior process model)

Mischel & Baker (1975) Self-control and delayed gratification

Researchers gave children a marshmallow (4 yro) they told them that if they waited to eat the marshmallow they would get more marshmallows. Most of the children showed self-control but had difficulties doing so. Others would nibble on it or just plain eat it. Following the growth of the children, scientists found out that those with better self-control had better SAT scores

INCREASING SELF-CONTROL

Rest between self-control tasks Think abstractly about goals Shorter self-control tasks Self-regulation training

Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

Students did boring tasks. Half of the students were offered $20 to lie and say the tasks were fun to other people. The other half were offered $1. The $20 participants did not experience dissonance while lying thus, not changing their attitude and admitting the task was boring at the end. Unlike the $1 participants who did, the ones who experienced dissonance were able to change their whole entire attitude even if initially they did not believe the tasks for fun.

Social identity theory:

We perceive ourselves and identify as members of a social group ( we typically belong in multiple social groups)

SELF-EVALUATION MAINTENANCE MODEL

We distance ourselves from those who perform better than us and move closer to others who perform worse than us.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

We experience discomfort when we realize our attitudes and behavior don't line up We like consistency, so we don't like when our attitudes and behavior are inconsistent

BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY

We feel good about ourselves when a member of our social group does well. We reflect their success onto ourselves.